NUCLEIC ACID

-An important biological molecule (biomolecule) being an amino acid, sugar and lipids. They are found
abundantly in all living organisms.

- responsible for storing genetic information and protein synthesis.

WHY IS NUCLEIC ACID CONSIDERED A MACROMOLECULE?

1. Molecules are made up of 2 or more atoms that are covalently bonded.

• Nucleic acid as a macro/biomolecule is also made up of different atoms that are covalently
bonded.

The following atoms bond to form nucleotide which is the monomer of nucleic acid;

• Carbon
• Hydrogen
• Oxygen
• Nitrogen
• Phosphorus

2. Macromolecules are large molecules

• Nucleic acid is a large molecule that is made up nucleotides as the subunit or monomer.
• Monomer nucleotide bond to form the polymer RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) and DNA (Deoxyribonucleic
Acid)
Phosphate Group Nitrogen Bases
POLYMER – DNA AND RNA

MONOMER – NUCLEOTIDE

FUNCTION:
■ Directs growth and development-dictating the CHONS structure
5 carbon sugar
■ Make up the genes that serves as blue print of life

■ Essential in cell division, reproduction and transmission of hereditary factor

■ Involved in the protein synthesis of different tissues

□ Provides instructions for making polypeptides

■ A co-factor coenzyme
COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEOTIDE:

Phosphate + Sugar + Base -> Monomer: Nucleotide -

>Polymer: DNA / RNA -> Nucleic Acid

• Polymer DNA is formed if the sugar is a deoxyribose.

• Polymer RNA is formed if the sugar is a ribose.

COMPONENTS OF NUCLEOTIDES- a monomer

1. Five carbon sugar 2. Phosphate group 3. Nitrogenous base

Can either be a: • Adenine (A)

• Deoxyribose- DNA • Thymine (T) in DNA or

Uracil(U) in RNA
• Ribose- RNA
• Cytosine

• Guanine(G)

NUCLEOTIDE STRUCTURE--- insert Image on the difference of RNA and DNA

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC RIBONUCLEIC ACID

ACID (DNA) (RNA)
Bases: A, C, G, and T Bases: A.G,C and U
(Adenine, cytosine, (Adenine, Cytosine,
guanine and thymine) guanine, Uracil)
Sugar: Deoxyribose Sugar: Ribose

• Sugar is deoxyribose • Shape may be a single or

• Shape is a double helix double helix
• Stores Genetic Info • Transfer Genetic info
• Cellular Library • Synthesizes Protein
• Located INSIDE nucleus • Mostly OUTSIDE if nucleus
• Stores information needed to • Single stranded
construct protein • Does not typically form helix
• Less stable than DNA
• Regulates expression of
• Held together by hydrogen bonds information during protein synthesis

• Function: Replicates itself before the cell

TYPES OF RNA
divides. Provides instruction for building every
protein of the body. ■ Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)- combines with specific
protein to form ribosomes which is the site for
Replication of DNA
 • The DNA carries the genetic information of protein synthesis. It oversees the translation of the
an organism and it is found within the cell messages.
• Thus every time the cell divides, the exact
■ Heterogeneous Nuclear RNA (hnRNA) I the RNA
copy of the DNA of the mother cell is passed formed directly by DNA transcription. Post-
to the daughter cells. transcription processing converts tho hnRNA to
• DNA replication is the biochemical process mRNA.
by which the DNA produce exact duplicates
of themselves. ■ Messenger RNA (mRNA) -Carries out orders for
protein synthesis from the DNA to the ribosomes
DNA IS MADE OF TWO STRANDS OF (sites of protein synthesis)
POLYNUCLEOTIDE
■ The sister strands of the DNA molecule run in ■ Transfer RNA (tRNA)- ferries amino acid to the
opposite directions (antiparallel) ribosomes (sites of protein synthesis)
■ They are joined by the bases
■ Each base is paired with a specific partner:
* A is always paired with T Transcription: RNA Synthesis
* G is always paired with C
■ The sister strands are complementary but not ■ The process by which DNA directs the synthesis
identical of mRNA that carries the coded information for the
■ The bases are joined by hydrogen bonds, synthesis of protein.
individually weak but collectively strong.
■ Thus it is easy to predict the pairing of bases. 2 Steps of Messenger RNA (mRNA) production;
EX.AATGGC
1. Initial production of hnRNA molecule.

2. Editing of hnRNA molecule to produce the

desired mRNA molecule.

■ The mRNA molecule can now function as the

mRNA molecule as the carrier of the information
needed to direct protein synthesis.

■ The gene is the segment of the DNA strand that

contains the base sequence for the production a
specific hnRNA and mRNA.
Structurally, the only difference occurs at the deoxyribose. The -OH group found in ribose becomes an -H
in Deoxyribose .
 DIGESTION OF DIETARY NUCLEIC ACIDS ABSORPTION OF NUCLEOSIDES

In food, nucleotides are present mainly in form Nucleosides are absorbed by mucosal cells of
of: Intestine through:
-Nucleoproteins -Carrier Mediated Transport or simple diffusion

The protein part is degraded by: In intestinal mucosal cell:

-Proteolytic enzymes in the GIT -They are broken down to their final end products

The nucleic acids are hydrolyzed by: The end products are released into:
-Nucleases -Circulation

Nucleases are present in: They are excreted in:

- Pancreatic Juice -Urine
- Intestinal Secretion

PANCREATIC SECRETIONS INTESTINAL SECRETIONS

It includes: It includes:
- Ribonucleases - Phosphodiesterase
- Deoxyribonucleases - Nucleotidase
- Breaks Phosphodiester Bond - Nucleosidases

Ribonuclease: Phosphodiesterase:
-Hydrolyze RNA to oligonucleotides - Degrades oligonucleotides to mononucleotides

Deoxy-Ribonuclease: Nucleotidases:
-Hydrolyze DNA to oligonucleotides - Degrades Nucleotides to Nucleosides &
Phosphates

The nucleosides may be either:

- Directly absorbed
- Or degraded to free bases and sugars by
nucleosidases.

THE SUGAR-PHOSPHATE BACKBONE

■ The nucleotides are all orientated in the same direction

■ The phosphate group joins the 3rd Carbon of one sugar and to the 5th Carbon of the next in line.

ADDING IN THE BASES

■ The bases are attached to the 1st Carbon.

■ Their order is important. It determines the genetic information of the molecule.

Translation: Protein Synthesis

■ The process by which the mRNA codons (three nucleotide sequence in a mRNA that codes for a specific
amino acid) are interpreted and a particular protein is synthesized.

Mutations

■ Is an error in the base sequence in a gene that is reproduced during the RNA replication.

■ This can alter the information that is passed on during the transcription.

■ This can cause changes in the sequence of the amino acid during protein synthesis.

■ Such change can have an intense effect to the organism.

Mutagens

Substances or agents that can alter the structure of the genes.

□ Ex. Chemicals, radiations and other agents.

■ Nitrates and nitrites that are used to preserve meat can be converted into nitrous acid that can
cause a possible damage to the DNA.

■ The same concern for extended exposure to the ultraviolet rays of the sun. This can cause changes
in the DNA of the skin cells that can lead to serious problems such as skin cancer.

■ Deosyribonucleic acid (DNA)

■ Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

■ Together, they keep track of hereditary information:

□ cell can maintain itself

□ Grow

□ create offspring

□ perform any specialized functions

■ Therefore, nucleic acids control the information that makes every cell, and every organism.

Friedrich Miescher in 1869

History:

■ isolated what he called nuclein from the nuclei of pus cells

■ Nuclein was shown to have acidic properties, hence it was called nucleic acid

DNA as genetic material: The circumstantial evidence

• Present in all cells and virtually restricted to the nucleus

• The amount of DNA in somatic cells (body cells) of any given species is constant (like the
number of chromosomes which is 23 pairs)
• The DNA content of gametes (sex cells) is half that of somatic cells (23).

In cases of polyploidy (multiple sets of chromosomes) the DNA content increases by a proportional factor.

Mutations of Nucleic Acids

■ While nucleic acids can do so much good for the body, mutation can result in debilitating or life
threatening diseases.

■ Diseases of the heart and muscle

* Some DNA mutations in mitochondria have been linked to diseases of the heart and muscles. When
there is damage to the mitochondrial DNA, tissues and organs can begin to deteriorate causing painful and
sometimes fatal conditions

■ Breast cancer

* Mutations of the genes BRCA1 and BRCA2 have been linked to causing breast cancer.

■ Ovarian Cancer

* The same genes that were determined to cause breast cancer upon mutation have also been linked to
ovarian cancer.

■ Down Syndrome

■ Color Blindness

* Is also a result of mutation of genes on DNA. This condition is more prevalent in men and exists when
one is unable to distinguish between colors or to see colors in typical lighting.

Questions?

• How do the types of nucleic acid differ in terms of its monomers, polymers and structures?

•What are the components of the nucleotides?

•How is protein synthesized and why is it important?

•Why are there mutations in the sequencing of genes and what are its effects to the organism?
 A mutation is a change in the nucleotide sequence of a short region of a genome. Many mutations
are point mutations that replace one nucleotide with another; others involve insertion or deletion of one or
a few nucleotides. Mutations result either from errors in DNA replication or from the damaging effects of
mutagens, such as chemicals and radiation, which react with DNA and change the structures of individual
nucleotides. All cells possess DNA-repair enzymes that attempt to minimize the number of mutations that
occur.

•How can one avoid the mutation of genes?

If they are not 100% known to cause cancer, these chemicals are just referred to as mutagens, not
carcinogens. To avoid mutations, we need to limit exposure to these chemicals by using protective
equipment, like masks and gloves, when working with them.

The best way to prevent mutations is to avoid exposure to sources of mutagens. Some preventative
measures are listed below: Avoid sun exposure and use sunblock whenever going outside. Cover your skin
with clothes/hats to limit sun exposure.

•What are the types and functions of the RNA?

• What is the primary function of the DNA?

• How does the pentose sugar ribose and 2-deoxyribose differ in structural formation?

• How do the component bases of RNA and DNA differ?

•What are mutants and how can it affect the living organism?

Genetic mutations are changes to your DNA sequence that happen during cell division when your
cells make copies of themselves. Your DNA tells your body how to form and function. Genetic mutations
could lead to genetic conditions like cancer, or they could help humans better adapt to their environment
over time.

A genetic mutation is a change in a sequence of your DNA. Your DNA sequence gives your cells the
information they need to perform their functions. If part of your DNA sequence is in the wrong place, isn’t
complete or is damaged, you might experience symptoms of a genetic condition.

A genetic mutation changes the information your cells need to form and function. Your genes are
responsible for making proteins that tell your body what physical characteristics you should have. If you
have a genetic mutation, you could experience symptoms of a genetic condition because your cells are
doing a different job than they should be.

•When do genetic mutations happen?

 Genetic mutations occur during cell division when your cells divide and replicate. There are two
types of cell division:

Mitosis: The process of making new cells for your body. During mitosis, your genes instruct your cells to
split into two by making a copy of your chromosomes.

Meiosis: The process of making egg and sperm cells for the next generation. During meiosis,
chromosomes copy themselves with half the amount of chromosomes as the original (from 46 to 23).
That’s how you’re able to get your genetic material equally from each parent.

•What are the different types of genetic mutations?

There are different types of genetic mutations based on where they form. Types of genetic mutations
include:

Germline mutation: A change in a gene that occurs in a parent’s reproductive cells (egg or sperm) that
affects the genetic makeup of their child (hereditary).

Somatic mutation: A change in a gene that occurs after conception in the developing embryo that may
become a baby. These occur in all cells in the developing body — except the sperm and egg. Somatic
mutations can’t pass from parents to their children (hereditary) because traits are passed only from the
sperm and egg.

•Practice predicting the pairing of bases in the DNA