Unit 3: Cell Biology

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Introduction
• Cell is the building block and the functional unit of life.
❖Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organs systems → Organisms
• The biochemical activities of cells are dictated by their shapes and by the relative number of their
specific sub-cellular structures.
• Cell, though very small, is extremely complex. It acts as an autonomous unit. Thus;
❖can carry out all biological processes
❖can oxidize the food molecules to produce energy & store this energy rich molecule
❖by using nutrient molecules, it can build new structures & can replace worn out cells
❖can respire and exchange gases with its surroundings
❖can replace its own self
❖can maintain homeostasis
❖each cell has its own life span

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Intro cont’d
• Cells vary in their size, shape and internal structure
• This diversity influences the roles and functions of cells within organism’s
body
• Small sized cells are advantageous in increasing the surface area to volume
ratio.
• The shape of cells determines the functions of a given cell.
❖Epithelial cells: flat shaped and cover body surface
❖Nerve cells: long extensions and transport impulse
❖Sperm cells: long tail and help for motility

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Intro cont’d
• Pioneers in the development of the theory of cell
❖Robert Hook (1665): coin the term cell and develop simple microscope
❖Antony Van Leeuwenhoek: observed the first living cells which he called them animalcules
❖Mathias Schlieden (1838): analyze cells in plants
✓ all plants “are aggregates of fully industrialized, independent, separate beings, namely the
cells themselves
❖Theodore Schwann (1839): analyze cells in animals
❖Rudolf Virchow (1858): cells arise only from pre-existing cells by reproduction
• The modern cell theory includes:
❖All organisms are composed of cells hence are the basic unit of organization
❖Cells come from pre-existing cells by cell divisions
❖Cells contain hereditary information passed from generation to generation
❖All metabolic processes (energy flow) takes place within cells
❖Cells are the structural and functional unit of life

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Types of cells
• Two types based on the location of chromosomes 2. Eukaryotes:
and their complexity. ❖Have DNA with histone
❖Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes ❖Cell wall not present in all except plants and
1. Prokaryotes: fungi
❖DNA lacks histone ❖mRNA is monocistronic
❖Have cell wall but chemically different ❖Meiosis and fertilization are common
❖mRNA is polycistronic (encodes > 2 ❖Have 80s ribosomes
proteins) ❖DNA is concentrated in the nucleus with
❖Have 70S ribosomes nuclear membrane
❖Includes bacteria and cyanobacteria ❖Cell division by mitosis and spindle fiber is
needed
❖No true nucleus and membrane bound
organelles ❖Have membrane bound organelles
❖DNA concentrated in the nucleoid without ❖Includes kingdom Protista, Fungi, Plantae
membrane and Animalia
❖Sexual systems are rare
❖Includes members of Kingdom Monera

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Types of cells cont’d
• Parts of a typical eukaryotic cell:
A. The plasma membrane:
❖Outer boundary of the cell.
B. The cytoplasm:
❖Intracellular fluid
❖House of organelles
C. The nucleus:
❖The control room

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Types of cells cont’d

• What are the advantages of having membrane bounded organelles??

1. Increase the surface area for the metabolic processes to take place
2. Harmful substances can be isolated inside an organelle
3. Provide mechanical support to and protect oneself from chemical reaction
taking place in other parts of the cell
4. Control the rate of any metabolic reaction as the membrane plays a policing
role during the passage of reactants

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Cell organelles, structures and functions
• Organelles:
❖Specialized structure in a cell with a specific function
❖Found in the cytoplasm
❖Two kinds on the basis of membrane covering:
❖Membranous and non-membranous
❖The membranous organelles includes:
✓ Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, mitochondria, chloroplasts,
nucleus, lysosomes, peroxisomes and vacuoles
❖The non-membranous includes:
✓Ribosomes, centrosomes, cilia and flagella, microtubules, basal
bodies and microfilaments.

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1. The nucleus
• Distinctly oval or spherically shaped largest central structure (10% of the cell
volume)
• Responsible for controlling, monitoring and directing cellular activities &
controlling cell division
• Contain the DNA molecule that directs the synthesis of protein
• Generally, the nucleus may be:
❖ Rounded: hepatocytes.
❖ Indented (segmented): neutrophils.
❖ Binucleated: cardiac muscle cells
❖ Multinucleated: osteoclasts, skeletal muscle cells.
❖ Absent: mature erythrocytes, blood platelets
• The cytoplasm-like material within the nucleus is called nucleoplasm

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The nucleus cont’d
• The nucleus is composed of:
❖Nucleolus:
✓ Synthesize the component of ribosomes
❖Nuclear pores:
✓ Allow the passage of molecules b/n the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
❖Nuclear envelope:
✓ A perforated membrane (inner and outer) that surrounds the nucleus
✓ It is the double-outer covering of the nucleus
✓ Regulates the flow of materials into & out of the nucleus.
❖Chromatin (colored material):
✓ Consists of a DNA molecule bound with histones.
✓ Are extended thread-like structures in the nucleus.
✓ Condensed during cell division to form the chromosomes
✓ Contains genes that control the activities of the cell & determine heredity.

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2. Endoplasmic reticulum (the cell highway)
• It is a fluid-filled membrane system B. The Smooth ER:
extensively present throughout the ❖Lack ribosomes and do not produce
cytosol: proteins
❖except RBC & Spermatozoa ❖Involved in the synthesis of lipids,
carbohydrate metabolism and
• Have communicating channels on the detoxification.
outside membranes called cisternae. ❖It is abundant in mammalian liver and
• Two types of ER based on whether the gonad cells
cisternae is covered by ribosomes or ✓ synthesize steroid hormones
not. ❖Serves in packaging and discharging
protein molecules that are to be transported
A. Rough ER from the ER.
B. Smooth ER ❖Sarcoplasmic reticulum: Specialized form
of smooth ER in the muscle & store Ca2+
A. Rough ER required for muscle contraction
❖Have ribosomes and synthesize
proteins
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3. The Golgi complex (post-office of the cell)
• Closely associated with ER and contains sets • Important functions of Golgi:
of flattened, curved, membrane- enclosed sacs
stacked in layers. ❖Temporary storage site of cell
products and undergo chemical
• Number of stacks vary in cells (high in protein
secreting cells)
modification of materials
• Animals have only one Golgi apparatus in
❖Sorting & directing finished
each cell but in product to their destination
• Plant cells may have a large number of stacks ❖Synthesize carbohydrates (new
known as dictyosomes cell wall)
• Each has three parts: ❖Release mucin (helpful to form
❖Cis-Golgi, Medial Golgi and Trans-Golgi mucus)
❖Involved in the synthesis of
lysosomes

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4. Ribosomes (protein factories)

• Are a site of protein synthesis

• Are not surrounded by membrane
• Produced in the nucleolus
• Found both free in the cytoplasm and bound with ER.
• Each ribosomes is comprised of two units.
❖the RNA and the protein.
• Each ribosome is involved in producing only one type of protein

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5. Mitochondria
• Is the “power houses’’ of a cell • Have their own autonomous genetic
❖Energy stored in the form of ATP system
(energy currency) • Enclosed by a double membrane: an
❖The universal energy carrier outer and inner
molecule • Inner membrane is specialized in to
• Their number varies depending on the two units:
energy needs of each particular cell ❖Cristae and Matrix
types 1. The cristae:
• Also involved in: ✓ Contain the electron transport protein
❖Biogenesis of phospholipids that convert much of the energy in
food into a usable form
❖Calcium storage ✓ Have highly folded nature
❖Initial production site for steroid 2. The matrix:
hormones (cortisol & estrogen) ✓ Contains different citric acid cycle
enzymes

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6. Lysosomes
• Originated by budding off from the membrane • Their action depends on the process of
of the trans-Golgi network endocytosis
• Two methods by which endocytosis assist
• Serve in the intracellular digestion of lysosomes:
unwanted cellular debris and foreign materials ❖Pinocytosis (cell drinking)
• Discovered by Christian René de Duve in ❖Phagocytosis (cell eating)
1950s. • Major functions of lysosomes
• Have membranes that prevent them from 1. Autophagy: engulf and digest unwanted
materials including worn-out cells
destroying the cell that houses them 2. They release enzymes to digest other
• Contain pockets, which serve to segregate cells.
the enzymes in the intact cell & prevent ✓ acrosome
digesting the content of the cell. 3. Component of the phagocytic WBC
• The hydrolytic enzymes are acid 4. Autolysis (suicide bags): Self-digestion in
dependent and they are active only in the order to maintain normal shape
lysosome’s acidic interior ✓ help to regain the normal size of
uterus after delivery

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7. Vacuoles
• Formed by the joining of many vesicles
• The membrane that surrounds them is called tonoplast
❖It has selective permeability and locks up water, ions, and solutes within the
vacuoles.
• Lysosomes are actually Vesicles
• The major functions of vacuoles are:
❖Store water in the plant cells for maintaining turgor pressure
❖Store proteins and nutrients for seed germinations
❖Store waste products for longer period of time b/c of the difficulties of
exocytosis through cell wall.
❖Involved in autophagy

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8. Chloroplast
• They are:
❖One among the three important plastids
❖The site of photosynthesis
❖Located in outer surface of the cell to
receive enough light
❖Double membrane organelles
❖Green colored due to the green pigment
called chlorophyll
❖The chlorophyll contains two regions.
These are:
✓ Grana: membranous and a site of
light dependent reaction
✓ Stroma: is the site of light
independent reaction

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9. Cytoskeleton
• Is a complex protein network that act as the “bone and muscle” of the cell
• This network has at least four distinct elements:
❖Microtubules, Microfilaments, Intermediate filaments and Microtubular lattice
• Generally, cytoskeletons determine/provide the:
❖Provide structural support and maintain shape of cells
❖Organizes the arrangements of cellular components
❖Substances movement through cell (cilia, flagella and intra-cytoplasmic
vesicles)
❖Contribute to movements of the cell as a whole.

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10. Peroxisomes
• Simple membrane bound vesicles, which • Functions of peroxisomes
contains a dense crystalline core of oxidative A. Hydrogen peroxide metabolism
enzymes
❖Named b/c they are the site of synthesis B. Detoxification of toxic compounds
and degradation of hydrogen peroxide ❖detoxification of methanol, ethanol,
nitrites, formic acid, formaldehyde, and
• Found ubiquitously in eukaryotic cells and are phenols
especially prominent in
❖Liver, kidney, algae and photosynthetic C. Oxidation of fatty acids:
cells of plants & germinating seedlings of ❖Peroxisomal Beta-oxidation is especially
plant species important in the catabolism of fatty acids
with especially long carbon chains.
• The important peroxisomes enzymes are
❖Catalase b) D. Metabolism of nitrogen containing compounds
❖D- amino acid oxidase c) ❖oxidize urate , a purine formed during the
catabolism of nucleic acids and some
❖Urate oxidase d) proteins .
❖Glycolate oxidase

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 11. Centrioles 12. Microfilament
• Tiny round, hollow cylindrical bodies found
in the cytoplasm of animal cells. They • Are long & thin protein fibers in the
• Arise in a distinct region of the cytoplasm cytoplasm.
known as the centrosomes (contains 2
centrioles). • Involved in several kinds of cell
• Play an active part in cell division: movements by pseudopodia in cells
• by synthesizing the microtubules of the like amoeba & white blood cells.
spindle.
• Spindles help to draw (drag) • Consist of very thin strands of
chromosomes to opposite pole.
proteins, actin & myosin that involve
• absent in plant cells, they do form
spindles. in muscle contractions & movement.

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 13. Micro-tubules 14. Microvilli
• Are small hollow tubes composed of tiny • Are tiny finger-like projections on the
cylindrical proteins called tubulin. membrane of certain cells, e.g. intestinal
epithelium & the kidney tubules.
• They form
• Microvilli provides large surface area &
❖The structural units of centrioles &
facilitates absorption of materials.
spindles & also cilia & flagella (involve
in movement of cells).

❖Provides an internal skeleton

(cytoskeleton) for cells & so help
determine their shapes.

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15. Cell (plasma) membrane
• It is fluid lipid bilayer embedded with proteins
enclosing the intracellular fluid
• It is highly complex, elastic, porous, dynamic,
regionally differentiated structure &
selectively permeable (semi-permeable)
membranous cover of the cell.
• The lipid bilayer forms the basic structure of
the membrane and are the primary barrier to
water-soluble substances
• Proteins perform most of the specific
membrane functions
• Models described to explain its structure
1. Davison-Danielli (sandwiched model)
2. Fluid mosaic model (accepted model)

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Components of plasma membrane
1. Phospholipids 2. Cholesterol
❖Forms the most integral component ❖Bound weakly to adjacent phospholipids
(the most abundant) ❖Provides the fluidity and stability to
❖Made up of 2 fatty acids and 1 membrane
glycerol molecule ✓ Maintain the fluidity by preventing
the fatty acid chain from packing
❖Have a polar head (phosphate group) together and crystallizing that could
and non-polar tails (fatty acid), hence decrease fluidity of the membrane
they are amphipathic. ❖Exerts a regulatory role on some of
❖The hydrophilic layer is exposed to membrane proteins
extra cellular fluid, whereas the inner ❖It gives flexibility to the cell to change its
layer (hydrophobic) is in contact with shape
the intracellular fluid. ❖Facilitate transport processes as they are
dependent on the fluidity of the lipid
bilayer.

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Components of plasma membrane
3. Membrane proteins • The major functions of membrane
❖Either attached to or inserted within proteins:
the lipid bilayer; some extending ❖Allow the passage of charged ions
through the entire membrane across the lipid bilayer on a selective
thickness basis (Channel proteins).
❖Have polar region at both ends joined ❖Allow the free passage of molecules
by a non-polar central portion of any type passively (carrier
❖Many proteins float freely and this proteins)
gives ever changing mosaic pattern of ❖Serve as receptor sites and bind with
the protein embedded in the lipid specific molecules
layer hence leads to membrane ❖Some arranged into network and
fluidity maintain cell shape
❖Are either integral (intrinsic) or ❖Serves as cell adhesion molecules
peripheral (extrinsic) which are important for
communication and regulation

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Components cont’d
4. Glycolipids and glycoproteins
• Lipid and protein bounded with polysaccharides
• Functions are:
❖Separate cell contents from external environment
❖Controlling material exchange b/n two cells
❖Receptor sites for recognizing external stimuli
❖Act as cell identity marker
❖Site for reactions to take place especially in chloroplast and mitochondria

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Plasma membrane cont’d

❖Serving as a mechanical barrier that traps needed molecules within the cell
❖It plays an active role in determining the composition of cell by selective
permeability of substances to pass between the cell and its ECF environment
❖Controls the flow of materials into & out of the cell, &
❖Acts as protective structure in animal cells.

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