Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211

Revision

Dr. Xiaoyang Chen

Dept. of Electrical & Electronic Engineering

XJTLU

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
A General Picture
• CE, CC, CB
Basic BJT Amplifiers • Frequency response
• Miller Effect

• Differential amplifier
Diff. Amp. and Current analysis
Building Blocks Mirrors • Basic current mirror
• Widlar current mirror

• Closed-loop gain
Feedback and Its • Effect of feedback
Application • Feedback for amplifiers
• Stability

• General stage functions

Multi-Stage Amplifiers • Loading effect

Combination

Operational Amplifier • Ideal properties

Circuits • Nonideal effects

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211

Part 1: Basic BJT Amplifiers

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 Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Common-Emitter
Hybrid−𝜋 equivalent circuit

The input resistance is, 𝑅! = 𝑅" ∥ 𝑅# ∥ 𝑟$

The output resistance is, 𝑅% = 𝑅& ∥ 𝑟%

)! | )" |+#
The small-signa voltage gain is, 𝐴' = −𝑔( 𝑟% ||𝑅& )! )" +# ,)$

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 Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Common-Emitter with Emitter Resistor (CE-ED)

Emitter resistor

The input resistance is, 𝑅! = 𝑟$ + 1 + 𝛽 𝑅-

The output resistance is, 𝑅% ≈ 𝑅&

./)%
The small-signa voltage gain is, 𝐴' = , if 𝑅! ≫ 𝑅0
+# , ",/ )&

The voltage gain is less dependent on the current gain 𝛽 than CE. The circuit designer now has more
control in voltage gain, but this advantage is at the expense of a smaller gain.

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 Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Common-Collector

2'(
The input resistance is, 𝑅!1 = 3)
= 𝑟$ + 1 + 𝛽 𝑟% ||𝑅-

"
The output resistance is, 𝑅% = 4 | 𝑅- |𝑟% ||𝑟$
*

2+ ",/ ++ ||)& )'

The small-signa voltage gain is, 𝐴' = 2,
=+
#, ",/ ++ ||)& )' ,)$

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 Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Frequency Response
Simplified hybrid−𝝅 equivalent circuit for
𝐶! is forward biased junction frequency analysis
capacitance.
𝐶" is reverse-biased junction capacitance
(normally < 𝐶! , however, cannot be
neglected due to Miller effect).

Write KCL at the input node,

𝑉! 𝑉! 𝑉! 1
𝐼% = + + = 𝑉! + 𝑗𝜔 𝐶! + 𝐶"
𝑟! 1 1 𝑟! Bode plot
𝑗𝜔𝐶! 𝑗𝜔𝐶"

From KCL at the output node,

1
𝑉! '5 𝑓- =
+ 𝐼$ = 𝑔& 𝑉! → 𝑉! = 2𝜋𝑟! 𝐶! + 𝐶"
1 (6)*+,7
𝑗𝜔𝐶"
𝐼$ 𝑔& − 𝑗𝜔𝐶" 𝑔& 𝑟!
∴ 𝐴# = = ≅
𝐼% 1 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑟! 𝐶! + 𝐶"
𝑟! + 𝑗𝜔 𝐶! + 𝐶"

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 Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Frequency Response

Note that the magnitude of current gain decreases with

increasing frequency and reaches to 1 at 𝑓. (cutoff frequency).
We can write 𝐴! in the below form:

𝛽1 𝛽1 1
𝐴# = ℎ/0 = → ℎ/0 = 𝑓- =
𝑓 2 2𝜋𝑟! 𝐶! + 𝐶"
1+𝑗 𝑓
𝑓- 1+
𝑓-

At 𝑓. , ℎ/0 = 1 and normally 𝛽1 ≫ 1, 𝑓. ≫ 𝑓- . Therefore, equation becomes

𝛽1 𝛽1 𝑓- 1
1≅ = → 𝑓. = 𝛽% 𝑓/ = 𝛽1
𝑓. 2𝜋𝑟$ 𝐶$ + 𝐶8
2
𝑓
𝑓-

Frequency 𝑓- is called the bandwidth of transistor, therefore, 𝑓. is more commonly called as

unity-gain bandwidth (or) gain bandwidth product.

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Miller Effect
As mentioned earlier, the capacitance 𝐶" cannot really be ignored – Miller effect, or
feedback effect, is a multiplication effect of 𝐶" in circuit applications.

Assume the frequency is sufficiently high for the coupling and bypass capacitors to act as
short circuits – 𝐶" connects output back to the input.

1
𝑉! = 𝐼3 + 𝑉1
𝑗𝜔𝐶"

1
𝑉1 = 𝐼2 + 𝑉!
𝑗𝜔𝐶"

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Miller Effect

Two-port
equivalent circuit
Thevenin at output

Norton at output

Reconsider the original equivalent circuit and now replace the circuit segment between
the dotted lines with the above Norton circuit

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Miller Effect

1
We have 𝑉! = 𝐼3 + 𝑉1 The circuit segment between the dotted lines can
𝑗𝜔𝐶" be replaced by an equivalent capacitance called
49)4: Miller capacitance as, 𝐶6 = 𝐶" 1 + 𝑔& 𝑅, ||𝑅5
→ 𝐼3 = ; = 𝑗𝜔𝐶" 𝑉! − 𝑉1
<=>7 The multiplication effect of 𝐶" is the Miller effect.

The output voltage is

𝑉1 = −𝑔& 𝑉! 𝑅, ||𝑅5

Therefore, 𝐼3 becomes as

𝐼3 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶" 1 + 𝑔& 𝑅, ||𝑅5 𝑉! Assume 1) 𝐼?@ is negligible compared to 𝑔( 𝑉$ source,

2) 𝐶8 will be much greater than 𝑅& ||𝑅A , therefore 𝐶8
can be considered as an open-circuit.

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211

Part 2: Differential Amplifier and

Current Mirror Circuits

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
The Differential Amplifier
Open-loop voltage gain
- is an amplifier designed to produce an output
voltage 𝑣1 that represents an amplified version
of the difference between two input signals 𝑣3 𝑣3
and 𝑣2. The difference between 𝑣3 and 𝑣2 is 𝑣1
called differential-mode signal: 𝐴:19
𝑣2

𝑣1#7089 = 𝐴:19 𝑣3 − 𝑣2

In an ideal differential amplifier, if the same signal voltage is applied to both inputs at the
same time , then 𝑣3 = 𝑣2 and 𝑣1 should be zero. A signal that appears on both inputs at
the same time in this way is called a common-mode signal.

Unfortunately, in practice it is found that a small output voltage will be produced in

response to a common mode signal. However, a good differential amplifier would have a
high gain for the differential signal but a low gain for the common mode signal. This figure
of merit is expressed as the Common Mode Rejection Ratio of the amplifier (CMMR)

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211

The Differential Amplifier

Suppose the input signals to a differential amplifier 𝑣3

𝑣3 and 𝑣2 consist of a common-mode voltage 𝑣$& 𝐴:19 𝑣1
applied to both inputs and a difference voltage 𝑣7 𝑣2
shared between them, then

𝑣7 𝑣7
𝑣3 = 𝑣$& + 𝑣2 = 𝑣$& −
2 2

Note that the differential-mode signal is simply equal to the

so 𝑣7 = 𝑣3 − 𝑣2
difference between the values of 𝑣3 and 𝑣2
𝑣3 + 𝑣2 but the common-mode signal is equal to the
and 𝑣$& =
2 average value of 𝑣3 and 𝑣2

Now, the actual output is found as: 𝑣1 = 𝐴7 𝑣7 + 𝐴$& 𝑣$&

A good differential amplifier will not amplify the common-mode signal (the noise) but will
amplify the differential-mode signal (the required signal). In this way the signal/noise
ratio is greatly improved.

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Small-signal Equivalent Circuit Analysis – Output Voltage

Our assumptions:
• Constant current source is never
ideal – represented by 𝑅;;
• Input voltage source resistance
is non-zero – represented by 𝑅< ;
• Both transistors are biased at the
same quiescent current, so that:
𝑟!3 = 𝑟!2 ≡ 𝑟! and 𝑔&3 = 𝑔&2 ≡ 𝑔&

Analysis:
𝑉!3 𝑉!2 𝑉0
1. KCL equation at node 𝑉0 : 𝑟 + 𝑔 𝑉
& !3 + 𝑔 𝑉
& !2 + =
! 𝑟! 𝑅1

1+𝛽 1+𝛽 𝑉0
2. Representing 𝑔& = 𝛽/𝑟! : 𝑉!3 + 𝑉!2 =
𝑟! 𝑟! 𝑅1

𝑉!3 𝑉%3 − 𝑉0 𝑉!" 𝑉#" − 𝑉$

3. From the circuit we see that: = and =
𝑟! 𝑟! + 𝑅< 𝑟! 𝑟! + 𝑅%

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 Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Small-signal Equivalent Circuit Analysis – Output Voltage
1+𝛽 𝑉0
4. Solving (3.) for 𝑉!3 and 𝑉!2 and substituting into (2.): 𝑉%3 + 𝑉%2 − 2𝑉0 =
𝑟! + 𝑅< 𝑅1
𝑉#* + 𝑉#"
5. Solving (4.) for 𝑉0 will give: 𝑉$ = 𝑟 + 𝑅%
2+ !
1 + 𝛽 𝑅&
𝛽𝑅) 𝑉#" − 𝑉$
6. One-sided output at the collector of Q2: 𝑉& = 𝑉'" = − 𝑔( 𝑉!" 𝑅) = −
𝑟! + 𝑅%
𝑉!" 𝑉#" − 𝑉$
Recall: 𝑔& = 𝛽/𝑟! and =
𝑟! 𝑟! + 𝑅%
𝑟! + 𝑅%
−𝛽𝑅) 𝑉#" 1 + − 𝑉#*
1 + 𝛽 𝑅&
7. Substituting (5.) into (6.) will give: 𝑉& =
𝑟! + 𝑅% 𝑟 + 𝑅%
2+ !
1 + 𝛽 𝑅&

8. The voltage output can be transformed to the form of 𝑉& = 𝐴+ 𝑉+ + 𝐴'( 𝑉'( :
𝛽𝑅) 𝛽𝑅)
𝑉& = , 𝑉+ − ,𝑉
2 𝑟! + 𝑅% 𝑟! + 𝑅% + 2 1 + 𝛽 𝑅& '(

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Summary – Basic BJT Differential Pair
Differential mode
Input resistance
4𝛽𝑉.
𝑅#7 = 2𝑟! =
𝐼=
Voltage gain
𝛽𝑅,
𝐴7 =
2(𝑟! + 𝑅< )
Common mode
Input resistance
𝑟!
𝑅#$& = + 𝛽 + 1 𝑅; ≈ 𝛽𝑅;
2
Voltage gain
−𝛽𝑅, 𝑅,
𝐴$& = ≈−
𝑟! + 𝑅< + 2 1 + 𝛽 𝑅; 2𝑅;
Common Mode Rejection Ratio
𝐴7 1 + 𝛽 𝑅;
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 = ≈
𝐴$& 𝑟! + 𝑅<

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Two-transistor Current Source (Current Mirror) Circuit

Two-transistor current source circuit (also known as

a current mirror) – the basic building block in the
design of integrated circuit current sources. The
circuit consists of:
• Positive and negative voltage supply 𝑉 > and 𝑉 );
• Two matched or identical transistors (Q1 and Q2):
• Connected collector and base terminals of
Q1
• Connected base terminals of Q1 & Q2;
• Connected emitter terminals of Q1 & Q2;
• Reference current resistor R1 (connected to
collector of Q1).

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Two-transistor Current Source Analysis – Current Relationships

1. The reference current 𝐼?@A is established by resistor

𝑅3 and transistor Q1 connected as a diode:
𝑉 > − 𝑉<@ − 𝑉 )
𝐼?@A =
𝑅3
2. As 𝑉<@3 = 𝑉<@2 = 𝑉<@ then 𝐼<3 = 𝐼<2 and 𝐼,3 = 𝐼,2.
Therefore, KCL for collector node of Q1:
𝐼?@A = 𝐼,3 + 𝐼<3 + 𝐼<2 = 𝐼,3 + 2𝐼<2
3. Replacing 𝐼,3 by 𝐼,2 and noting that 𝐼<2 = 𝐼,2/𝛽:
𝐼,2 2
𝐼?@A = 𝐼,2 + 2 = 𝐼,2 1 +
𝛽 𝛽
4. Output current is then:
𝐼?@A
𝐼B = 𝐼,2 =
2
1+
𝛽

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211

Widlar Current Source

Another way to establish output current being significantly different from the reference
current is to use the Widlar current source.

It is particularly useful in internal integrated circuit

biasing arrangements because:

1. A range of currents can be produced by changing

the value of RE rather than the size of the output
transistor
2. The resistance values required are much smaller
3. Both of the above features lead to a much more
compact design

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
The Widlar Current Source – Current Relationship

1. If Q1 and Q2 are identical and 𝛽 ≫ 1:

𝑉<@3
𝐼?@A ≅ 𝐼,3 = 𝐼C exp
𝑉.
and
𝑉<@2
𝐼B = 𝐼,2 = 𝐼C exp
𝑉.
2. Solving for the B-E voltages:
𝐼?@A 𝐼B
𝑉<@3 = 𝑉. ln and 𝑉<@2 = 𝑉. ln
𝐼C 𝐼C
3. Their difference yields:
𝐼?@A
𝑉<@3 − 𝑉<@2 = 𝑉. ln
𝐼B
4. Applying KVL to the lower loop we see:

𝑉<@3 − 𝑉<@2 = 𝐼@2𝑅@ ≅ 𝐼B 𝑅@

𝐼?@A
5. Combining (3.) and (4.) will give the currents’ relationship: 𝐼B 𝑅@ = 𝑉. ln
𝐼B

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211

Part 3: Feedback and Its Application

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Ideal Closed-Loop Signal Gain
By saying ideal, we mean:
• The input signal transmits through the amplifier only
and none through the feedback loop;
• The output signal transmits through the feedback
loop only and none through the amplifier;
• No loading effects.

Let us analyze the system output wrt to input

1. From the figure, the output signal is:

4. Therefore, the output is found as:
𝑆1 = 𝐴 𝑆D
𝑆1 = 𝐴 𝑆# − 𝑆/% = 𝐴 𝑆# − 𝛽 𝐴 𝑆1
2. At the summing node, we have:
𝑆D = 𝑆# − 𝑆/% 5. After rearrangement, the ideal closed-
loop gain is found as:
3. The feedback signal is:
𝑆1 𝐴
𝑆/% = 𝛽𝑆1 𝐴/ = =
𝑆# 1 + 𝛽𝐴

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Terminology and Notions

𝑆1 𝐴 𝐴
𝐴/ = = =
𝑆# 1 + 𝛽𝐴 1+𝑇

𝐴/ is the closed-loop gain

𝐴 is the open-loop gain
𝛽 is the feedback transfer function (or feedback fraction)
𝑇 = 𝛽𝐴 is called loop gain
1 + 𝛽𝐴 is called feedback factor

Notice since 𝑆1 = 𝐴 𝑆D and 𝑆/% = 𝛽 𝑆1 . Therefore, we have:

𝑇 = 𝛽𝐴 = 𝑆/% /𝑆D

In general, the magnitude and phase of the loop gain are also functions of frequency (of
the input signal) and they become important for determining the stability of the feedback
circuits.

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Gain Sensitivity of the Feedback System
The sensitivity can be quantified by taking the derivative of 𝐴/ with respect to 𝐴, while
assuming 𝛽 being a constant:
𝑆1 𝐴
𝐴/ = =
𝑆# 1 + 𝛽𝐴
𝑑𝐴/ 1 𝐴 1 𝑑𝐴
= − 2 𝛽 = 1 + 𝛽𝐴 2 or 𝑑𝐴/ =
𝑑𝐴 1 + 𝛽𝐴 1 + 𝛽𝐴 1 + 𝛽𝐴 2

Dividing both sides by the closed-loop gain 𝐴/ yields:

𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝐴/ 1 + 𝛽𝐴 2 1 𝑑𝐴
= = L
𝐴/ 𝐴 1 + 𝛽𝐴 𝐴
1 + 𝛽𝐴
The change in the open-loop gain 𝐴 of an
amplifier (e.g., due to the temperature variation),
leads to (1 + 𝛽𝐴) times smaller change in the
closed-loop gain 𝐴/ .

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 Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Bandwidth Extension of the Feedback System
Assuming the frequency response of a basic amplifier (without feedback) is characterized
by a single pole, we can write:
low-frequency or
𝐴1 midband gain
𝐴 𝑠 = 𝑠
1+𝜔
E upper 3 dB or
corner frequency

For the closed-loop gain: 𝐴1

𝑠
1+𝜔
𝐴 𝑠 E
𝐴/ 𝑠 = = 𝐴1
1 + 𝛽𝐴 𝑠 1+𝛽 𝑠
1+𝜔
E
𝐴1 1
= L 𝑠 • The low-frequency closed loop gain is
1 + 𝛽𝐴1 1 +
𝜔E 1 + 𝛽𝐴1 reduced by a factor of 1 + 𝛽𝐴1 ;
• The bandwidth is extended by a factor of
Low frequency Upper 3 dB 1 + 𝛽𝐴1 ;
closed-loop gain (𝐴B% ) frequency (𝜔BC )

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Basic Feedback Circuit Connection

There are four basic feedback topologies, based on

the parameter to be amplified 𝑆# (voltage or current)
and the output parameter 𝑆1 (voltage or current).

𝑆# , 𝑆/% and 𝑆D 𝑆1 𝑆1 /𝑆# Amplifier type

voltage voltage 𝑣1 /𝑣# voltage amplifier

current voltage 𝑣1 /𝑖# transresistance amplifier

voltage current 𝑖1 /𝑣# transconductance amplifier

current current 𝑖1 /𝑖# current amplifier

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211

Feedback is therefore used to approximate the ideal amplifiers

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Methods for Identifying Feedback Connections
Input side:
If the feedback loop is connected to the same input terminal as the signal source, it is
current application (shunt applied); otherwise, it is voltage application (series applied).

Output side:
Short-circuit the output voltage/load, if the feedback signal disappears, it is voltage
sensing (shunt derived); otherwise, it is current sensing (series derived).

A practical example:

(a) What is the feedback topology of the circuit shown?

(b) What effect would you expect the feedback to have on:
• the overall gain of the amplifier?
• the input impedance?
• the output impedance?
(c) What is the best description of type of the amplifier?

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211

The Stability Problem

Recall, the ideal closed-loop transfer function:

𝑆1 𝐴
𝐴/ = =
𝑆# 1 + 𝛽𝐴

In practice, the open-loop gain is a function of the individual transistor parameters,

including capacitance; therefore, it is also a function of frequency:
𝐴 𝑠 𝐴 𝑠
𝐴/ 𝑠 = =
1 + 𝛽𝐴 𝑠 1+𝑇 𝑠
where 𝑇(𝑠) = 𝛽𝐴(𝑠) is the loop gain and 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 is the complex frequency.
𝐴 𝑗𝜔
Now, the closed-loop gain function can be presented as: 𝐴/ 𝑗𝜔 =
1 + 𝑇 𝑗𝜔 ∠𝜙

What will happen to the closed-loop gain if 𝑇 𝑗𝜔 = 1 and 𝜙 = 180°? 𝐴, → ∞

To study the stability of feedback circuits, we must analyze the frequency response of the
loop gain factor 𝑇 𝑗𝜔 .

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Electronic Circuits and Systems
Feedback Stability

Using Bode plots or Nyquist diagram we can determine the degree of stability of a
feedback amplifier. For example, the bode plot shows:

Main criterion: at the frequency where

𝑇 𝑗𝜔 = 1, if the magnitude of the phase is
less than 180 degrees, the system is stable

Phase margin: the difference between the

phase angle at 𝑓 .(/) H3 and -180 degrees.

Gain margin: : the difference between the

gain magnitude at -180 degrees and one
(typically in dB)

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211

Part 3: Multi-Stage Amplifiers

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211

Main Principles

1. Perform the DC analysis of the circuit to determine the small-signal parameters of the
transistors. In most cases the base currents can be neglected. This assumption will
normally provide sufficient accuracy for a hand analysis.

2. Perform the AC analysis on each stage of the circuit, taking into account the loading
effect of the following stage.

The properties of the previous stage (gain, input/output resistance ) can be a

function of the input resistance of the next stage

3. The overall small-signal voltage gain is the product of the gains of each stage as long as
the loading effect is taken into account.

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Example
Stage 1 is the bias current section,
which forms a Widlar current mirror
with Q2 and a basic current mirror
with Q9

Stage 2 is a differential amplifier

with active load. It forms the input
of the circuit and provides the first
voltage gain

Stage 3 is an emitter-follower (CC) circuit forming an impedance matching buffer between

stages 2 and 4. It also reduces the loading effect.

Stage 4 is a CE amplifier with current mirror as load that significantly contributes to the
overall voltage gain.

Stage 5 is a CC circuit forming the output stage and reducing loading effect.

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211

Part 4: Operational Amplifier Circuits

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Equivalent Circuit
Omitting power supplies, the equivalent circuit for an op-amp is

• The output voltage source is controlled by the differential input voltage 𝑣#7 so if
there is no load, 𝑣1 = 𝐴17 𝑣#7 ⟹ looks like a reasonable voltage amplifier

• An operational amplifier generally has large input impedance, low output

impedance and very high voltage gain

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Ideal Op-Amp Equivalent Circuit

① Inverting input:
𝑉1IJ = −𝐴17 𝑉3

② Non-inverting input:
𝑉1IJ = 𝐴17 𝑉2

③ Output:
𝑉1IJ = 𝐴17 (𝑉2 − 𝑉3)

Ideal Parameters:

• the input resistance 𝑅# between terminals 1 and 2 is infinite

• the output terminal of the op-amp acts as an ideal voltage source, i.e., 𝑅1 is zero
• the open loop gain 𝐴17 is very large and approaches infinity

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Analysis Method – Virtual Short Principle

• An Op – amp has a very high gain, so for any reasonable output voltage, the
input differential voltage 𝑣K − 𝑣L will be vanishingly small

• So if the gain is very large then we can say that 𝑣K − 𝑣L ≈ 0 or 𝑣K ≈ 𝑣L

• This is a very useful approximation – a ‘Golden Rule’ !! ( But remember –

it only applies if the gain is very large); We say that 𝑣L tracks 𝑣K

• This leads to the concept of a virtual short – the circuit behaves as though there is
a short across the inputs because the voltage difference between 𝑣K and 𝑣L is
kept zero, but it is not actually shorted . Hence the name ‘Virtual Short’. It greatly
simplifies the analysis of op-amp circuits.

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Non-ideal Effects – Slew Rate

• In the ideal case, we assume the open-loop gain of an op-amp is infinite, hence it
has no frequency dependence

• But in reality, the op-amp has a finite gain, and the frequency of the input signal
affects the characteristics of the output signal in terms of dynamic response

• Due to the increased number of capacitances in an op-amp, the op-amp’s output

cannot respond instantaneously to a change in input

• In another word, op-amps have a limit on how rapidly the output voltage can
change – Slew Rate
𝒅𝑽𝑶
𝑺𝑹 = ]
𝒅𝒕 𝐦𝐚𝐱

• The slew rate of the op-amp can limit the performance of a circuit and it can distort
the output waveform if its limit is exceeded.

• The slew rate should be as high as possible to ensure the maximum undistorted
output voltage

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Electronic Circuits and Systems EEE211
Non-ideal Effects – DC Imperfections

DC imperfections of operational amplifiers include offset voltage, bias current, and offset
current. They result in non-zero output voltage even at zero input voltages. This effect is
especially noticeable in high gain or precision DC amplifiers.

So the complete model of the op-amp with both offset voltage and bias currents is:

We can use this model to determine the DC

offset voltage that will occur in a given circuit.
Ideal op-amp
I=0 (zero offsets)
+
We can determine the contribution to the output vos
+
voltage from each source individually using the IBp

‘principle of superposition’
I=0
-
To determine the contribution due to offset bias
alone, assume no input signals are being IBn

applied so the two inputs are grounded.

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See you in next semester...

The End

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