UNIVERSITY DUTSIN-MA

FACULTY OF LIFE SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

SEMESTER - SESSION: SECOND - 2020/2021

COURSE CODE/TITLE (CREDIT UNIT): BIO112/General Biology II (3CU)

Course Contributors/Lecturer: Prof. Aliyu U., Prof. Vantsawa P.A., Dr. Auta T., Dr. Eberemu N.C. Dr. Musa
D.D., Orpin J.B., Dr. Kutawa A.B., Mannir N., Atalabi E.T., Adamu I., Zakariyya S., Umar
M.K., Yahaya M.A., Buah J., Bako, M.I.

COURSE CONTENT:
General Survey of the Plant and Animal Kingdoms Based Mainly on Similarities and Differences in Anatomy,
Physiology and Ecological Adaptation

INTRODUCTION

The animal kingdom includes eukaryotic multicellular organisms which exhibit heterotrophic nutrition. They are
commonly known as animals and differ characteristically from other major groups of plants, in their capacity to be
able to move from one place to other.

ANIMAL ORGANISATION

Animals exhibit a complex body organisation which shows a very clear evolutionary trend. The complexity of
animal organisation is seen with reference to features like cellularity, germ layers in the body wall, symmetry of the
body parts and the nature of body cavity.

ANIMAL DIVERSITY

Among the members of the animal kingdom, about 95% do not possess a backbone (or vertebral column) and hence
are described as invertebrates. The remaining animals represent a group called chordates, which posses a solid
supporting structure on the dorsal side of the body called notochord at some stage of their life cycle. Among
chordates, the major group is that of vertebrates in which the notochord is replaced in the adult stage by a vertebral
column.

At present, there are 33 distinct groups or phyla of invertebrates and 4 distinct groups or phyla of chordates which
have been identified. However, as new groups are being continuously discovered, the classification of animals in
general and invertebrates in particular, is being constantly revised. However, nine major phyla are being recognise,
the tenth one i.e. protozoa is now recognised as kingdom of its own i.e. kingdom protista.

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Animal physiology is said to be the branch of Biology that is concern with the study of functions and vital processes
in animals. It deals with the physical and chemical processes that take place in animals during the performance of
their life functions.

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MAJOR PHYLA OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

There are 10 major phyla in the animal kingdom from Protozoa to Chordata. Of these, phylum Protozoa is now
placed in the kingdom Protista.

The remaining nine phyla include true multicellular animals. Of these nearly 95% represent the invertebrates and
about 5% represent the vertebrates. The most important features of these major animal phyla, their classification and
examples are as shown in figure 2.

Phylogenetic Tree of Animal Kingdom

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3
Classification of Animal Kingdom

Invertebrates
Cellular
Body Distinguishing
Phylum Organizati Coelom Examples
Symmetry Feature
on
Porifera No tissues None Asymmetrical Aquatic adults Non-motile, Sponges
Filter feeders, possess pores
& Collar cells.

Coelenterates Tissues None Radical Polyp & medusa forms, Jelly fish,
stingil8ng cells on tentacles Hydra, Corals

Platyhelminthes Organs None Bilateral Flat body with definite head Flukes,
and tail end Tapeworm

Nematodes Organs Pseudo- Bilateral Cylindrical, unsegmental Ascaris,

Coelom body Hookworm

Annelids Organs Coelom Bilateral Cylindrical Segmented body Earthworm,

Leeches

Molluscs Organ Coelom Bilateral Unsegmented body muscular Snails,

system Oysters,
foot, mantle Clams

cavity, shell

presenting most

cases

Arthropods Organ Coelom Bilateral Joint tail appendages, Crustaceans,

system Chitinous exoskeleton, insects,
Specialized Segments and Spiders
sensory system

Star fish, Sea

Spiny skeleton; System of Cucumber,
water canals , tube feet Sea Urchins

Table 1.3: Vertebrates

Phylum Body Covering Appendages Respiration Examples

Pisces Covered with scales Modified into Fins Through gills Bony fish,
and slimes Cartilaginous
fish

Amphibians Soft and Moist Two fore legs and two hind Through gills in young, Frog, Toad,

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 legs skin and lungs in adults Salamanders

Reptiles Covered with dry Two fore legs and two hind Through lungs Lizard, Snakes,
scales legs with toes ending in Alligators etc
claws

Aves Covered with Forelimbs modified into Through lungs Birds

wings, hindlegs with toes
feathers, scales on ending in claws
feet

Mammals Covered with hair Two forelegs and two Through lungs Rats, Goat,
hindlegs ending in claws Cow, Dog, Man

SIMILARITIES, DIFFERENCES IN ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION

OF PHYLUM PROTOZOA

The term Protozoa refers to Unicellular or acellular animals of the microscopic size. They form the simplest of all
the groups in the animals‘ kingdom. The name protozoa means ―first animals‖ and has been derived from two Greek
words, PROTOS, meaning first and zoon, meaning animal. They are looked upon as the most primitive form of life,
appearingfirst in the evolutionary history. Structurally, a protozoan is a one-celled animal comparable with one cell
of a METAZOAN but functionally it is an entire organisms, physiologically balanced and performs all the essential
process of an animal, hence protozoans are called acellular or non-cellular organisms.

Distinguishing Features of the Phylum Protozoa

i. The mode of life could be free-living or parasitic.

ii. The presence of moisture in their environment is an essential condition for their mode of life.

iii. Locomotry organs are finger – like Pseudopodia or whip-like Flagella or hair-like Cilia or Meganucleus
eg. Paramecium.

iv. Nutrition may be holozoic (animal-like), holophytic (Plant-like), Saprophytic or parasitic.

v. Respiration occurs through general surface of the body.

vi. Excretion occurs through general surface or through contractile vacuums which also serve for Osmo-
regulation.

vii. Reproduction takes place asexually by binary or multiple fission and budding, and sexually by conjugation
of the adults or female gametes.

viii. Encystement commonly occurs to help in dispersal as well as to pass unfavourable condition.

Classification of Protozoan

The classification of the Phylum Protozoa is based on locomotory Structure. The Phylum Protozoa is divided into
sub-phylia;

i. Plasmodrome; Members have Pseudopodia (false feet) or flagella or no locomotory structure e.g. Amoeba,
Euglenas.

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 ii. Ciliophora: Members have cilia and more than one nucleus of which one is large (Meganucleus) e.g.
Paramecium.

Amoeba Phylum - Protozoa

Subphylum - Plasmodroma

Class - Rhizopods

Order - Lobosa

Genus - Amoeba

Morphological Structure of Amoeba

- Amoeba, a member of class Sarcodine is the common example of the simplest animal life and is usually
universally studied as an: Introduction to the Phylum Protozoa. The most common species is Amoeba
proteus.

- It measures about 0.25 to 0.60mm in size and is difficult to see without the aid of a microscope.

- Under the microscope, it appears as a minute slate – coloured shining, irregular mass of a gelatin-like
substance with study moving fine particles.

- It has an irregular shape due to the fact that protrusions of its own substance and formed at its surface in
different directions – the Pseudopodia al8nd they are constantly changing in shape in the achieve animal by
the protoplasm.

- It consists of a very- thing elastic external plasma membrane or plasmallema

Basic structure of Amoeba

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Basic structure of Paramecium

Habitat

The common Amoeba Proteus may be collected from a variety of places where condition of water, temperature and
organic food are favourable such as debris from watering troughs, bottom of ponds, pools, drains, ditches,
abandoned tanning pits and wherever there is abundant aquatic vegetation.

Locomotion

Pseudopodia are associated with ingestion of food and Locomotion- During Locomotion, it form one or more blunt
finger-shaped processes or pseudopodia which continue to grow more and more by the flow of the protoplasm which
is obviously withdrawn from somewhere else and, therefore, if the formation of the Pseudopodium is mainly in one
direction, the amoeba must change in position and it is in this way that locomotion is affected.

Irritability

This has a particular reference to the pseudopodia. If a pseudopodium, an extension, should come in contact with a
foreign body, such as a grain of sand, it is retracted and a new one is pushed out in a changed direction. This implies
that the generated Protoplasm of amoeba has the power to perceived nervous messages or stimuli over the whole of
its surface, since at whatever point the pseudopodium is extended it will react to this reaction.

Food and Feeding

The aquatic environment of amoeba has tiny particles of various organic substances, suitable for food. This includes
unicelluar plants, particular bacteria and diatoms, tiny filaments of algae, various protozoan species together with
organic debris of many kinds. It is holozoic in nutrition,that is, it ingests solid organic particle. This is with the aid of
the pseudopodia.

Egestion

There is no specialized organelle in amoeba for throwing out the indigestible material. It leaves the animal through a
temporary opening in the ectoplasm at the rear of the animal. The plasmallema ruptures at this point of contact with
the vacuole and the feaces are egested or the animal flows away. New plasmalemma is formed at the ruptured area
to stop the outflow of endoplasm.

Respiration

The process whereby the Carbondioxide leaving the protoplasm is exchange for oxygen entering it, is known as
Respiration. In amoeba this exchange is carried on mainly through the general surface of the body. The water in
which amoeba lives must contain dissolved oxygen in order that this diffusion may go on.
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Osmo Regulation

Osmo regulation refers to the regulation of water content. The contractile vacuole is responsible for this function.
The contractile vacuole is a clear space. It contains a fluid less dense than the surrounding protoplasm. At more or
less regular intervals, it suddenly collapses, its walls having contracted, force out the fluid contents which is known
to contain traces of urea and Carbon dioxide but mostly water.

Reproduction

Reproduction is asexual and is by the methods of:

i. Binary Fission
ii. Sporulation
iii. Encystment

SIMILARITIES, DIFFERENCES IN ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION

OF PHYLUM PORIFERA

The members of phylum Porifera are very interesting and are found widely distributed in both fresh and salt water.
They vary considerably in size and shape; some reach a size of 80cm to 2 metres in diameter while others form a
thin incrustation on rocks, sponges as porifera are also called, has a very large number of microscopic pores on the
surface of their body through which water passes constantly in from this stream of water, the sponges are able to
strains out the microscopic organisms, which are used as food. Because of the presence of millions of ―pores‖, this
Phylum of animals has been called Porifera or Pore bearers, also known as Parozoa.

Characteristics of Phylum Porifera

i. They are asymmetrical

ii. They possess well developed tissues and organs are not present.
iii. They lack digestive system and digestion of food is intracellular.
iv. The body wall surrounding the central cavity is only two layers the outer layer known as the dermal layer
and the inner layer as the gastral layer.
v. The gastral layer contains flagellated collared cells or choanocytes.
vi. They do not have respiratory and excretory organs.
vii. Lack nerve cells.
viii. The pores or Ostia opening into the gastral cavity are surrounded by contractile cells.
ix. The entire outer surface of the body shows the presence of large number of Ostia through which a
constantly flowing stream of water is maintained.

Classification of Poriferas

The different kinds of spicules in the wall of Poriferas are used in classification. Therefore Porifera is divided into
the following classes:

i. CALCAREA OR CALCISPONGIAE eg. Leucosolenia, Scypha, Grantia, etc.

ii. HEXACTINELLIDA e.g. Euplectella, Hyalonema

iii. DEMOSPONGIA eg. Spondilla, Spongia

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Leucosolenia (A Simple Coconial Sponge)

Phylum - Porifera

Class - Callerea

Order - Homocoela

Genus – Leucosolenia

Diagram ‗of Leucosolenia

External Organizations

- Leucosolenia is whitish or Yellow in colour.

- Consists of a cluster of vase-shaped individuals

- All individuals are connected to common horizontal branches with their base.

- The individuals are free above and open to exterior by a large opening called osculum, present at their tip.

- Osculum is surrounded by an oscular fringed which is composed of a circlet of monaxim catcareous

spicules.

- Each individual cylinder has many pores, called Ostia, in the surface and it may attain a height of about
25cm.

Ecological Adaptation

Habit and Habitat

- Leucosolenia is a small, delicate branching, colonial marine springe.

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 - It is worldwide in distribution and found attached to stones and rocks of; sea-shore water. For its life
activities, it depends entirely on water.

Structural Adaptation of Leucosolenia

- The body wall of leusolenia is very thin and unfolded consisting of two Layer (choanodern).

- These layers are separated by gelatinous layers of Mesoglea or Mensenchyme. The dermal layer is a
protective layer.

- The constant movement of their flagella, situated in the gastral layer, set in continuous water current in one
direction.

- The Mesoglea contains types of cells which together form the Mesenchyme.

- The amoebocytes, which are the most important cells in the mesenchyme performs the following functions:

a. They take food from the choanocytes and supply it to the other cells,
b. They carry on intracellular digestion of food and also help in the storage.
c. They carry on transport of waste matter.
d. They form scleroblasts which produce spicules or sponging fibre.
e. They form the endoskeleton.
f. They also function as germ cells.
Sensitivity

Although the sponge has no nervous system but still they show response to contact, chemicals light and heat.

Reproduction

The sponges carry in reproduction by the following method:

1. Regeneration

2. Asexual reproduction

3. Sexual reproduction

Canal Systems in Sponges

i. The passages through which water travels from outside the body to the interior of the body and then outside
again, forming the canals system in sponges. The canal system is advantageous as follows; it brings a
constant supply of water

ii. The continuous current of water passing through a sponge furnishes an ample supply of oxygen for all the
cells.

iii. The continuous current water passing through a sponge carries away carbon dioxide and waste nitrogenous
substances.

iv. The water which leaves a sponge has been filtered off much of its food and oxygen and is loaded with
poisonous waste resulting from metabolism.

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PHYLUM CNIDARIA
Formally called phylum coelenterate due to the presence of central gut the coelenteron. There are about 10,000
species that have been identified. They are the most colourful and delicate animals.

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS
Most cnidarians are marine while some others live in fresh water habitat. They prey on organisms ranging in size
from plankton to animals several times larger than themselves, but many obtain much of their nutrition from
endosymbioticalgae, and a few are parasites.

Examples of Coelenterata

The phylum is divided into three classes and their major differences highlighted below;

Characteristics Class Hydrozoa Class Schyphozoa Class Anthozoa

(Hydroids) ( Jelly fishes) (Sea anemones & Corals)
Habitat Fresh water or marine Marine Marine
Body Form Polyp or Medusa Medusa Polyp
Example Hydra, Obelia, Physalia etc. Aurelia Actinia

SIMILARITIES IN ANATOMICAL FEATURES

i. They are at tissue level of organisation

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 ii. Diploblastic i.e. the body plan comprises of two layers; ectoderm, & endoderm.

iii. Radially symmetrical

iv. Incomplete digestive system i.e. only one opening (mouth without anus).

v. Presence of long, hollow structures called tentacles used for locomotion and food capturing.

vi. Presence of peculiar type of cells called cnidocytes (cnidoblast or nematocysts) are stinging cells in
the ectoderm, especially in the tentacles, used for offence and defence

SIMILARITIES IN PHYSIOLOGY OF CNIDARIANS

 Circulatory System; Nutrient molecules are passed by diffusion to the rest of the body from the cells of
the gastrodermis.

 Digestive System; The system is incomplete, the cells of the gastrodermis secrete digestive juices that
pour into a central cavity. The enzymes begin the digestive process, which is completed within food
vacuoles when small pieces of the prey are engulfed by the cells of the gastrodermis.

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  Excretory System; No specialised excretory organ, but waste are expel through the main opening of the
cnidarians which served as a mouth and anus.

 Musculo-skeletal System; The body of a cnidarian is a hollow, 2-layered sac, which accounts for the
former name of these organisms –coelenterate, means hollow sac. The outer layer of the sac, the
ectoderm, is separated from the inner layer, the endoderm, by a jellylike material called mesoglea (Figure
5). Like other animals capable of locomotion, they possess both muscle and nerve cells.

 Nervous System; The nerve cells form a connecting network throughout the mesoglea known as the
nerve net, which makes contact with the outer layer of cells, called the epidermis, and the inner layer of
cells, called the gastrodermis.

 Reproductive System; In hydra, the gastrodermis contains interstitial or embryonic cells capable of
becoming other types of cells (Figure 5). For example, they can produce the ovary and the testes and
probably account for the animal's great regenerative powers. Like the sponge, a whole cnidarian can grow
from a small piece. When conditions are favourable, small outgrowths, or buds, appear, pinch off, and
begin to live independently.

 Respiratory System; The presence of the large inner cavity makes it possible for all cells to exchange
gases directly with the surrounding medium. Because this function is carried out by a vascular system in
more complex animals, the cavity is known as a gastrovascular cavity (Figure 5).

Anatomy of Hydra

PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES (Flat worms)

There are almost 13,000 species under this phylum and as the name implies, they are flat, elongated, non-segmented,
acoelomate, and have the sac body plan with only one opening. They range from 1mm to 30cm in length.

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS

There are three classes of flatworms: one is free living (planaria), and two are parasitic (tapeworms and flukes), with
structures reflecting the modifications that occur in parasitic animals. Concomitant with the loss of predation, there
is an absence of cephalization; the anterior end notably carries hooks and/or suckers for attachment to the host. The
parasite acquires nutrient molecules from the host, and the digestive system is reduced. It is covered by a specialized
body wall resistant to host digestive juices.

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The phylum Platyhelminthes is divided into three classes and their differences are shown in table below;

Characteristics Class Turbellaria Class Trematoda (Flukes) Class Cestoda

(Planaria) (Tapeworms)
habit and habitat free living aquatic Ecto or endoparasites /liver and Endoparasites /
blood intestine of host

Suckers Rarely present Found on head & ventrally Found on head

Cuticle Absent but cilia is Present with spine Present with cilia in
present larval stage

Digestive system Incomplete Incomplete Reduced /Absent

Examples Dugesia (Planaria Fasciola hepatica (Liver fluke) Taenia solium (Tape
Schistosoma (Blood fluke) worm),

Examples of Platyhelminthes PLANARIA not PLANERIA

SIMILARITIES IN ANATOMICAL FEATURES

i. They are at organ level of organisation

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 ii. Triploblastic i.e. the body plan comprises of three layers; ectoderm, mesoderm & endoderm.
iii. Bilaterally symmetrical
iv. Unsegmented
v. Acoelomates i.e. body cavity is absent.
vi. Body is dorso-ventrally compressed, leaf like.
vii. Incomplete digestive system i.e. only one opening (mouth without anus)

SIMILARITIES IN PHYSIOLOGY OF PLATYHELMINTHS

 Circulatory System; Since the body is flattened, nutrient molecules are easily passed by diffusion
from cell to cell.

 Respiratory System; The flatworms lack respiratory organ, but since the body is flattened, diffusion
alone is adequate for the passage of oxygen from cell to cell.

Planarian Anatomy

 Excretory System; They have an excretory organ that largely rids the body of excess water. The organ
consists of a series of interconnecting canals, which run the length of the body on each side. The
beating of cilia in the flame cells keeps the water moving toward the excretory pores (Fig. 6).

 Musculo-skeletal System; Flatworms have three germ layers. The presence of mesoderm not only
gives bulk to the animal, it also allows for greater complexity of internal structure. They have well-
developed muscles, and their ciliated epidermis allows them to glide along a film of mucus.

 Nervous and SensorySystem; They have a ladder-type nervous organ (Figure 6) with small brain and
two lateral nerve cords joined by cross branches. They show good cephalization.

 Reproductive System; They are hermaphroditic animals, (Figure 6). The worms practice cross-
fertilization; the penis of one is inserted into the genital pore of the other. The fertilized eggs hatch in
2-3 weeks as tiny worms. They are also capable of regeneration, if a worm is cut crosswise; it usually
grows a new head or a new tail as is appropriate.

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PHYLUM NEMATODA (Round worms)

Nematods meaning thread in Greek, as their name implies, are round rather than flat. They have a smooth body wall
covered with cuticle, indicating that they are non segmented. These worms, which are generally colourless and less
than 5 cm long, occur almost anywhere and in great variety (15000 known species). There are many thousands of
individual nematodes in even a single handful of garden soil. Roundworms possess two anatomical features not seen
in more primitive animals: a tube-within-a-tube body plan and a body cavity.

Anatomy
Nematodes are small, slender worms: typically about 5 to 100 µm thick and 0.1 to 2.5 mm long. The smallest
nematodes are microscopic, while free-living species can reach as much as 5 cm (2 in), and some parasitic species
are larger still, reaching over 1 m (3 ft) in length. The body is often ornamented with ridges, rings, bristles, or other
distinctive structures. The head of a nematode is relatively distinct. Whereas the rest of the body is bilaterally
symmetrical, the head is radially symmetrical, with sensory bristles and, in many cases, solid 'head-shields' radiating
outwards around the mouth. The mouth has either three or six lips, which often bear a series of teeth on their inner
edges. An adhesive 'caudal gland' is often found at the tip of the tail.

Ecological Adaptations of Roundworms

Nematodes have successfully adapted to nearly every ecosystem: from marine (salt) to fresh water, soils, from the
polar regions to the tropics, as well as the highest to the lowest of elevations. They are ubiquitous in freshwater,
marine, and terrestrial environments, where they often outnumber other animals in both individual and species
counts, and are found in locations as diverse as mountains, deserts, and oceanic trenches. They are found in every
part of the earth's lithosphere,even at great depths, 0.9–3.6 km (3,000–12,000 ft) below the surface of the Earth in
gold mines in South Africa. They represent 90% of all animals on the ocean floor.

Examples of Nematodes

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The phylum is divided into two classes and their differences are shown in table below;

Characteristics Class Phasmidia Class Aphasmidia

habit and habitat Free living & endoparasites Endoparasites & free living

Male spicule Two One

Excretory system Present & well developed Rudimentary or poorly developed

Examples Ascaris (round worm), Dracunculus Trichinella spp, Plectus spp etc.
(guinea worm), Wuchereria (filarial
worm), Loa loa (eye worm) etc.

SIMILARITIES IN ANATOMICAL FEATURES

i. They are at organ grade of organisation

ii. Triploblastic i.e. the body plan comprises of three layers; ectoderm, mesoderm & endoderm.
iii. Bilaterally symmetrical
iv. Unsegmented
v. Acoelomates i.e. body cavity is absent.
vi. Body is elongated & cylindrical.
vii. Complete digestive system with mouth & anus.
viii. Gonochoristics

SIMILARITIES IN PHYSIOLOGY OF NEMATODES

 Circulatory System; Food digested in the gut is not distributed by any specialized vascular system.
Nutrients and waste are distributed in the body cavity, whose contents are regulated by one-celled glands
(in simpler species) or excretory canal along each side of the body (Figure 6).
 Digestive System; The mouth opens into a muscular pharynx where food (mostly bacteria and detritus) is
pulled in and crushed. This leads into a long simple gut cavity, and then to an anus near the tip of the body
(Figure 6).
 Excretory System; The single opening shifts ventrally during the transition to bilateral symmetry with the
anus fully formed only after protonephridia (which establishes a system of canals to expel watery waste,
like the kidney in mammals).
 Musculo-skeletal System; Roundworms in general do not have an internal or external skeleton, but they
do have a hydrostatic skeleton.
 Nervous and Sensory System; The muscles are activated by two nerves that run the length of the
nematode on both the dorsal and ventral side (Figure 6). Unlike other animals, where the nerves branch out
to the muscle cells, a nematode's muscle cells branch toward to nerves.
 Reproductive System; The reproductive system is complex, and many parasitic species have a very high
reproductive potential. Some nematodes bear live young, the eggs matured in the female reproductive tract;
but most release eggs, which develop into larvae that molt one or more times before reaching maturity.
Caenorhabditis elegans exists either as a hermaphrodite (mostly) or a male. Thus, it can self-fertilize.
When it does, each animal produces about 300 progenies.

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  RespiratorySystem; There is no respiratory system for the uptake or distribution of oxygen. The body

cavity allows easy passage of molecules including oxygen.

Soil ecosystems
About 90% of nematodes reside in the top 15 cm of soil. Nematodes do not decompose organic matter, instead are
parasitic and free-living organisms that feed on living material. Nematodes can effectively regulate bacterial
population and community composition — they may eat up to 5,000 bacteria per minute. Also, nematodes can play
an important role in the nitrogen cycle by way of nitrogen mineralization.

THE PHYLUM ANNELIDA (Segmented worms)

The phylum Annelida (from the Latin root word annelus meaning ring) typically have complex segmented bodies.
There are about 10,000 species or so that have been identified. Theses protostomes are free living and inhabit soil,
marine as well as fresh water environments and includes the familiar earth worm as well as other representatives.
The body of an annelid is divided into repeating sections called segments with many internal organs repeated in each
segment. Earthworms (class Oligochaeta) are familiar terrestrial members of this phylum and leeches (class
Hirudinea) are well-known parasitic members of the phylum, most commonly found in freshwater. The polychaete
worms or ―bristleworms‖ (class Polychaeta) are the largest group in the phylum Annelida. They occur mostly in
marine and brackish water habitats.

Characteristic Features of the Phylum Annelida

 They are mostly aquatic, some are terrestrial.
 They are generally burning animals, some are sedentary or free living, and some are ectoparasites.
 The body is vermiform, bilaterally symmetrical, and metamerically segmented.
 They have straight tube alimentary canal, and undergo extra-cellular digestion.
 Has segmentally arranged Locomotory organs, repeated groups ofchitinous setae or chaetae. Leaches have
no setae.
 Respiration is generally through body surface or through a special projection of parapods.
 Has well developed closed type blood vascular system.
 Possesses Nephridia which is the excretory organs.
 Nervous system consists of paired cerebral ganglia or brain, a double ventral nerve cord bearing segmental
ganglia.
 Gonads develop from the coelomic epithelium.
 Sex may be separate or united, and development may be direct or indirect.

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ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS
Earthworms are classified into three main ecophysiological categories:
(1) leaf litter/compost dwelling worms (epigeic) e.g. Eisenia fetida;
(2) topsoil or subsoil dwelling worms (endogeics); and
(3) anecic worms that construct permanent deep burrows through which they visit the surface to obtain plant
material for food, such as leaves (anecic meaning "reaching up"), e.g. Lumbricus terrestris.

F
Examples of Annelida

The phylum is divided in to six different classes of which the first three are the major & most important ones, but
three are going to be consider here with their differences;

Characteristics Class Polychaeta Class Oligochaeta Class Hirudinea

Habit and habitat Free living marine Free living forms found Fresh water, sea & land
in moist soil & fresh forms (Temporary
water ectoparasites)
Locomotory Structure Parapodia Setae Absent
Lifecycle Unisexual with indirect Bisexual with direct Bisexual with direct
development development development
Distinct head Present Absent Absent
Clitellum Absent Present Present
Examples Nereis Lumbricusterrestris Placobdella, (leeches)
(reg worm) (earth worms)

SIMILARITIES IN ANATOMICAL FEATURES

i. They are at organ grade of organisation.

ii. Triploblastic i.e. the body plan comprises of three layers; ectoderm, mesoderm & endoderm.
iii. Bilaterally symmetrical
iv. Metamerically Segmented
v. Coelomates i.e.true body cavity lined by epithelium
vi. Body is elongated & cylindrical.
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 vii. Complete digestive system with mouth & anus.

SIMILARITIES IN PHYSIOLOGY OF ANNELIDS

 Circulatory System; They have an extensive closed circulatory system. Hemoglobin-containing blood
moves anteriorly in a dorsal blood vessel and then is pumped by five pairs of hearts into a ventral blood
vessel. As the ventral blood vessel takes blood toward the posterior regions of the worm's body, it gives off

branches in every segment.

 Digestive System; They feeds on leaves or any other organic matter, living or dead that can be taken
conveniently into their mouth along with dirt. Food drawn into the mouth by the action of the muscular
pharynx is stored in a crop and is ground up in a thick, muscular gizzard. Digestion and absorption occur in
a long intestine, whose dorsal surface is expanded by a typhlosole that allows additional surface area for
absorption.
 Excretory System; The excretory system consists of paired nephridia, or coiled tubules, in each segment.
Nephridia have two openings: one is a ciliated funnel that collects coelomic fluid, and the other is an exit in
the body wall. Between the two openings is a convoluted region where waste material is removed from the
blood vessels about the nephridium.
 Musculo-skeleta System; Both a circular and longitudinal muscle in the body wall make it possible for the
worm to move and to change its shape. Muscle contraction is aided by the fluid-filled coelomic
compartments, which act as a hydrostatic skeleton.

Anatomy of Earthworm
 Nervous and Sensory System; This consists of an anterior dorsal brain, and a long ventral solid nerve cord
and lateral nerves in each segment .
 Reproductive System; They are hermaphroditic, with a complete set of organs for both sexes. Copulation
occurs when two worms lie ventrally to each other, with the heads pointing in opposite directions.
 Respiratory System; They have no respiratory organ. They takes in oxygen directly through their skin and

20
 gives off carbon dioxide. The skin is always moist for allowing efficient absorption of oxygen dissolved
efficient in the water.

PHYLUM MOLLUSCA

A highly successful group of invertebrates that have more than 100,000 living species, which include; snails, slugs,
squids, scallops, octopuses and clams and approximately 35,000 additional extinct species (fossil forms). They are
varied and abundant, being the second largest of all the animal phyla. Free living aquatic forms (freshwater or
marine), some amphibious.

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS

Free living aquatic forms (freshwater or marine). Clams and aquatic snail posses gills which makes them adapt to
aquatic habitat. Some molluscs are amphibious e.g. land snails posses mantle which is richly supplied with blood
vessels and functions as a lung, this helps them to adapt to land habitat.

SIMILARITIES IN ANATOMICAL FEATURES

i. Visceral mass: the soft-bodied portion that contains internal organs.

ii. Foot: the strong, muscular portion used for locomotion.
iii. Mantle: the membranous or sometimes muscular covering that envelops but does not completely enclose
the visceral mass. The mantle cavity is the space between the two folds of the mantle. The mantle may
secrete a shell.
iv. They are at organ grade of organisation
v. Triploblastic i.e. the body plan comprises of three layers; ectoderm, mesoderm & endoderm.
vi. Bilaterally symmetrical
vii. Body is soft and unsegmented
viii. Coelomates i.e.true body cavity lined by epithelium
ix. Body is elongated & cylindrical.
x. Complete digestive system with mouth & anus.
xi. Mollusks show cephalization and have a head region with eyes and other sense organs.

The phylum is divided into six classes and their differences are shown in table below;

Class Habitat Nature of shell Nature of foot Common examples

Scaphopoda Marine long, cylindrical, Reduced used for Dentalium
open at both ends digging
Monoplacophora Marine Made up of only one Short & reduced Neopilina
large plate
Polyplacophora Marine Made up of many Elongated & Chitons, (Mopalia,
over lapping plates ventral in position Chactopleura)
Gastropoda Marine, fresh Made up of a single Ventral in position Snails (Pila, Limnaea,
water or land. valve, coiled Doris, Helix, Littorina,
Busycon etc).
Pelecypoda Marine or fresh Made up of two Wedge shaped Unio, Pearl oyster, Clams,
(Bivalvia) water equal valves Scaltops etc.
Cephalopoda Marine External or internal Modified into Sepia, Squids, Octopus,
or absent tentacles Loligo, Nautilus etc.

21
Examples of Mollusca

SIMILARITIES IN PHYSIOLOGY

 Circulatory System; The have an open circulatory system with heart and associated vessels.
 DigestiveSystem; They have complete system with mouth and anus. (Figure 7).
 Excretory System; Excretory functions are carried out by a pair of nephridia (kidneys), a tubular structures
that collect fluids from the coelom and exchange salts and other substances with body tissues as the fluid
passes along the tubules for excretion
 Musculo-skeletalSystem; Strong muscular portion is used for locomotion

Snail Anatomy
 Nervous System; Consist of brain & large ganglia
 Reproductive System; While land snails have separate sexes, aquatic snails are hermaphrodites.
22
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA (“Jointed feet”)

The word Arthropoda comes from two Greek words arthron and podos, where arthron means "joint", and podos
means "foot", which together mean "jointed feet". It is the largest and most successful in the animal kingdom
comprising of over a million described species, making up more than 80% of the animal species that have been
identified. Arthropods include the insects, arachnids, crustaceans, and others. This phylum is the largest and most
successful in the animal kingdom comprising of over a million described species, making up more than 80% of the
animal species that have been identified.This phylum is the dominant group at the present day. It is the only
invertebrate phylum which includes flying forms.

General Characteristics of Arthropods

1. Members have a bilaterally symmetrical and metamerically segmented body i.e. body is divided into a series of
repeated segments usually grouped in two or three rather distinct regions.
2. Externally, the body of arthropods is covered with a thick, chitinous, tough and non-living cuticle.
3. The body segments bear paired segmented & jointed appendages from which the phylum gets its name
Arthropoda i.e. jointed legs, which are variously modified as jaws, legs.
4. Arthropods' heart is dorsal to the alimentary canal with lateral openings in the abdominal region and nerve cord
ventral to the alimentary canal consisting of an anterior ganglion or brain.
5. Circulatory system is open, where the only blood vessel usually being a tubular heart.
6. The body cavity (i.e. haemocoel) is filled with haemolymph or blood.
7. Respiration among arthropods is either through body surface or gills in aquatic forms and trachea & spiracles in
terrestrial forms.
8. Excretion takes place by means of Malpighian tubules that empty into the posterior part of alimentary canal, the
waste materials are passed outside through the anus.
9. The sexes nearly always separate.
10. A complete and tubular alimentary canal with anterior mouth and posterior anus always present.

Similarities in Anatomical Features

i. They are at organ grade of organisation

ii. Triploblastic i.e. the body plan comprises of three layers; ectoderm, mesoderm & endoderm.
iii. Bilaterally symmetrical
iv. Coelomates i.e.true body cavity lined by epithelium
v. Complete digestive system with mouth & anus.
vi. Body is elongated and segmented (annelids), usually distinguished into regions like head, thorax and
abdomen.

23
Grasshopper Anatomy

Similarities in Physiology of Arthropods

 Circulatory System; They have an open circulatory system. Colourless blood is pumped dorsally from the
heart and then enters hemocoel.
 Digestive System; The mouth contains grinding mouthparts. Food in the mouth is mixed with saliva, which
contains enzymes that begin the process of digestion. The crop functions in storage. Upon leaving the crop,
food enters the gizzard where it is ground into smaller particles. Most chemical digestion occurs in the
stomach. Absorption of nutrients occurs in the stomach and pouches that are attached to the stomach called
gastric caeca. Absorbed nutrients move into the hemocoel. The intestine functions mostly to absorb water.
 EndocrineSystem; Metamorphosis is controlled by hormones.
 Excretory System; Terrestrial forms have an excretory system that conserves water. The malpighian
tubules collect wastes from the blood and reabsorb water so that only dry material is excreted.
 Musculo-skeletal System; The external skeleton (exoskeleton) is composed of chitin, which is a strong,
flexible polysaccharide. It serves to protect the animal as well as provide an attachment site for muscles,
and prevention of desiccation on land. Because chitin is hard and nonexpandable; it requires periodic
moulting (shedding) for growth.
 Nervous and Sensory System; Arthropods have both compound and simple eyes. The nervous system
includes a dorsal brain and a double, ventral, solid nerve cord.
 Reproductive System; Males deposit sperm directly into females where fertilization occurs. The egg hatch
in to larva (or nymph in some insect) and then to pupa and adult.
 Respiratory System; They have a network of tubules called tracheae that bring oxygen through spiracles
directly to the tissues and allow carbon dioxide to escape. Air sacs attached to the tubules pump air through
the system.

Ecological Adaptations of Arthropods

Arthropods are highly diverse and live in different kind of habitats (aquatic and terrestrial). Some arthropods are free
living, others are parasitic, symbiotic or commensal to man and other animals.

Arthropods occur on land (e.g. spider), in the soil (e.g. centipede), in fresh water (e.g. crayfish), in sea water (e.g.
crabs) and in the bodies of other animals and plants (e.g. tick).

24
 The features that make them successful are as follows;
i. The Jointed appendages act like a system of levers and are ideal for any activity that requires movement.
ii. Arthropods have evolved a variety of different kinds of specialized appendages for activities such as
walking, swimming, reproduction, or feeding.
iii. Exoskeleton which prevent dessication and is water proof.
iv. Specialised digestive system &eat great variety of food than members of any phylum.
v. Specialised respiratory system which makes them very active.

Comparison between some common Arthropod classes is given in the table below:
Class Antennae Eyes Walking legs Common examples
Diplopoda One pair Pair of simple eye, Many-two pairs in Millipede (Julus, Glomeris
no compound eyes each segment etc)

Chilopoda One pair Pair of simple eye, One pair in each Centipede (Lithobius,
no compound eyes segment Scolopendra)

Crustacea Two pairs Pair of simple eye & Five pairs Crab, Prawn, Lobster,
compound eyes Shrimps, etc.

Arachnida No antennae Pair of simple eye, Four pairs Scorpion, Spider, Ticks,
no compound eyes Mites etc.

Insecta One pair Pair of simple eye & Three pairs Musca, Aphis, Anopheles.
compound eyes etc.

Classification of Phylum Arthropoda

The phylum is divided into seven sub-phyla which later split into different classes and their differences are as shown
in table below. The first three sub-phyla represent forms with doubtful relationships with other arthropods. Members
of the forth subphyla are now extinct. Members of the classes Chilopoda, Pauropoda, Diplopoda and Symphyla are
sometimes grouped under a Sub-phylum Myriapoda.

Phylum Arthropoda:
Sub-Phylum Tardigrada (Water bears): Body is vaguely segmented, and not divisible into regions, mouth
with sucking proboscis, four pairs of short unjointed legs. e.g. Macrobiotus hufelandi.
Sub-Phylum Pentastomida: Worm-like parasites, little superficial resemblance with the remaining
arthropods e.g. Linguatula serrata.
Sub-Phylum Onychophora (Peripatus): Annelids-like arthropods, arthropod-like cuticle without
exoskeleton, no jointed appendages, have numerous short, unjointed appendages elongate,
e.g. Peripatopsis sp.

25
 Sub-Phylum Trilobitamorpha:
Class Trilobita (Trilobites): body is oval, body is divided into head (cephalon), thorax (trunk) and
pygidium, each segment except pygidium bear a pair of appendages. e.g. Triathurus becki
Sub-Phylum Chelicerata: head divided into cephalothorax (consisting of six segments) and abdomen
(consisting of 13 segments) apair of jaw-like chelicerae, four pairs of legs.
Class Merostomata: primitive chelicrerans with broad cephalothorax, e.g. King crab or horseshoe
crab
Class Arachnida e.g., abdomen separated by a waist-like constriction, chelicerae contain poison
gland, simple eyes. Spider, Mites and Ticks
Sub-phylum Pycnogonida (Sea spiders) e.g. Abdomen greatly reduced Nymphon rubrum.
Sub-Phylum Mandibulata (Antennata): Head usually distinct from the rest of the body, bears one or two
pairs of antennae and one pair of jaw-like mandibles.
Class Crustacea; Mainly aquatic, two pairs of antennae, possess compound eye, head extends
posteriorly to form a shield-like carapace. e.g. Crayfish, Crabs, lobsters, shrimps, prawns,
etc.
Class Chilopoda; body flattened dorsoventrally, carnivorous, one pair of legs per segment, average
of 30-leg bearing segments, poison claws. e.g. Centipede.
Class Diplopoda; cylindrical body, herbivorous, 2 pairs of legs per segment, average of 70-leg
bearing segments, no poison claws e.g. Millipedes
Class Pauropoda (few legs), small, terrestrial and millipede-like arthropods.
Class Symphyla (Garden centipedes or pseudocentipedes): these are small centipede-like with
translucent body.
Class Insecta/Hexapoda (insects): three pairs of legs, a pair of antennae, body divided into head
thorax and abdomen. e.g. cockroach, butterfly, flies, grasshopper, may or may not have
wings, etc.
Sub-class Apterygota (Wingless Insects): e.g. spring tails.
Sub-class Pterygota (Winged Insects): e.g. cockroach, flies, bees, etc.

Classification of Phylum Arthropoda

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PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

Echinoderms are invertebrate marine animals that are found in all oceans of the world and at all depths, nearly all
are benthic, meaning they live on the sea floor. They are ancient and very successful phylum of invertebrates with
around 6,500 living members and 13,000 fossil records. Members of the Phylum Echinodermata include creatures
such as sea stars (or starfish), brittle stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, sand dollar and sea lilies. All of these
animals are radially or biradially symmetric and are particle feeders, browsers, scavengers, and predators. The
larval forms are mostly bilateral; the radial symmetry is secondarily derived. Larvae range from a few millimeters
to a few decimeters, while adults can range from less than 1 cm to 2 m. Echinoderms have two major defining
characteristics that set them apart from all other animals: a water vascular system consisting of a network of radial
canals, which extend through each of the five extensions (arms or rays) of the animal and five-sided radial
symmetry. They are popular as symbols because of their unique shapes and beautiful colours.

General Characteristic Feature of Echinoderms

1. All Echinoderms are marine organism. They have four basic characteristics that are not shared by any other
phylum:-

a. Most echinoderms have pentamerous radial symmetry. That is, the body can be divided into five
parts (or appendages) which point outward from the center of the body
b. They have internal plumbing system known as the water vascular system.
c. They have many small tube feet. By varying the internal water pressure, the echinoderm can
extend and contract its tube feet for locomotion, food collection and respiration
d. They possess an endoskeleton of calcareous plates (calcium carbonate) known as ossicles

2. The larvae are bilaterally symmetrical.

3. Presence of an internal skeleton covered with spines and skin.
4. Echinoderms have vanities of feeding habits; some are carnivorous and scavenge the ocean floor. Certain species
of sea stars actually extend their stomachs into their unwary victims in order to digest them
5. The feather stars and sea cucumbers are mainly filter feeders
6. Their body is star-shaped, spherical or cylindrical; they are un-segmented and lack head.
7. Many echinoderms bear spines and pincer-like pedicellariae. The spines are protective in function. The
pedicellariae keep the body surface clear of debris and minute organisms.
8. Digestive tract is usually complete, although brittle stars have incomplete digestive tract.
9. It consists of a nerve ring and radial nerve cords. Brain as such is absent.
10. The sense organs are poorly developed.
11. Phenomena of autotomy and regeneration are often well marked in echinoderms.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

Anatomy of a Typical Example of Echinoderms

Echinoderms have radial symmetry, which means they are divided into 5 equal sections, radiating from a central
point. In each segment, there is an identical set of internal organs the closest thing to eyes in the phylum is the light
sensitive sports on their arms. Along with having no eyes echinoderms also have no heart or brain. Each tentacle like
structure is called a tube foot and aids in respiration and movement. Echinoderms are coelomate, which means they
have a large body cavity completely lined with tissue. There is no heart. Except a few individuals, the sexes are
separate. There is no sexual dimorphism. Fertilization is usually external. Some forms reproduce asexually by self-
division.

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Distribution and Habitat

Echinoderms are globally distributed in almost all depths, latitudes and environments in the ocean. They reach
highest diversity in reef environments but are also widespread on shallow shores, around the poles where crinoids
are at their most abundant and throughout the deep ocean, where bottom-dwelling and burrowing sea cucumbers are
common. The larvae of echinoderms, especially starfish and sea urchins, are pelagic, and with the aid of ocean
currents can be transported for great distances, reinforcing the global distribution of the phylum. Some Echinoderms
even use other animals as homes such as the skin of other fish.

Locomotion

Echinoderms primarily use their tube feet to move about but some sea urchins also use their spines. Waves of tube
feet contractions and relaxations move along the adherent surface and the animal moves slowly along.The majority
of crinoids are motile but the sea lilies are sessile and attached to hard substrates by stalks. These stems can bend
and the arms can roll and unroll and that is about the limit of the sea lily's movement, although a few species can
relocate themselves on the seabed by crawling.

Feeding

Different groups have different feeding habits. Members of the Crinoidea sit with arms outstretched parallel to the
currents and filter feed on passing particles. Most Asteroidea are predators or scavengers. Some asteroids are also
suspension feeders. Brittle stars of the Ophiuroidea are predators, deposit feeders, scavengers, and suspension
feeders. The members of Echinoidea are suspension feeders, herbivores, detritivores, and predators. Most
Holothuroidea are suspension or deposit feeders.

Adaptation

In other to stay concealed during the day, Echinoderms have adapted to match the colour of their surroundings.
Also, to protect and structure their bodies, Echinoderms such as sea urchin have interlocking plates of calcium
Carbonate which form a very hard internal skeleton. Others, such as sea stars and brittle stars have slightly more
flexible internal skeleton to allow them flex and bend their arms. Another adaptation the Echinoderms have is that
they regenerate body parts

Regeneration

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Many echinoderms have remarkable powers of regeneration. Many species routinely autotomize and regenerate
arms and viscera. Sea cucumbers often discharge parts of their internal organs if they perceive themselves to be
threatened. The discharged organs and tissues are regenerated over the course of several months. Sea urchins are
constantly replacing spines lost through damage. Sea stars and sea lilies readily lose and regenerate their arms. In
most cases, a single severed arm cannot grow into a new starfish in the absence of at least part of the disc. However,
in a few species a single arm can survive and develop into a complete individual and in some species, the arms are
intentionally detached for the purpose of asexual reproduction

Regeneration in Star Fish

Reproduction and life cycle

Most species of echinoderms are diecious, meaning there are separate male and female individuals. Although
reproduction is usually sexual, involving fertilization of eggs by spermatozoa, several species of echinoderms, such
as sea stars and sea cucumbers, can also reproduce asexually. Asexual reproduction in echinoderms usually involves
the division of the body into two or more parts (known as fission) and the reproduction of missing body parts.

Larval development

Sexual reproduction involves the external fertilization of eggs by spermatozoa. The fertilized eggs develop into
planktonic larvae. The larvae typically go through two stages, called bipinnaria and brachiolaria. They are bilaterally
symmetrical and have bands of cilia used in swimming and feeding. As the larvae gradually metamorphose into
adults, a complex reorganization and degeneration of internal organs occurs. The left side of the larva becomes the
oral surface of the adult, which faces down, and the right side becomes the aboral surface, which faces up. The
larvae settle to the sea floor and adopt their distinctive adult radial symmetry.

Typical echinoderm larval stage

29
Classification of Echinoderms

Class Asteroidea

Sea stars belong to the class Asteroidea (from the Greek word asteroid meaning like a star). They are about 1500
species of asteroidea.

Examples: Asterias (Star fish), Astropecten (Sea star)

Characteristic of class Asteroidea

 Body is flattened star shaped with five arms

 A few species have arms so short that they barely protrude.
 They possesses tube feet with a sucker
 Presence of calcareous plates and movable spines.
 Ambulacrum runs from mouth to tip of each arm and bordered by tube feet Sea stars come in a range of
sizes
 Most sea stars have a central disk with five radial arms; some species have 15 to 40 arms
 Mouth located on underside of body
 Sea stars may be red, blue, or many other colors.
 Larval forms are Bipinnaria and Brachiolaria.
 It possesses great power of regeneration and shows autotomy.
 There are present microscopic pincer-like structures known as pedicellariae. They also act as organs of
offence.

Asteroidea (Star fish)

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Class Ophiuroidea

Ophiuroidea: They are connected by muscles that contract, producing a snakelike action. This characteristic
movement gives the class its name Ophiuroidea (from the Greek root words ophio- meaning snake and -uroid
meaning tail-like). Body is star-like. These animals got the name brittle star because an arm often breaks off if they
are captured. About 2,000 species of this class inhabit the ocean floor worldwide, from the shoreline to great depths.
In some areas, clusters of millions of brittle stars thickly carpet the bottom. This group is active only at night, hiding
under rocks and in crevices during the day. Brittle stars feed on detritus (small particles of food) and they are the
most abundant echinoderms

Examples: Ophiothrix (brittle star), Ophioderma (brittle star), Ophiocoma (brittle star), Ophiura (brittle star).

Characteristics of Ophiuroidea
 Body is flat with pentamerous disc
 They possess a long arm which is sharply demarcated/distinct from the central disc.
 Ambulacral grooves are absent
 They possesses tube feet without sucker
 Anus and intestine are absent, they eject undigested material through the mouth
 Respiratory organ: Bursae
 Larval form is Ophiopluteus
 They have regenerating ability.

Ophiuroidea (Brittle Star)

Class Holothuroidea

(Gk. Holothurion- sea cucumber, eidos- form). They are about 1200 species. The class Holothruoidea is better
known as the sea cucumbers. Body is elongated and cylindrical and it is like cucumber. Unlike other groups of
echinoderms, sea cucumbers have no large plates or ossicles forming a rigid skeleton. When these animals are taken
from the water, the body wall collapses like thin plastic tubing. They are common residents of reefs and rocky
shorelines worldwide. Larval forms are Auricularia and Doliolaria.

Examples: Holothuria (sea cucumber), Cucumaria (sea cucumber), Mesothuria etc

31
Characteristics of the Class Holothuroidea

 Body is elongated in the oral-aboral axis

 Oral end has mouth surrounded by tentacles.
 Spines and pedicellaria are absent.
 Ambulacral grooves are absent
 They have no arms, spines and pedicellariae.
 The tube feet are sucking type
 The digestive tube has a stomach and a long, thin, coiled intestine where food is digested
 Indigestible sand and other particles are expelled through the anus.
 They eviscerate and regenerate their internal anatomy
 They breathe through an internal structure called a respiratory tree which is attached to the intestine. The
water is then ―exhaled‖ through the anus.
 A few species of sea cucumbers have a set of tooth-like projections around the anus to ward off invaders

Holothuroidea (Sea Cucumber)

Class Crinoidea

The sea lilies and feather stars reside within the class Crinoidea (from the Greek word crino meaning lily and eidos-
form). They are about 625 species of crinoidea. They are Far more numerous in fossil record than today. Sea lilies
are sessile organisms attached to the substrate by a flexible stalk. The digestive organs are in a bud at the top of the
stalk called the calyx. The arms of the crinoid extend out from the calyx. These arms are made up of the calcareous
plates seen in other echinoderms. Like the brittle stars, they are jointed for flexibility. Each arm has am ambulacral
groove containing tube feet in the center and is lined on each side with tubular extensions called pinnules. The
feathery arms are used to collect food from the water, thus crinoids are filter feeders. Larval form is Doliolaria.

Feather stars are similar in body form to sea lilies. Rather than an attached stalk, feather stars have small flexible
appendages called cirri at the base of the calyx. These appendages allow feather stars to move around. Some feather
star species can even use their arms to actively swim.

Example: Antedon (feather star). Sea lilies, Neometra, Antedon, Rhizocrinus

Characteristics of Crinoidea

 Body is star shaped

 They have a central disc which is attached to the substratum
 Sea lilies (deep sea) and feather stars (shallow tropical waters)
 Filter feeders
32
  Generally sessile but can move when agitated
 Generally considered primitive among the classes
 Arms bifurcated, with two pinnules.
 They have tube feet without suckers
 Spines and pedicellariae and madreporite are absent

Sea Feathers Sea Feathers

Sea lilies

Class Echinoidea

Echinoidea (echinos- hedgehog, eidos- form): Body is globular or dislike. Biting and chewing apparatus with teeth
called Aristotle‘s Lantern because of its resemblance to ancient Greek ship lantern. It is formed by five strong and
sharp teeth. Larval forms are Platens and Echinopluteus.

33
Examples: Echinus (sea-urchin), Clypeaster (cake urchin), Echinarachinus (sand dollar), Echinocardium (heart
urchin).

Characteristics of Echinoidea

 It moves with the help of spines.

 Ambulacral grooves are absent
 Body is disc-like hemi-spherical
 They are devoid of arms or free-rays.
 They possess tube feet with a sucker.
 They possess compact skeleton and movable spines.

Sea Urchin

PHYLUM CHORDATA

A chordate is an animal that belongs to the phylum Chordata, which is part of the Deuterostomes kingdom.
Organisms in the Deuterostomes kingdom have a distinct characteristic: their anus develops before their mouth in
early embryonic stages. The phylum Chordata includes a wide range of organisms. The phylum contains about
43,700 species, most of them concentrated in the subphylum Vertebrata, making it the third-largest phylum in the
animal kingdom.

Similarities in Anatomical Features of Chordates/ Characters of Chordates

Animals in the phylum Chordata share four key features that appear at some stage during their lives. In many cases,
these characteristics only appear during embryonic development.

1. Notochord:

The notochord is a solid un-jointed, stiff but flexible rod-shaped structure situated on the dorsal side between the
dorsal hollow nerve cord and the alimentary canal. it is found in the embryonic stage of all chordates and in the adult
stage of some chordate species. The notochord acts as the primary axial support of the body throughout the animal‘s
lifetime. It is the precursor of a backbone, or spine, in vertebrates.

2. Dorsal Hollow Nerve Cord:

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The dorsal hollow nerve cord is derives from ectoderm that rolls into a hollow tube during development. They lie
dorsal to the notochord and develop into the brain and spinal cord, which compose the central nervous system to
which peripheral sensory and motor nerves connect

3. Pharyngeal Gill Slits

All the chordates have at some stage of life, a series of paired narrow openings, the gill slits on the lateral sides of
the pharynx that extend to the outside environment . In organisms that live in aquatic environments, pharyngeal slits
allow for the exit of water that enters the mouth during feeding. Some invertebrate chordates use the pharyngeal slits
to filter food out of the water that enters the mouth. In vertebrate fishes, the pharyngeal slits are modified into gill
supports, and in jawed fishes, into jaw supports. In tetrapods, the slits are modified into components of the ear and
tonsils. Human embryos have gill slits, but they disappear before they are born and the tissue develops into other
structures in the head and neck.

4. Post-anal tail

The post-anal tail is a posterior elongation of the body, extending beyond the anus. The tail contains skeletal
elements and muscles, which provide a source of locomotion in aquatic species, such as fishes. In some terrestrial
vertebrates, the tail also helps with balance, courting, and signaling when danger is near. In humans, the post-anal
tail is vestigial, that is, reduced in size and nonfunctional.

Other Characters of Chordates include

5. They are bilateral symmetry

6. They possess three germinal layers (Triploblastic)
7. They have organ-system level of organization
8. Cephalization
9. Presence of well-developed Coelom
10. They are endoskeleton
11. They have complete digestive tract
12. They have special organs for respiration and excretion,
13. They possess blood vascular system with closed circulatory system
14. Separate sexes, gonads with gonoducts and without asexual reproduction.
15. Segmentation: reflected in arrangement of muscles (somites) and in vertebral column (both mesoderm)
16. The habitat of these animals is widespread. So we can find them in the marine environment, fresh waters as
well as terrestrial environments.

Phylum Chordata is divided into four sub-phylum:

1. Hemichordata,
2. Urochordata,
3. Cephalochordata
4. Vertebrata or Craniata

Sub Phylum Hemichordata

 (hemi: half; chorde: cord)

 Habitat: exclusively marine
 Notochord present only in anterior region
 Notochord is also known as Buccal diverticulum
 Body is soft worm like
 Body is divided into Probosis, collar and trunk

35
  Sexes are separate
 Fertilization: external
 Examples: Balanoglossus, Cephalodiscus, Atubaria

Sub Phylum Urochordata

 ( uros: tail; chorde: cord) Meaning ―tail cords‖, because the notochord is only found in the tail. They are
also called Tunicates.
 This is another subphylum whose organisms‘ fossils are difficult to find, since the bodies have no hard
parts
 Marine and non-segmented filter-feeding
 The larva is motile and undergoes retrogressive metamorphosis, i.e., change from better developed larva to
less developed adult.
 Although tunicates are classified as chordates, only the larval form possesses all four common structures
 Adults are generally sessile /sedentary (fixed to substratum), they lack tail and organ for locomotion
 Notochord present only in tail region of tadpole larvae and disappears in the adult
 The dorsal tubular nerve cord is found in the larva. It is replaced by a dorsal ganglion in the adult
 Most tunicates are hermaphrodites
 Fertilization: Cross and external
 Development: indirect
 Examples: Hermania (Sea Squirt), Salpa, Doliolum, Ascidia, Ciona, Botryllus etc

Urochordates:

Hermania: The blood of Hardmania is green due to the presence of vanadium in blood.

Ascidia: It is closely similar to Herdmania. It is a marine, solitary and sedentary, living in temperate seas. The body
is attached to the substratum by a foot. There is a motile tailed tadpole (larva) which undergoes retrogressive
metamorphosis to become sessile adult.
36
Urochordates: (a) This photograph shows a colony of the tunicate Botrylloides violaceus. (b) The larval stage of the
tunicate possesses the entire features characteristic of chordates: a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal
slits, and a post-anal tail. (c) In the adult stage, the notochord, nerve cord, and tail disappear.

Sub Phylum Cephalochordate

 (kephalo: head; chorde: notocord)

 They are also called Lancelets
 Both the adult and larva are motile,
 Habitat: filter-feeding marine animals
 They are small, segmented, and soft bodies that make it difficult to find their fossils.
 Notochord present from head to tail and persist throughout life
 Pharynx is well developed with numerous gill slits
 Coelom present
 Body resemble small fish like
 Circulatory system well developed
 Sexes: separate
 Fertilization: external
 Development: indirect
 Examples; Amphioxus, Asymmetron
 Amphioxus has numerous eye spots or ocelli which are sensitive to light.

37
Cephalochrodates: The lancelet, like all cephalochordates, has a head. Adult lancelets retain the four key features
of chordates: a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail. Water from the mouth
enters the pharyngeal slits, which filter out food particles. The filtered water then collects in the atrium and exits
through the atriopore.

Subphylum: Vertebrata/Craniata

 (vertebra: backbone) and also known as craniate)

 These are advanced chordates that have cranium (brain box) around brain
 Habitat: Aquatic as well as terrestrial
 Notochord is only present in the embryonic stage; it is replaced by a cartilaginous or bony vertebral column
in the adult forms.
 Germ layer: triploblastic
 Coelom is well developed
 Epidermis may bear an exoskeleton of scales, feathers or hair.
 Symmetry: bilateral
 There is very high degree of cephalization. Body divided into head, trunk and tail
 Excretion: a pair of kidney
 Close Circulation system with the heart ventrally situated with two, three or four chambers. Blood pigment
present
 Respiratory organs may be gills, skin, buccopharyngeal cavity and lungs.
 Digestive tract is complete: A pair of kidneys is present for excretion and osmoregulation.
 Nervous system consists of central nervous system, peripheral nervous system and autonomic nervous
system .
 Sense organs are eyes, ears, tongue, nasal chambers, and skin. In some vertebrates lateral line system is
present.
 Cranial nerves are 8, 10 or 12 pairs
 Sexes: separate
 Fertilization; internal or external
 Example: Fish, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds

The vertebrata is sub-divided into two divisions:

i. Agnatha (Lack jaw) and

ii. Gnathostomata (Possess jaw).

38
  The Gnathostomata are further divided into six classes:
 Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia.

Agnatha (The jawless Vertebrates):

The mouth does not possess jaws hence named agnatha. Notochord persists throughout life. Vertebral column is
represented only by small imperfect neural archs over the notochord. They do not have paired appendages. They
have single nostril. Internal ear has one or two semi-circular canals. They are cold blooded. Agnatha has two classes:
Ostracodermi and Cyclostomata.

Class Ostracodermi (Extinct):

They are earliest known vertebrates which appeared in Ordovician period. They had well developed dermal scales
which led to their names ―Ostracoderms‖— bony skin. They are also called ―armoured fishes‖. All are extinct.

Examples: Cephalaspis, Pteraspis, etc.

Class Cyclostomata (The Circular mouthed fishes)

They occur in the seas and large rivers. The mouth is circular and jawless. They are also called jawless fishes (not
true fishes). They have 1-16 pairs of gill slits. Head and brain are poorly developed. Unpaired fins are present.
Endoskeleton is cartilaginous. Kidneys are mesonephric. Stomach is absent. Respiratory organs are gills. Heart is
two chambered (one auricle and one ventricle). There are 10 or 8 pairs of cranial nerves. Lateral line sense organs
are present. Fertilization is external. Life history may include a larva named ammocoete.

Example: Petromyzon (Lamprey), Myxine (Hagfish).

Gnathostonuita (The Jawed Vertebrates):

Mouth has jaws hence it is named gnathostomata. Embryonic notochord is usually replaced in adult by a vertebral
column. Paired fins or limbs are present. Paired nostrils are present. Internal ear has three semicircular canals.

Gnathostomata is divided into two super classes: Pisces and Tetrapoda.

Super Class: Pisces (Bear Fins): It includes true fishes and divided into three classes:

Class 1. Placodermi: Body had an external protective armour of bony scales or plates, e.g. Climatius.

Class 2. Chondrichthyes: This class includes cartilaginous fishes, e.g. Scoliodon, Torpedo, Chimaera, etc.

Class 3. Osteichthyes: It includes bony fishes, e.g. Labeo, Hippocampus, etc.

Super class 2. Tetrapoda (Bear Limbs): Typically all tetrapods, possess two pairs of limbs.

Tetrapoda is divided into four classes: Amphibians, Reptiles, Aves and mammals

Class: Amphibians

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  Amphibians consist of all four-legged vertebrate that do not lay amniotic eggs (meaning that the eggs do
not contain a fluid-filled sac called the amnion surrounding the developing embryo).
 As a result, the eggs dry out quickly in the air, forcing all amphibians to lay their eggs in the water.
 The amphibian class is the smallest of the vertebrate classes, and includes about 4,000 species.
 Amphibians utilize lungs rather than gills for obtaining oxygen, and generally have soft skin.
 Amphibians usually spend some of their time on moist land and in water, though of course they must return
to the water when they reproduce.
 Examples of amphibians are salamanders, newts, toads, and frogs.

Salamander

Class Reptiles
 Reptiles are the second of the four-legged vertebrate classes, and are much better adapted to living on land
than amphibians.
 Some of these adaptations include amniotic eggs, tough skin coated by keratin, and a respiratory system
with branching bronchial tubes in the lungs.
 Other characteristic features are the process of molting, whereby a reptile sheds its outer skin, teeth adapted
for holding rather than chewing prey (reptiles swallow their prey whole rather than chew it), good hearing,
and a tongue that can smell as well as taste.
 Snakes are also ectothermic, or cold-blooded, and must rely on natural conditions to maintain an optimum
body temperature.
 Reptiles today encompass about 7,000 species, although before the extinction of the dinosaurs reptiles were
the dominant vertebrate animal.
 Examples of reptiles are turtles, tortoises, crocodiles, snakes, and lizards.

Class Aves (Birds)

40
  Birds are mammals characterized by the presence of adaptations allowing flight (although not all birds have
the ability to fly), and include about 10,000 species.
 These characteristics include feathers, forelimbs that have evolved into wings, hollow bones, and very few
vertebrae to reduce weight.
 Birds also don't have teeth. In addition, birds have evolved an extremely specialized respiratory system
including lungs with openings at both ends and air sacs to help in the movement of air through the lungs.
 These specializations allow birds to maintain the high levels of oxygen necessary to fuel their extremely
fast metabolism.
 Birds are endothermic, and so heat themselves rather than relying on heat from their environment.
 Examples of birds are shown below (Hummingbird, Bald eagle, Robin):

Class Mammals
 Mammals are both the most diverse and the most advanced of all the groups in the kingdom Animalia,
though they make up only about 4,600 species.
 Mammals are the only animals that nourish their young using milk produced by mammary glands, and also
are the only animals that have teeth specilaized between species for different functions.
 In addition, mammals have skin covered by hair, which serves to insulate the body and regulate body
temperature, a four-chambered heart and efficient circulatory system, four limbs, and highly developed
brains.
 Mammals are warm-blooded (endothermic) and have a high metabolism similar to birds, allowing them to
be active and move quickly.
 Mammals have adapted to live in a variety of environments, including on land throughout the world, in the
air, and in the sea.
 Mammals make up the largest animals both on land and in the sea.
 This class includes animals as diverse as the platypus, koala, wolf, cat, cow, pig, whale, dolphin, bat, and
human.

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(BOTANY)

INTRODUCTION

Plant Classification

Warming (1895) classified plants into several ecological groups on the basis of their requirement of water and
naturalsubstratum on which they grow. On the basis of water requirement and nature of soil, the plants have been
classified as follows:

1. Hydrophytes – plants growing in water or near water. They have the following adaptive features to survive in
the aquatic environment:-
i) Root: Root system in hydrophytes is poorly developed and meaningless as the body is in direct
contact with water. This is probably the reasonwhy root of hydrophytes is reduced or absent.
ii) Stem: In aquatic plants, it is very delicate and green or yellow in colour. In some cases modified
into rhizomes or runner.
iii) Leaves: In floating plants leaves are generally palmate, long, circular and light or dark in colour,
and very smooth. Their stomata are widely open to remove excess water.
2. Xerophytes: plants adapted to survive under the condition of very poor supply of available water. Xerophytes
plants posses the following characteristics to thrive best in arid and semi arid regions:-
i. Root of xerophytes have well developed tap root system which may be profusely branched, this is for the
absorption of water and mineral salts from deep soil.
ii. Stem. Stem are very hard and woody covered with waxysubstances. Some xerophytes, stem are modified
into thorns eg. In Durunta and Ulex.
iii. Succulent stems: They have the ability to absorb a lot of water during raining season in their stem to
utilize during dry season.e.g. Baobab tree.
iv. Falling of Leaves: In some xerophytes the leaves, if present are greatly reduce, they fall early in the
season, but in the majority the leaves are reduced to scale and needle shape. In leaf succulent, the leaf
swells remarkably and become very fleshy owing to storage of excess amount of water and latex in them.
Stomata are generally sunken to control transpiration.
Xerophyticplants are further classified on the basis of their habitat as follows.

a. Oxylophytes -on acid soil

b. Halophytes-on saline soil
c. Lithophytes-on rock
d. Psammophytes-on sand and gravel
e. Chersophytes-on waste land
f. Eremophytes-on desert and steppes
g. Psychrophytes -on cold soil
h. Psilophytes-on savanna
i. Salerophytes- on forest and bush land

3. Mesophytes – These are plant growing in an environment which is neither very dry nor very wet.
Bryophytes

Bryophytes are non vascular plant with no true roots, stem, and leaves .They consist of mosses (moss plant),
liverworts (machantia), and hornwort (anthocerose).

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Similarities between Bryophytes and Vascular Plants

 Both have cellulose cell wall

 Both are multi-cellular, photosynthetic eukaryotes
 Both deposit starch within the chloroplast not in the cytoplasm
 Both have stomata on their leaves for gaseous exchange.
 Both covered with waxy cuticle adaptive features to retain water.
 Both of them can manufacture their own food.
 Both of them undergo alternation of generation.
 Both of them have flagellated sperms.
Difference between Bryophytes and Vascular Plants

Bryophytes Vascular Plant

- Stomata not functional Stomata are functional

- True leaf, stem and root absent True leaf, stem and root present

- Waxy cuticle not well established Waxy cuticle is well established

- Xylem and phloem are absent Xylem and are present

- Gametophytes are dominant sporophyte are dominant

Pteridophytes

These are the first vascular seedless plant to be known on land. Vascular tissue system is the conducting tissues
(Xylem and Phloem). Pteridophytes have the following divisions: Psilophyte, Lycophyte and Pterophyte.

Spermatophytes

These are the plant that produces seeds. They are advance than pteridophytes for the possession of vascular tissue
and flower which produces seeds. Spermatophyte is divided into two i.e gymnosperm and angiosperm.

Gymnosperm represents a group of plant in the spermatophyte that produces ―naked‖ seeds.

General characteristics of gymnosperm.

1. Sporophyte is the dominant generation.

2. Plant body is clearly differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
3. They have complex vascular tissues.
4. Flowers are primitive and simple in construction and are always unisexual, hence called flowerless
plant.
5. Fertilized ovules are exposed not enclosed in an ovary.
Angiosperm

This is the second class of spermatophyte division; they are plant with enclosed seed and are generally referred to as
the flowering plant. They have true flowers which are more advanced and complex than the reproductive structure
of the gymnosperm. The flower is their most significant features.

43
1. Largest elongated evolve group of plant
2. Sporophyte is the dominant generation, gametophyte highly reduced.
3. Plant body is differentiated into root, Stem and leaves
4. They bear flower in which male and female gametes develop.
5. Vascular bundle (conducting tissues) shows higher degree of development.
6. Xylem consists of vessels and tracheid, while phloem consists of sieve tube and companion cells.
7. They are widely distributed and thrive well in different ecological conditions as hydrophytes, mesophyte,
xerophytes and epiphytes.
8. They may be shrubs, herbs, trees, climber and twiners.
9. They may be annual, biennials and perennials.
10. Seeds form inside ovary
11. Double fertilization occur
12. Roots are tap root system or adventitious system
13. Mostly autotrophs.
14. They may be hermaphrodite or Unisexual, monoecious or diocious.
15. Flower is the reproductive structure
16. Monocotyledon or Dicotyledons.

A GENERAL SURVEY OF THE PLANT KINGDOM BASED ONSIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN

PHYSIOLOGY.

Introduction

Plant physiology is said to be the branch of Biology that is concern with the study of functions and vital processes in
plants. It deals with the physical and chemical processes that take place in plants during the performance of their life
functions.

PLASMOLYSIS AS A PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESS IN PLANTS:

Plasmolysis is the shrinking away of the cytoplasm from the cell wall as a water loss. It acts as a physiological
process in plants. Bryophytes are resisted to plasmolysis because the spores are protected from the environment by
a cuticle relatively thicker cell walls help the bryophytes to variably retain their viability for a long period of time.

Thallophytes are simple green land plants which are aquatic .They avoid plasmolysis by growing in water. Thus
they lack roots, stems and leaves.

Pteridophytes are land plants that have roots, stems and leaves. With the roots they absorb water from the soil and
store in their stem and leaves to avoid plasmolysis in adverse conditions.

Spermatophytes store water in their tissues and massive organs like trunks and large branches of trees and of
course the roots. This makes it possible for them to resist plasmolysis periods of drought.

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DISSICATION INDUCES CHANGES IN CHLOROPLAST, MITOCHONDIA, NUCLEUS AND
VACUOLE IN DIFFERENT PLANTS.

Chloroplast: Are organelles in plant cells and other eukaryotic organisms that conduct photosynthesis and other
chemical reactions .Desiccation result in absence of water. This will cause the absence of oxygen which is gotten
from water, this may cause disruption in photosynthesis.

Vacuole: Are membranes bond vesicle found in the cytoplasm of the cell whose functions includes intracellular
secretion, excretion, storage and digestion. Its major function is digestion. When there is desiccation it leads to
plasmolysis and there is no longer fluid for digestion.

Mitochondria: Are the power house of the cell. It act as the site for production of higher energy compound which
are vital energy source of several cellular processes.Dessication causes the absence of oxygen which is gotten from
water This make the cell unable to carry out its activities without energy.

Nucleus: Suffer from desiccation in such a way that without water it will not be able to send signals to other part of
the cell. Also materials to be transported in and out of the cell. Desiccation affects such transportation.

Physiology of Bryophytes

Bryophytes are the simplest land plants. They are thought to have evolved from green algae.

Alternation of Generation

Bryophytes show alternation of generation. There is haploid gametophyte generation and diploid sporophyte
generation which alternate in the life cycle. The haploid generation is called gametophyte because it undergoes
sexual reproduction by means of gametes. Production of gametes involves mitosis, so the gametes are haploid. The
gametes fuse to form zygote which grows into the next generation. It is called sporophyte because it undergoes
asexual reproduction. Production of spores involves meiosis, so that there is a return to the haploid condition. The
haploid spores give rise to gametophyte generation. The Gametophyte is said to be the dominant generation.

PLANT ADAPTATION

 Adaptations are special features that allow a plant or animal to live in a particular place or habitat.
 Plants have adaptations to help them survive (live and grow) in different areas.
 Adaptations are special features that allow a plant or animal to live in a particular place or habitat.
 These adaptations might make it very difficult for the plant to survive in a different place.
 This explains why certain plants are found in one area, but not in another. For example, you
wouldn't see a cactus living in the Arctic. Nor would you see lots of really tall trees living in
grasslands.

Plant Adaptations in Water

 Underwater leaves and stems are flexible to move with water currents
 Some plants have air spaces in their stems to help hold the plant up in the water
 Submerged plants lack strong water transport system (in stems); instead water, nutrients, and
dissolved gases are absorbed through the leaves directly from the water.
 Roots and root hairs reduced or absent; roots only needed for anchorage, not for absorption of
nutrients and water
 Some plants have leaves that float atop the water, exposing themselves to the sunlight

45
  in floating plants chlorophyll is restricted to upper surface of leaves (part that the sunlight will hit)
and the upper surface is waxy to repel water
 Some plants produce seeds that can floa

The Desert

 The desert is very dry and often hot.

 Annual rainfall averages less than 10 inches per year, and that rain often comes all at the same
time.
 The rest of the year is very dry.
 There is a lot of direct sunlight shining on the plants.
 The soil is often sandy or rocky and unable to hold much water.
 Winds are often strong, and dry out plants.
 Plants are exposed to extreme temperatures and drought conditions.
 Plants must cope with extensive water loss.

Plant Adaptations in the desert

 Some plants, called succulents, store water in their stems or leaves;

 Some plants have no leaves or small seasonal leaves that only grow after it rains. The lack of
leaves helps reduce water loss during photosynthesis. Leafless plants conduct photosynthesis in
their green stems.
 Long root systems spread out wide or go deep into the ground to absorb water;
 Some plants have a short life cycle, germinating in response to rain, growing, flowering, and dying
within one year. These plants can evade drought.
 Leaves with hair help shade the plant, reducing water loss. Other plants have leaves that turn
throughout the day to expose a minimum surface area to the heat.
 Spines to discourage animals from eating plants for water;
 Waxy coating on stems and leaves help reduce water loss.
 Flowers that open at night lure pollinators who are more likely to be active during the cooler night.
 Slower growing requires less energy. The plants don't have to make as much food and therefore
do not lose as much water.
 The tropical rainforest is hot and it rains a lot, about 80 to 180 inches per year.
 This abundance of water can cause problems such as promoting the growth of bacteria and fungi
which could be harmful to plants.
 Heavy rainfall also increases the risk of flooding, soil erosion, and rapid leaching of nutrients from
the soil (leaching occurs when the minerals and organic nutrients of the soil are "washed" out of
the soil by rainfall as the water soaks into the ground).
 Plants grow rapidly and quickly use up any organic material left from decomposing plants and
animals.
 The tropical rainforest is very thick, and not much sunlight is able to penetrate to the forest floor.
 However, the plants at the top of the rainforest in the canopy, must be able to survive 12 hours of
intense sunlight every day of the year.
 There is a great amount of diversity in plant species in the tropical rainforest.
 drip tips and waxy surfaces allow water to run off, to discourage growth of bacteria and fungi
 buttresses and prop and stilt roots help hold up plants in the shallow soil
 some plants climb on others to reach the sunlight
 some plants grow on other plants to reach the sunlight

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  flowers on the forest floor are designed to lure animal pollinators since there is relatively no wind
on the forest floor to aid in pollination
 smooth bark and smooth or waxy flowers speed the run off of water
 plants have shallow roots to help capture nutrients from the top level of soil.
 many are epiphytes (plants that live on other plants); instead of collecting water with roots they
collect rainwater into a central reservoir from which they absorb the water through hairs on their
leaves
 epiphytic have aerial roots that cling to the host plant, absorb minerals, and absorb water from the
atmosphere

The Tundra

The tundra is cold year-round—it has short cool summers and long, severe winters.
• The tundra has a permanently frozen sublayer of soil called permafrost.
• Drainage is poor due to the permafrost and because of the cold, evaporation is slow.
• The tundra receives little precipitation, about 4 to 10 inches per year, and what it does receive is usually in
the form of snow or ice.
• It has long days during the growing season, sometimes with 24 hours of daylight, and long nights during
the winter.
• There is little diversity of species. Plant life is dominated by mosses, grasses, and sedges.

Plant Adaptations in Tundra

• Tundra plants are small (usually less than 12 inches tall) and low-growing due to lack of nutrients, because
being close to the ground helps keep the plants from freezing, and because the roots cannot penetrate the
permafrost.

• Plants are dark in color—some are even red—this helps them absorb solar heat.

• Some plants are covered with hair which helps keep them warm.

• Some plants grow in clumps to protect one another from the wind and cold.

• Some plants have dish-like flowers that follow the sun, focusing more solar heat on the center of the
flower, helping the plant stay warm.

General survey of plant kingdom base on similarities and differences in physiology

Diversity in plants

Thallophytes
Thallophyta is a phylum that includes seedless plants and plant-like organisms. This consists of algae, fungi, lichens,
and bacteria. Thus, Thallophyta is a polyphyletic group of non-mobile organisms, whose plant body is described as a
thallus. Most Thallophytes can be found in wet habitats. All Thallophytes are autotrophic and produce their own
food. The food is stored in the form of starch. Thallophytes do not have a vascular system. They consist of single-
celled sex organs.

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Orange Lichen – Thallophyte (Photo: antarctica-info.weebly.com)

Badhamia utricularis

The two subdivisions of Thallophyta are Euthallophyta and Myxothallophyta. The Euthallophyta consists of algae,
fungi, lichens, and bacteria. Algae are chlorophyll-bearing organisms that mostly live in aquatic environments.
Fungi are heterotrophic organisms. They live with algae forming lichens. In lichens, the fungi live as saprophytes.
Cyanobacteria contain chlorophyll, and hence they are called as the blue-green algae. The myxothallophyta consist
of slime molds.

Bryophytes

Bryophyta refers to the small, flowerless plants. This consists of liverworts, mosses, and hornworts. Bryophytes live
in moist, shady environments. Their plant body is not differentiated into true stem, root, and leaves. However, they
show stem-like, root-like, and leaf-like structures. The root-like structures are called rhizoids; they attach the plant
body to the substrate. Bryophytes also do not have a true vascular system.

48
Liverwort – Bryophyte (Photo: Li Zhang)

Bryophytes are the amphibians of the plant world. They resemble Thallophytes in many ways and they are the
precursors of the Pteridophytes. In Greek, Bryon means ‗moss‘ and Phyton means ‗plant‘ and hence they are
generally termed as mosses, liverworts or hornworts or collectively as mosses.

Marchantia
Bryophyta shows the alterations of generations with a prominent gametophyte. The sporophyte produces spores. The
liverworts consist of thallose leaf-like structures. Mosses are the most widely spread bryophytes with follilose leaf-
like structures. The hornworts produce horn-like sporophytes. A liverwort is shown in figure 2.

General Morphology and Anatomical Features of Bryophytes

 Bryophytes do not have vascular tissue. i.e. They lack true roots, stems, and leaves. Instead, they have
rhizoids, stem-like and leaf -like structures.
 The gametophyte is dominant – it is longer lasting.
 In some mosses, there are separate male and female gametophytes.
 At the tip of a male gametophyte are antheridia, in which swimming sperm are produced.

49
  Antheridia and archegonia are both multicellular structures, and each has an outer layer of jacket cells that
protects and enclosed gametes from drying out.
 After an egg is fertilized, the developing sporophyte is retained within the archegonium as an embryo.
 The sporophyte is dependent on the gametophyte.
 The sporophyte consists of a root that grows down into the gametophyte tissue, a stalk (seta), and an upper
capsule, or sporangium.
 Upper capsule, or sporangium, where meiosis occurs and where haploid spores are produced.
 Spore dispersal is by wind.

Some of the similarities of Bryophytes to Thallophytes are discussed below. It goes a long way to show the lineage
of plants or the evolution of plants from its earliest forms.

SIMILARITIES BWTWEEN THALLOPHYTES AND BRYOPHYTES

 In both, Thallophytes and Bryophytes, the plant body is thalloid, ie., despite the fact that Thallophytes are single

celled and Bryophytes are multi-celled, the plant body is ribbon-like, and dichotomously branching, ie. the parent

plant branches into two at the ends / apical region.

 Both Divisions, Thallophyta and Bryophyta, are able to synthesize their own food from light or chemical energy,

making them autotrophs or autotrophic in nature.

 The many chloroplast pigments like Chlorophyll a, b, A, B, Carotenoid, Violaxantin, Xeaxantin and Leutin are

similar in both Divisions.

 Vascular tissues are absent. (Vascular tissues are tissues like xylem and phloem which are found in higher plants.

They help in the conduction of food and water through the complex plant body of higher plants.)

 Reserve food material is starch. (In higher plants, the food that is stored may be in the form of carbohydrates, fats,

oils, etc. )

 Roots, as seen in higher plants, are absent in both Thallophytes and Bryophytes.

 Cellulose is the chief component of the cell wall in both.

 The gametophyte (parent plant body / thalli) represent the dominant phase of the life cycle.

 Spermatozoids are flagellated and motile; the flagella being whiplash type.

 Fertilization takes place in the presence of water.

 Earliest stages of thalli growth of both algae and mosses resemble each other, especially in the formation of the

filamentous thallus.

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These above stated similarities go to show that there is strong evidence that Bryophytes are related to Thallophytes
and originate from them. The differences between the two may be seen in ―Differences between thallophytes and
bryophytes‖ which show how Bryophytes have evolved even further to give rise to the higher group of plants called
the Pteridophytes.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THALLOPHYTES AND BRYOPHYTES

 Thallophyta, Bryophyta, and Pteridophyta are the three phyla of cryptogams,

 which is a subkingdom of Plantae.
 The cryptogams are seedless plants or plant-like organisms that do not produce flowers and fruits.
 They reproduce through the production of spores.
 Thallophyta, Bryophyta, and Pteridophyta differ by the organization of their plant body.

The main difference between Thallophyta Bryophyta and Pteridophyta is that the plant body of Thallophyta is a
thallus while the plant body of Bryophyta shows stem-like, root-like, and leaf-like structures and the plant body of
Pteridophyta is differentiated into true stem, root, and leaves. Thallophyta and Bryophyta do not consist of a true
vascular system while Pteridophyta consists of a true vascular system.

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52
PTERIDOPHYTA

Pteridophytes are cryptogams with well-developed vascular system. They include most primitive living and fossil
vascular plants and are also known as vascular cryptogams. They are represented by about 400 living and fossil
genera and some 10,500 species.

Figure 1: Pictures of some pteridophytes.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PTERIDOPHYTA

 They show much variation in their form, size and habit. They range from small annuals (e.g., Azolla;
Salvinia) to large tree-like perennials (e.g., Angiopteris, Osmunda).
 Most of the living pteridophytes are terrestrial, growing in moist and shady places. Some members (e.g.,
Azolla, Isoetes, Marsilea, and Salvinia) are aquatic, usually occurring in permanent ponds. A few species
are xerophytic (e.g., Selaginella rupestris, S. lepidophylla, S. densa, Equisetum arvense).
 Primary roots are ephemeral and are soon replaced by adventitious roots. The root has a permanent growing
apex.
 Except for some woody ferns (e.g., Angiopteris, Marattia), most pteridophytes have herbaceous stem. Like
root, the stem also has a permanent growing apex.
 The leaves are scaly (e.g., Equisetum), small and sessile (e.g., Lycopodium, Selaginella), or large, petiolate
and compound (e.g., ferns). On the basis of leaf structure, pteridophytes are classified into:

(i) Microphyllous pteridophytes – with simple leaves having a single vein, which do not form leaf gap in
the stem stele (e.g., Equisetum, Lycopodium, Selaginella), and

53
 (ii) Megaphyllous pteridophytes – with large pinnatified leaves having a complex series of veins, they form
prominent leaf gaps in the stem stele (e.g., Pteris, Dryopteris, Lastrea).

 The stem is usually branched; the branching is monopodial or dichotomous. The branches do not arise from
the axils of leaves (Axillary) as in spermatophytes.
 The root and stem have well developed vascular system, composed of xylem and phloem. Cambium is,
however, absent and hence they do not show secondary growth. But stems of few living pteridophytes (e.g.,
Botrychium, Isoetes) do show secondary growth regularly.
 The xylem is made up of tracheids and the phloem is composed of sieve cells and phloem parenchyma
only. However, vessels* are also present in some members (e.g., Pteris vittata, Pteridium aquilinum,
Nephrolepis cordifolia, Actinopteris radiate). Presence of sieve tubes have also been reported in the
phloem of Equisetum arvense and E. giganteum.
 The photosynthesis tissue is restricted mainly to leaves. In megaphyllous leaves, the internal tissue is
differentiated into spongy and palisade cells.
 They reproduce by spores, produced in sporangia. The sporangia are usually borne on the ventral surface of
the leaf, but in some members (e.g., Ophioglossum) a fertile spike, bearing sporangia, arises from the axil
of the leaf. In Psilotum and some fossil members (e.g., Rhynia, Horneophyton) sporangia are cauline.
 Plants are either homosporous (e.g., Equisetum, Lycopodium, Pteris) or heterosporous (e.g., Selaginella,
Marsilea, Salvinia).
 The leaves, bearing sporangia are known as sporophylls. Sporophylls with megasporangia are called
megasporophylls and with microsporangia as microsporophylls.
 The development of sporangia may be:

(i) Eusporangiate – the sporangium initiates from a group of superficial cells which divide periclinally,
differentiating into an outer layer of jacket initials and an inner layer of primary sporogenous cells; the
jacket initials eventually form the multilayered wall of the sporangium, whereas the primary sporogenous
cells, by repeated divisions, give rise to spores; this type of sporangial development is found in Psilotum,
Lycopodium, Selaginella and Equisetum, or

(ii) Leptosporangiate – the sporangium develops from a single initial cell which divides from a single initial
cell which divides transversely into am outer and an inner cell; the entire sporangium develops from the
outer cell, whereas the inner cell either remains inactive or forms the stalks of the sporangium; this type
sporangial development is seen in Salvinia, Marsilea, Pteris, etc.

 Sporophylls are either uniformly distributed (e.g., Pteris, Adiantum, and other ferns) or are aggregated into
compact cones (known as strobili) at the end of the stem (e.g., Selaginella, Lycopodium, Equisetum).
 In Filicales sporangia are aggregated in clusters, known as sori (singular – sorus).
 The spore wall is differentiated into an outer exine and an inner intine.
 The spore, on germination, gives rise to gametophytic generation.

CLASSIFICATION OF PTERIDOPHYTES

Pteridophytes are conventionally divided into four major groups, Psilotatae, Lycopodiatae (lycophytes or club
mosses), Equisetatae (horse tails), and Filicatae (ferns), or five major groups when Isoëtinae/Isoëphytina is also
recognized (e.g., Ching, Acta Phytotax. Molecular data shows that the lycophytes (Isoëtaceae, Lycopodiaceae, and
Selaginellaceae), characterized by microphylls and protostelic or polystelic vascular strands, are sister to all other
vascular plants but Psilotatae and Equisetatae, along with the Ophioglossaceae and Marattiaceae, are better regarded
as basal relatives of the true ferns (Osmundaceae onwards), forming a monophylletic group, the monilophytes, more
closely allied to the spermatophytes, the seed-bearing gymnosperms and angiosperms than to the lycophytes.

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RERODUCTION AND LIFE CYCLE OF PTERIDOPHYTES

Pteridophytes show a true alternation of generations. Here, the dominant sporophyte produces spores through meiosis.
The gametophyte generation forms gametes by mitosis. The spores are produced by the sporangia in the spore mother
cells. These spores germinate and give rise to gametophytes.

These gametophytes are free-living, multicellular and photosynthetic. They are called as the prothallus. Generally, the
gametophytes require damp and cool places to grow, due to their dependence on water. For this very reason, the growth
of pteridophytes is confined to certain geographical areas.

The male sex organs are called the antheridia and the female sex organs are called the archegonia. The male gametes are
called the antherozoids, which are released by the antheridia. Antherozoids can get transferred to the archegonia which
are the female sex organs, only in the presence of water. Once the fusion of the gametes occurs, a zygote is formed. This
zygote produces the sporophyte, after division.

When the spores of the plants are similar then these plants are called homosporous plants. Heterosporous plants are the
ones that have two different kinds of spores. They are the megaspores and the microspores. In these heterosporous
plants, the megaspores and microspores germinate and give female and male gametophytes respectively.

Figure 2: Life cycle of Pteridophyte (Fern plant).

GYMNOSPERMS

Gymnosperms are seed-bearing vascular plants, such as cycads, ginkgo, yews and conifers, in which the ovules or
seeds are not enclosed in an ovary. The word "gymnosperm" comes from the Greek word gymnospermos, meaning
"naked seeds". Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scale or leaf-like appendages of cones, or at the
end of short stalks. The largest group of living gymnosperms are the conifers (pines, cypresses and relatives) and the
smallest is ginkgo, a single living plant species found in China. There are around 1000 species of gymnosperm.

Gymnosperms were the first plants to have seeds. They are often referred to as having naked seeds because they do
not have flowers, and their seeds develop on the surface of the reproductive structures of the plants rather than being
contained in a specialized ovary. These seeds are often found on the surfaces of cones and short stalks.

55
Figure 3: Pictures of gymnosperms.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GYMNOSPERMS
 They do not produce flowers but form seeds.
 They are not fruit-bearing plants.
 They are mostly pollinated by the wind.
 They form cones with reproductive structures.
 They develop needle-like leaves and are usually found in dry places.
 These plants have vascular tissues which are involved in the vascular transport system.

CLASSIFICATION OF GYMNOSPERMS

Gymnosperms are classified into four types as given below-

Cycadophyta

Cycads are the seed bearing plants which are also called the primitive gymnosperms.These plants usually have large
compound leaves, thick trunks and small leaflets which are attached to the single central stem. They go up to a
height of about 25 cm. Cycads have separate male and female specimen.

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Figure 4: Picture of Cycadophyta.

Ginkgophyta

Another class of Gymnosperm, Ginkgophyta is a strong leaf-like structure looking like a plant. It has a number of
medicinal values. It possesses fan-type leaves that can help improve and sharpen the memory of a human being.

Figure 5: Picture of Ginkophyta.

Gnetophyta

This is another type of species that usually consists of tropical plants, trees, and shrubs. They are characterized by
flowery leaves that have a soft coating. This coating gives them an ancestral connection with the angiosperms.

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Figure 6: Picture of Gnetophyta.

Coniferophyta

These are the most commonly known species among the gymnosperms. These are mainly characterized by male and
female cones which are in the form of needle-like structures. Conifers are usually found in places where the climate
is temperate. Sequoia is one of the examples of Conifers.

Figure 7: Picture of Coniferophyta.

REPRODUCTION AND LIFE CYCLE OF GYMNOSPERMS

Sporophyte: Spore-bearing phase

The sporophyte phase represents the adult, photosynthetic, diploid gymnosperm plant that produces the male cones
(or pollen cones) and the female cones (ovulate cones). The former is usually smaller than the latter one. They
58
develop in the same plant (monoecious) or different plants (dioecious). When present in the same plant, the female
cones or strobili are produced in the upper part of branches, while the pollen cones are found in the lower portion.
The sporophylls of the male strobili bear microspores, while that of the female cones form megaspores.
Gametophyte: Gamete-producing Phase
The microspores give rise to microgametophytes (haploid male gametophytes) or pollen grains after undergoing
meiosis. Similarly, the megaspores borne on the ovulate strobili develop into megagametophytes (haploid female
gametophytes). Both these gametophytes are short-lived, and end with production of sperm cells by male
gametophyte and egg cells by the female gametophyte. Thus, male cones produce pollen grains and the female cones
bear eggs. While they depend on the sporophyte plant for nutrition, the female gametophyte remains attached to it
until fertilization takes place and seeds disperse.

The production of sperm cells and egg cells is followed by pollination process. Pollination of gymnosperms takes
place by means of winds and natural agents. Over here, the pollen grains containing the sperm cells are carried to the
female gametophyte of the ovulate cones by wind or insects. Once pollens are carried to the ovules, closure of the
female cone takes place for an extended period (say till the next year). In the meantime, pollen grains germinate to
form pollen tubes, which take about a year and make their way to the female gametophyte for fertilization.
The pollen tube delivers sperm cells to fertilize the egg, which in turn results into a sporophyte. Thus, the time
period between pollination and fertilization in gymnosperms is quite long, about a year. This newly formed
sporophyte is enclosed in a seed in the form of an embryo. When favorable conditions arrive, the scale bearing the
seeds separate and the seeds are dispersed by means of wind and rain. They are disseminated to various places,
where sporophytes germinate and develop into new photosynthetic, diploid plants. This way, the life cycle of
gymnosperms begins with the spore producing mother plant, which alternates with the short gametophyte
generation.

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Figure 8: Reproduction and life cycle of Gymnosperms.

Similarities between Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms:

1. There is a regular heteromorphic alternation of generations.

2. Sporophyte is the predominant plant body and is differentiated into root, stem and leaves.

3. Some pteridophytes and some gymnosperms exhibit air cinate vernation in young leaves.

4. There are no vessels anatomically in both pteridophytes (except Selaginella, Marsilea) and
gymnosperms (except Gnetales).

5. Phloem does not have companion cells.

6. Spores are always haploid as they are always a product of meiosis.

7. Some pteridophytes and all gymnosperms are heterosporous.

8. Gametophyte is comparatively a reduced structure in both.

9. In heterosporous pteridophytes and all gymnosperms mega spore is always retained within
the mega-sporangium.
10. Sex organs of the gametophytes are always antheridia and archegonia.

11. Spores are produced in strobili or cones (with some exceptions).

12. Root hairs are absent in both.

Differences between Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms

Pteridophytes Gymnosperms

Plant body: Sporophyte

Sporophyte: well differentiated comparatively smaller in Sporophyte: well differentiated, woody, large sized
size trees, shrubs or climbers.
Often moisture loving or hygroscopic rarely xeric With Xerophytic adaptations
Stem: often rhizhomatous, underground or close to the Stem: aerial, large and woody
soil
Roots: adventitious roots, rarely rhizoids Roots: tap root system, extensive and elaborate
Less advanced stelar system More advanced stelar system (eustelic)
Vessels are absent Vessels are absent except Gnetum
Secondary growth is absent Prominent Secondary growth from coniferales onwards

Independent sporophyte and gametophyte Gametophyte dependant on sporophytes

Sporophyte

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Gametophyte independent and free living Gametophyte dependant on sporophytes
The gametophyte or prothallus is often monoecious and Dioceous; separate male and female gmaetophytes
bears both antheridia and archegonia

Flagellated or ciliated male gamete Non-flagellated male gamete

Pollen tubes are not formed Pollen tubes are formed
Male gametes swim towards female gametes attracted by Male gamete moves through the pollen tube to the
chemicals (chemotaxis) female gamete
Water is essential for fertilization Water is not essential for fertilization and often wind
pollinated
Megaspores re shed from the sporangia and independent Megaspores are retained in the megasporangium.
female protahllus develops

Archegonia with prominent neck canal cell and venter Archegonia lacks neck canal cell and venter canal cell.
canal cell Archegonium is absent in Gnetum.

Angiosperm

This is the second class of spermatophyte division; they are plant with enclosed seed and are generally referred to as
the flowering plant. They have true flowers which are more advanced and complex than the reproductive structure
of the gymnosperm. The flower is their most significant feature, with the following characteristics:

1. Largest elongated evolve group of plant.

2. Sporophyte is the dominant generation, gametophyte highly reduced.
3. Plant body is differentiated into root, Stem and leaves.
4. They bear flower in which male and female gametes develop.
5. Vascular bundle (conducting tissues) shows higher degree of development.
6. Xylem consists of vessels and tracheid, while phloem consists of sieve tube and companion
cells.
7. They are widely distributed and thrive well in different ecological conditions as hydrophytes,
mesophyte, xerophytes and epiphytes.
8. They may be shrubs, herbs, trees, climber and twiners.
9. They may be annual, biennials and perennials.
10. Seeds are form inside ovary.
11. Double fertilization occurs.
12. Roots are tap root system or adventitious system.
13. Mostly autotrophs.
14. They may be hermaphrodite or Unisexual, monoecious or diocious.
15. Monocotyledon or Dicotyledons.

Angiosperms are advanced than the gymnosperm in the following ways:

 In angiosperms, the xylem is composed mainly of companion cells while in gymnosperms the xylem is
made exclusively of tracheid and phloem contains no companion cells.

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  Angiosperms have complete floral parts of flower. The flowers are much simpler in gymnosperms; they
have no calyx or corolla and are always unisexual.
 Angiosperms possess many agencies of pollination. The only agency of pollination in gymnosperms is air
current.
 In angiosperms the ovules remain enclosed in the ovary. The carpel itself been differentiated into ovary,
style and stigma, while in gymnosperms the ovules are borne freely exposed on the megasporophyll.
 In angiosperms the male gametes contained in the pollen tube are two passive units, but in gymnosperms
the male gametes are in the form of ciliate spermatozoids.
 In angiosperms, the male gametophyte is reduced to two nuclei (the tube nucleus and the generative
nucleus while in gymnosperms it is represented by a few cells (usually 2 – 3).
 The female gametophyte is vestigial prothallus represented by 8 nucleated embryo sac; however, the female
gametophyte in gymnosperm is a relatively large structure with distinct archegonia embedded in it.
 The endosperm, when present in the angiosperm, is formed from the definitive nucleus only after
fertilization and is triploid in nature, while in gymnosperms, the endosperm is formed from the vegetative
tissue of the female prothallus before fertilization and is haploid in nature.
 Angiosperms bear 1 or 2 cotyledons, while in gymnosperms are 2 to 15 cotyledons.
Based on the number of cotyledons in the seeds, angiosperms are divided into 2 groups namely:

1. Monocotyledons 2. Dicotyledons

Character Dicotyledons Monocotyledons

Leaf Reticulate venation Parallel venation

Stem anatomy Ring of vascular bundles. Cambium present Vascular bundles scattered, cambium
giving rise to secondary growth. absent, no secondary growth

Root morphology Tap root system (primary root) Adventitious root (secondary in origin)
from the base of the destroyed primary
root.

Root anatomy Vascular bundles 2 – 5 and vascular Vascular bundles more than 5, no
cambium formed and giving rise to secondary growth.
secondary growth.

INRODUCTION TO PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY

SEED PLANT ROOT

 The seed plants posses a radicle or simply a root meristem at the root end or root cap of the embryo
from which the first root of the plant develops upon germination of the seed.
 The roots are generally divided in to two as primary (normal) roots, which originate from the embryo
and usually persist throughout life, and adventitious roots which arise secondarily from stem, leaf or
other tissue and which may be either permanent or temporary.
 The root is the descending portion of the axis of the plant, and grows away from light.
 Root growth is generally is generally directed towards gravity, i.e. (positively geotropic) except for the
breathing roots of mangrove vegetation.
 Root does not commonly bear buds. However, in certain cases the roots are seen to bear vegetative
buds for vegetative propagation.

62
 The root bears unicellular hairs, the root hairs occur in a cluster in the tender part of the root a little
behind the apex.
 Lateral roots always develop from an inner layer, and are called endogenous. They are produced
endogenously from the pericycle.
 Roots are much variable in their shape and structure. It is related either to function or environmental
conditions.
 The whole extent of the roots of a plant is called the root system, the development of root system
differs fundamentally in vascular plants and may be classified in two categories: tap root system and
fibrous root system.

 Tap root system produces lateral branches which are known as the secondary roots, and this in turn
produce the tertiary roots, and so on. All these lateral roots are produced in acropetal succession.
 In monocotyledons the radicle also gives rise to the primary roots, but this does not develop any further
and soon perishes and is replaced by many thin roots developed from the base of the stem. These are
known as fibrous roots.
 On the basis of place of origin there are two types of roots as Tap roots (the root that develops directly
from the radicle is known as primary roots. In most of the cases primary roots persist and become
stronger to form tap root) and Adventitious roots (the root that develops from any part of the plant
other than the radicle).
 The roots performs many functions which may be mechanical e.g. fixation, and physiological e.g.
absorption, conduction and storage

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Differences between Tap Root and Fibrous Root Systems

Tap root system Fibrous root system

1. The main tap root develops directly from the 1. The radicle does not dominate and its growth stops
radicle. early during germination.
2. They reach very deep in soil 2. They are comparatively shallow and spread in a large
area than depth.
3. The primary root continues to grow and remain 3. The primary root stop growing and is not distinct.
distint.
4. Numerous lateral roots arise from the stem base and
4. The primary root gives off the lateral roots give rise to a mass of branching adventitious roots.
which grow horizontally and downwards.
5. The examples are common in monocots, e.g.
5. Mostly the examples are found in dicots, e.g. grasses.
carrot, turnip, radish etc.

 At the bottom of a root is an area of cells called the root cap.

 Cells of the root cap are thimble – shaped masses of parenchymatous cells (relatively unspecialized
cell) that serve as protective covering for the root tip and the cells in the next region - the region of cell
division.
 The zone of cell division - is the area where new cells are continually being formed through repeated
cell divisions.
 Zone of cell elongation. Here the cells take up large amounts of water and increase in volume. The
increase in cell volume of these cells is primarily responsible for pushing the root through the soil.
 Zone of cell maturation and differentiation. The fully elongated cells in these zones matured and began
differentiating into various tissue such as the xylem, pith, cortex, and others.
 The zone of maturation and differentiation begins where the root hairs first become evident.

Diagram Showing Regions of a Root.

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SEED PLANT STEM

 The stem is the ascending portion of the axis of the plant.

 It develops directly from the plumule and bears leaves, branches and flowers.
 The growing apex of the stem remains covered and protected by a number of tiny leaves which arch over it.
 Stem usually bears multicellular hairs of different kinds.
 When the stem or the branch ends in a vegetative bud it continues to grow upwards or sidewards.
 The stem when ends in a floral bud the growth stops.
 They are negatively geotropic and positively phototropic.
 When the plant matures the stem bears branches, flowers and fruirts.
 The outermost tissue of the stem is the epidermis.
 The stem functions in mechanical support, conduction, food storage, water storage, photosynthesis,
protection, vegetative propagation etc.
 The stem has distinctive vascular bundles, where xylem and phloem are found.

65
  In each bundle, xylem is typically found toward the inside and phloem is toward the outside.
 In the dicot stem, the bundles are arranged in a distinct ring that separates the cortex from the central pith.
 The cortex is sometimes green and carries on photosynthesis.
 The pith may function as a storage site for the products of photosynthesis.
 In the monocot stem, the vascular bundles are scattered throughout the stem, and there is no well-defined
pith.
 Primary growth in woody plants occurs for a short distance beneath the apical meristem, secondary growth
occurs in the vascular and cork cambia.
 Vascular cambium begins as meristematic cells between the xylem and the phloem of each vascular bundle.
 A woody stem has three distinct areas: the bark (containing cork, cork cambium, cortex and phloem), the
wood, and the pith.
 In large trees, only the more recently formed layer of xylem, the sapwood functions in water transport. The
older inner part, called the heartwood, becomes plugged with deposits, such as resins, gums and other
substances.

Cross section of Dicot and Monocot stem.

SEED PLANT LEAF

 The leaf is a flattened, lateral outgrowth of the stem in the branch, developing from a node and having a
bud in its axil.
 It is normally green in colour and manufactures food for the whole plant.
 The leaves take up water and carbondioxide and convert them in to carbohydrates in the presence of sun
light and chlorophyll.
 Leaves always follow an acropetal development and are exogenous in origin.
 Leaves functions in manufacture of carbohydrates, exchange of gases, transpiration, storage of food,
vegetative propagation and protection.
 The epidermis is covered by a waxy cuticle that keeps the leaf from drying out.
 The epidermis, particularly the lower one, contains openings called stomata that allow gases to move into
and out of the leaf.
 Each stoma has two guard cells that regulate its opening and closing. The body of a leaf is composed of
mesophyll tissue, which contains many chloroplasts and carry out most of the photosynthesis for the plant.
 Leaf veins consist of a strand of xylem and a strand of phloem surrounded by a bundle sheath.
 The mesophyll can be divided into two parts – the palisade cells contain chloroplasts, while the spongy
cells are more involved with gas exchange.
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Life cycle of Angiosperms

 In angiosperms, the reproductive structures are located in the flower.

 Within a flower, there is a diploid megaspore mother cell in each ovule of the ovary.
 The mother cell undergoes meiosis, producing one functional megaspore, whose nucleus divides
mitotically until there are eight haploid nuclei.
 The female gametophyte, is sometimes is called the embryo sac.
 At one end of the embryo sac the three cells, one of which is the egg cell
 Male gametophytes are produce in the stamens
 An anther contains four pollen sacs with many microspore mother cells, each of which undergoes meiosis
to four microspores.
 After a mitotic division, each microspore has two cells, one of which later divides against to give two
sperm.
 When a pollen grain lands on a stigma of the same species, it germinates, forming a pollen tube.
 The pollen tube grows as it passes between the cells of the stigma and the style to reach the female
gametophyte.
 Double fertilization takes place to produce seeds and fruits
 A seed is a structure formed by the maturation of the ovule; it contains a sporophyte embryo plus stored
food.
 A fruit is a mature ovary that usually contains seeds.

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Life cycle of Angiosperm

Diagram of a typical angiosperm flower

References

Indira Ghandi National Open University (1998). Diversity of Animal Life – 1.

National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) (2009). Introduction to General Biology; BIO102 – General Biology
II.
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