Basic mechanical engineering

UNIT -1
MATERIALS
A Materials or Engineering Materials are the stuff, of which something is made.
For the proper design of engineering components, the design engineer must have the good knowledge of
the materials and their properties. From the wide range of metals and non-metals which are available, the
design engineer makes of the choice of the material based on Fabrication, Service and Economic aspects.
Fabrication aspects means that the material should be able to get shape (casting, forging, machining,
etc.) and joined (welding, soldering, etc.) easily.
Service aspects means that the material selected for the purpose must be stand up to service demand, eg.,
proper strength, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, etc.
Economic aspects means that the engineering part should be made with minimum overall cost. Overall
cost means cost of product and cost of technique to convert a finish product.

CLASSIFICATION
A wide variety of materials are available to engineers to design and manufacture of different object. To
understand the basic behaviour/properties of materials, they are classified into different groups. The
materials falling in one group have similar properties and behaviour.

Engineering Ma teria ls

Metallic Non-Metallic

Ferrous Non-
Ferrous
Organic Inorganic

Cast Alluminium
Iron Steel
Copper
Plastics Ceramics
Lead
Grey Magnesium Rubber Cement
White Mild Nickel Leather Glass
Malleable High carbon Tin Wood
Nodular High Speed Zinc

PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Mechanical Properties – It related to the ability of the material to carry loads and its behavior in
given service conditions.
A) STRENGTH – It means resistance offered by the material when the external force is applied.
The strength of metal is its ability to withstand various forces to which it is subjected to during a test or in
service.
Strength may be tensile or compressive, it depend on the type of load.
B) ELASTICITY – It is ability of material regains its original shape after deformation when the load is
removed. This spring back property is know as Elasticity.
OR
The elasticity of the material is its ability to undergo temporary deformation without rupture or failure
when subjected to external load.
C) PLASTICITY – The plasticity of the material is its ability to undergo permanent deformation without
rupture or failure when subjected to external load.
This properties used in Forming, Shaping and Extruding operation.
C) DUCTILITY – It is amount of plastic deformation of a material without failure when material
subjected to tensile loading.
OR
It is the ability of the metal to Elongation before rapture taken place.
Due to this property wire are made by drawing operation.
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D) MALLEABILITY –It is amount of plastic deformation of a material without failure when material
subjected to comperessive loading.
OR
It is property of material may be hammered of or rolled into thin sheet without failure.
E) BRITTLENESS – When a body break easily under the application of load without showing
elongation. This property of the material is know as brittleness.
F) HARDNESS – Hardness is the resistance offered by a material to wear, scratching,machining and
penetration.
The hardness of a material depends upon the type of bonding forces between atoms, ions.
G) TOUGHNESS - Maximum energy which material can be absorb during plastic deformation up to
fracture.
Toughness is the strength with which the material opposes repture.
Toughness depends both on strength and ducility, and is measured by impact tests.
H) RESILIENCE – It is the capacity of a material to absorb energy within elastic limits and that enable
the material to bear shock and vibrations. This store energy is given off on the removal of load.
I) FATIGUE – Material subjected to fluctuating or reapeating or cyclic loading (i.e., alternating tensile
and compressive stresses), it tent to develop a characteristic behaviour which is different from that under
steady loads.
J) CREEP – It is the slow plastic deformation of metals under constant load at high temperature for a
long period of time.
The time-dependent elongation occurring under load is known as CREEP.
Creep is specially taken care of while designing IC Engine, Boilers, etc.

2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES – Physical properties are characteristics of a material that are determined
by nature. Important Physical properties include colour, density, composition, structure etc.
3. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES – It is ability to permit or resist the flow of electricity. Important
Electrical properties include Resistivity, conductivity, dielectric strength, temperature coefficient of
resistance, etc.
4. CHEMICAL PROPERTIESS – The chemical properties describe the combining tendencies,
corrosion characteristics, reactivity, solubility, etc.
5. MANUFACTURING PROPERTIES – a) Castability
b) Machinability
c) Weldability
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
STRESS – The resistance offered by the material under the application of load, this resistive force per
unit area is known as stress.
Stress = Applied load / area of cross-section

Unit is N/mm2,
N/m2 = 1 Pascal

STRAIN – It is ratio of change in length to the original

length.
OR
The dimensional change is known as strain.
Strain =

Unit is mm/mm or m/m

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HOOKE’S LAW
This linear relation between elongation and the axial force causing was first noticed by Sir Robert Hooke
in 1678 and is called Hooke’s Law that within the proportional limit (Elastic limit), the stress is directly
proportional to strain.
Stress = strain × constant of
proportionality
Or

Where the constant of proportionality E is

called Young’s modulus or modulus of
elasticity.
Unit is N/m2, Pa.

Stress – strain curve is a graphical plot of

stress- versus strain. These quantities are
experimentally obtained by subjecting a
metallic bar of uniform cross- section to
gradually increasing tensile load till failure
of the bar occurs.
The test is conducted in a tensile testing
machine.
Stress is calculated by dividing the load by
original cross-sectional area of the test specimen.
Strain is calculated by dividing the extension
of a given length by the original length.
Stress plots as Y-axis and strain as X-axis on a
graph taking in suitable scale.
Figure shows the typical behavior of stress –
strain curve for mild steel specimen and its
salient feature are:

1. Proportional limit – Stress is a linear

function of strain and the material obeys
Hook’s law. This proportionality extends upto
point A and this point is called proportional
limit or limit of proportionality.
2. Elastic limit – Beyond proportional limit,
stress and strain depart from straight line
relationship. The material however, remains
elastic upto state point B. Stress at B is called
the elastic limit stress; this represents the maximum unit stress to which a material can be subjected and is
still able to return to its original form upon removal of load.
3. Yield strength – It indicates resistance to permanent deformation produced by loading.
The yield strength is the stress at which a material exhibits a specified limiting permanent set.
4. Yield point – The yield point is the stress at which there first point occurs a marked increase in strain
without an increase in stress. The behavior of the material is inelastic and the onset of plastic deformation
is called yielding of material. The point C is called the Upper yield point and point D is the Lower yield
point.
5. Ultimate strength or tensile strength – It is calculated by dividing the maximum load carried by the
specimen during a tension test by the original cross- sectional area of the specimen.
Strain from D to E is about 100 times than that of the portion from 0 to D. Point E represents the
maximum ordinate of the curve and the stress at this point is known as ultimate stress

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6. Breaking strength – The point F is referred to as the fracture or breaking point and the corresponding
stress is called the breaking stress.
For Mild steel, the test piece breaks making a cup and cone type fracture.

USEFUL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

PIG IRON
G Iron produced in a blast furnace, is the first product in the process of converting iron ore into useful
metal.
Pig iron is the raw material for all ferrous products.

Composition of PIG IRON S.No Elements % by weight

1 Carbon 3 to 4
Effect of Impurities on Iron 2 Manganese 0.1 to 1
1. Sulphur –High sulphur content causes brittleness, 3 Silicon 1 to 3
reduce fluidity during pouring, increase shrinkage, and 4 Sulphur Upto 1
reduce strength 5 Phosphorus 0.3 to 1.7
Its percentage should be keep below 0.1%. 6 Iron Balance
2. Carbon -Increase hardening & strength but decrease
ductility.
 Increase carbon makes the iron hard and brittle.
 Increase fluidity of metal & decrease melting point.
Normally carbon contains 2 to 4%.
3. Phosphorus – It reduce melting point and increase fluidity, shrinkage gets reduced
Normally contains 0.03 to 2%.
4. Manganese – Harden the iron by increasing the solubility of carbon in iron, it makes wear resistant.
Normally contains upto 1%.
5. Silicon – It present in small proportions, it makes the iron soft and increase fluidity, but it present in
high proportions, it makes the iron brittle and more resistant to acid.
Normally contains 2 to 4%.

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CAST IRON
The product of the blast furnace i.e. Pig iron is unsuitable for casting as it contains impurities in high
percentage. To render it suitable for desired purpose it is refined in the furnace known as cupola. The
refined product is termed as cast iron. It has a wide range S.No Elements % by weight
of properties because small percentage variations of its 1 Carbon 2 to 6.67
composition cause considerable change.
2 Manganese 0.1 to 0.3
Carbon contain above 2% are called Cast Iron
3 Silicon 0.5 to 1
Composition of CAST IRON 4 Sulphur 0.06 to 0.12
5 Phosphorus 0.1 to 0.3
Properties of Cast Iron 6 Iron Balance
 Cheap material
 Hard and Brittle
 Good casting properties
 High compressive strength and wear resistant.
 Good machinability
 High abrasion resistance
 High corrosion resistance
Uses – Machine tool bed, frames, pulley, pipe fitting and valve body, piston and piston rings, cylinder
block, clutch plate, brake shoes of I.C. Engine.

Classification of CAST IRON

1. GREY CAST IRON – It has Carbon present in graphite form and it is gray in colour, therefore it is
known as Grey cast iron.
Graphite are softer and easily machinable. Graphite gives a grey shade to the fractured surface of cast
iron. It is ideal material for foundary work.
Composition of GREY CAST IRON S.No Elements % by weight
1 Carbon 2.5 to 3.8
PROPERTIES –
2 Manganese 0.4 to 1
It possesses lowest melting point.
It has low tensile strength. 3 Silicon 1.1 to 2.8
It has good compressive strength and wear 4 Sulphur 0.1
resistance. 5 Phosphorus 0.15
 It possesses machinability better. 6 Iron Balance
 It has a very good characteristic of self-lubircation
property.
 It possesses high fluidity & it can be cast complex shape.
 It good corrosion resistant due to presence of silicon.
 It has low ductility & low impact strength.
USES –
 Machine tool structures
 Frames for electric motor
 Cylinder blocks and head for I.C. Engine.
 Household appliances.
 Gear, flywheel.
 Gas or water pipes for underground purpose.

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2. WHITE CAST IRON

Cast iron which has all the carbon in the form of iron carbide (Cementite Fe3C) is called white cast iron.
Cementite is extremely hard and difficult to machining. Cementite gives a shiny light colour surface to
the fractured surface of cast iron.
Composition of WHITE CAST IRON
S.No Elements % by weight
PROPERTIES – 1 Carbon 1.7 to 3.6
 Hard, brittle and cannot be machined. 2 Manganese 0.1 to 0.4
 Highly resistance to wear. 3 Silicon 0.85 to 1.2
 Tensile strength is good. 4 Sulphur 0.12 to 0.35
 Obtained by rapid cooling of metal. 5 Phosphorus 0.05 to 0.2
 It has poor fluidity. 6 Iron Balance

USES –
 Used for parts subjected to excessive wear, e.g. Railway brake block, rim of car wheel.
 Used for making malleable castings.

3. MALLEABLE CAST IRON

It can be obtained by long time annealing heat treatment process of casting made of White cast iron.
Composition of MALLEABLE CAST IRON

PROPERTIES – S.No Elements % by weight

 It possesses high yield strength. 1 Carbon 2 to 3
 It can be hammered and rolled to different shapes. 2 Manganese 0.2 to 0.6
 It is soft, tough and easily machined. 3 Silicon 0.6 to 1.3
 It has good wear resistance and vibration damping
4 Sulphur 0.1
capacity.
 It is strong and tougher. 5 Phosphorus 0.15
USES – 6 Iron Balance
 Differential and steering gear housing.
 Rail road.
 Tractor spring.
 Washing machine parts.
 Break pedals
4. MOTTLED CAST IRON
Cast iron which have all the carbon in the form of graphite and iron carbide have mixed in equal ratio are
called as Mottled cast iron.
In which the outer layers have the structure of hard and the core, that of soft.

Composition of Mottled CAST IRON

Iron – 93.5%
Graphite – 1.75%
Carbide – 1.75%
Remainder impurities.
PROPERTIES –
 It has high toughness.
 Fluidity is good.
 Hard and brittle.
 Bear shock and vibration.

USES –
 Used for man hole cover and pipes.
 Used for making fire plug.
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5. NODULAR CAST IRON/ Ductile Cast Iron

The nodular cast iron has graphite precipitated not in the form of flakes but in the form of rounded
particle which are called nodules or spheriods.
It also know as Ductile cast iron and spheroidal cast iron.
Composition of NODULAR CAST IRON
PROPERTIES – S.No Elements % by weight
 It possesses excellent castability and wear resistance. 1 Carbon 3.2 to 4.2
 Fluidity is good. 2 Manganese 0.3 to 0.8
 It possesses very good machinability. 3 Silicon 1.1 to 3.5
 Bear shock and vibration. 4 Sulphur 0.2
USES – 5 Phosphorus 0.08
 Power transmission equipment. 6 Iron Balance
 Internal combustion engine.
 Pumps and compressors.
 Steel mill rolls.
SUMMERISED OF COMPOSITION

Element Carbon % Manganese % Silicon % Sulphur % Phosphorus %

By Wt. By Wt. By Wt. By Wt. By Wt.
Pig Iron 3 to 4 0.1 to 1 1 to 3 Upto 1 0.3 to 1.7
Cast Iron 2 to 6.67 0.1 to 0.3 0.5 to 1 0.06 to 0.12 0.1 to 0.3
Grey C.I. 2.5 to 3.8 0.4 to 1 1.1 to 2.8 0.1 0.15
White C.I. 3.5 0.1 to 0.4 0.85 to 1.2 0.12 to 0.35 0.05 to 0.2
Malleable C.I. 2 to 3 0.2 to 0.6 0.6 to 1.3 0.1 0.15
Nodular C.I. 3.2 to 4.2 0.3 to 0.8 1.1 to 3.5 0.2 0.08
Wrought Iron 0.02 to 0 to 0.02 0.02 to 0.1 0.008 to 0.02 0.05 to 0.25
0.03

STEEL
It is an alloy of iron, carbon and several other elements like, Manganese, silicon etc. is an important
element because of its ability to increase the hardness and strength of the steel.
It contains carbon upto 2%.
Steel are classified according to carbon content:
Low Carbon Steel (Mild Steel) –less than 0.3% carbon.
Medium Carbon Steel – 0.3 to 0.7% carbon.
High Carbon Steel – 0.7 to 2 % carbon

MILD STEEL
It is an alloy of iron and carbon as main constituent. It has fibrous structure and thus can be forged and
welded. It can be permanently magnetized and rust rapidly. Mild steel are soft, ductile and easily
machined.

STAINLESS STEEL
It is define as a metal that resist corrosion and oxidation and does not easily develop strain. Corrosion
resistance is imparted by formation of a thin layer of chromium oxide on the outer surface of metal.

Composition- Minimum chromium content of 10% is required for the film’s formation & 18% is
sufficient to resist the most severe atmospheric corrosive condition.
According to structures obtained the stainless steel are subdivided into three groups.
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Ferritic stainless steel – these contain a great amount of nickel 15% to 20% and about 0.1% carbon.
Martensitic stainless steel – these steel contain 11% to 14% chromium and about 0.35% carbon.
Austentic stainless steel – these steel contain 18% chromium & 8% nickel.

Properties
 These steel have great resistance to corrosion.
 They have great strength and toughness.
 These steel can be welded, forged, rolled & machined.
Application / Uses
Ferritic stainless steel is used in the manufacture of pipe in the chemical & food plant equipment. They
are also used in highly stressed machine part & manufacture of bars, sheets, strips, wire etc.
Martenisic stainless steel is used for making steam valve, turbine blade, shaft, gear, ball bearing, spring,
surgical & dental instrument.
Austentic stainless steel is used in the manufacture of pump sets, rail road, car frames, and screw nut.
They are also used in chemical plants, storage & transport tank for chemical industries.
ALLOY STEEL
When certain special properties are desired some elements are added to the steel. The steel thus obtained
are called Alloy steel.

Purpose of alloying:
 To improve elasticity.
 To improve machineability.
 To improve wear resistance.
 To improve ductility.
 To improve hardness, toughness and tensile strength.
 To improve case hardening properties.
 To improve corrosion and fatigue resistance.
 To improve cutting ability.
 To improve electrical properties.
 To improve high and low temp. stability.
 To improve grain size.

THE EFFECT OF ALLOWING ELEMENTS

Increases toughness.
0.5% of Ni is good for part subjected to impact loading.
NICKEL (Ni)
Improve electrical properties.
High amount of Ni help improve the corrosion resistance.

Properties stainless properties of stainless steel.

CHROMIUM (Cr) Used widely in tool steels.
It improve hardness and wear.

It improve wear resistance

It help to retaining strength at high temp.
MOLYBDENUM
Makes steel tough at various hardness levels.
(Mo)
Makes steel fine grained.
Makes high speed tool steel, carburising steel, and heat resisting steel.

Retention of hardness and toughness at high temp.

TUNGSTAN (W)
Used in tools, dies, valve etc.

VANADIUM (V) 1. It possesses highest hardness and wear resistance.

2. It improves fatigue resistance.

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TITANIUM (Ti) Prevent formation of austenite in high chromium steel

COBOLT (Co) Improve hear resistance.

Improve mechanical properties
COPPER (Cu) Atmospheric corrosion resistance of steel is increase by addition of 0.1 to 0.6% copper

It improve hardness.
ALUMINIUM (Al)
0.01 to 0.06% Al added during solidification produces fine grained steel casting.

BORON (B) Very small % (0.001 to 0.005) of B is effective in increasing hardness.

LEAD (Pb) Less than 0.35% Pb improves machinability.

SILICON (Si) It improves toughness.

SUMMARISED

Hardenability – Si, Mn, Ni, Cr, Mo, B, W.

Toughness – Si, Ni.
High temp Resistance – Cr, Mo, W.
Corrosion resistance – Cr, Mo, W.
Wear resistance – Cr, Mo, W.
High temp impact strength – Ni.
Atmospheric corrosion resistance – Cu.
Machinability – S, P, Pb.
Fatigue strength – V
Surface hardening – Al.

IRON-CARBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM

Ferrite- It is the solid solution of carbon in α-iron (below 910 oC). In ferrite, solubility of carbon is up to
0.02%. In the FCC lattice of ferrite, carbon atom is located at the centre of a face of the cube.
Austenite- It is the solid solution of carbon in -iron. The maximum solubility of carbon in -I ron is
2.41%. In austenite, the carbon atom is located at the centre of the BCC structure of -iron.
Cementite- it is chemical compound of iron and carbon, called iron carbide (Fe3C). Its carbon content
is 6.67%.
Pearlite - It is the mixture of ferrite and cementite. It contains 0.8% carbon and is formed at 723o C.
Ledeburite- It is the mixture of austenite and cementite. It contains 4.3% carbon. It is formed about
1130 C.
Iron - Carbon diagram shows range of temp. and compositions within which the various phase change
are stable and also the boundaries at which the phase change occur. This diagram is a graphic
representation of the effect of temp and composition upto the phases present in an iron alloy.
In this diagram, the carbon composition is plotted along the horizontal axis and temperature along the
vertical axis. These diagrams indicate the phase change that occurs during heating and cooling and nature
and amount of the structure components that exist at any temp.
The iron carbon alloys upto 2% are known as steel and its two range are:
 Hypo-eutechtoid (carbon = 0 to 0.8%).
 Hyper –eutechtoid (carbon = 0.8 to 2%).
The iron-carbon alloys with carbon above 2% are known as cast iron and it two range are:
 Hypo-eutectic (carbon = 2 to 4.3%).
 Hyper-eutectic (carbon = 4.3 to 6.67%).
There are three phase of steel namely

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 α- iron (alpha) (Ferrite) below 912 oC

 γ-iron (Gamma) (Austenite) above 1130 oC
 б (delta)-iron above 1395 oC.

The important phase transformation taking place at different temp. and with iron carbon alloys as
different composition are:
Peritectic reaction (Point J)- It is the reaction that occurs during the solidification of some alloys where
the liquid phase react with a solid phase to give a solid phase of different structure.
When iron is molted state and б (delta)-iron in solid phase at 1492 oC give rise to austenite having 0.18%
carbon.
Delta iron + liquid 1492 oC Austenite

Eutectic Reaction (Point C) – It a eutectic reaction when a liquid solution of fixed composition,
solidifies at a constant temp. form a mix of two or more solid phases without an intermediate pasty stage.
When liquid alloy containing 4.3% carbon cools at 1130 oC to a two phase solid that is Ledeburite
(Austenite + Cementite).

1130 oC
Liquid Alloy (4.3 % C) Austenite + Cementite

Eutectoid Reaction (Point S) – It is an isothermal reaction in which a solid phase is converted into two
or more mixed solids.
When solid austenite containing 0.8% carbon is cooled at 723 oC and it decomposed into ferrite and
Cementite that is Pearlite.

The melting point of pure iron 1539 oC.

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All

alloys represented in the temp range above line ABCD are

completely liquid state. The curve ABCD is known as
Liquidus line.
All alloys undergo completely solidification at temp
level represented by the line HJECF which is called the
Solidus line.
This diagram helps to control the processes of
solidification, crystallization, grain growth, separation of
phase and structural change taking place in forging, heat
treatment, welding, casting and other mechanical operation.

MATEERIAL TESTING
PURPOSE
1. To determine numerical value of fundamental mechanical properties for different material.
2. To determine suitability of a material for a particular application.
3. To determine the surface defect in raw materials or processed parts.
4. To check chemical composition.

CLASSIFICATION
NON –DESTRUCTIVE TEST – For this testing a component does not break & so even after being tested
it can be used.
E.g. – X- ray radiography, ultrasonic testing.
DESTRUCTIVE TEST- For this testing a component or specimen breaks & no longer useful for further
use.
E.g. Tensile test, Impact test.
IMPORTANT MECHANICAL TEST

For mechanical test we are getting following information:

1. TENSILE TEST – Tensile strength, yield point, elastic limit, young modulus etc.
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2. IMPACT TEST – Toughness of a material under shock loading condition.

3. HARDNESS TEST – Wear resistance, cutting ability
4. Fatigue test – Behaviour of material under repetitions of applied load.
5. CREEP TEST- Behaviour of a material under a steady load for a long period of time.

Impact Testing Machine Hardness Testing Machine

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The tensile test for determining the ultimate tensile strength, percentage elongation and percentage
reducing in the area of a given specimen conducted on a universal testing machine (UTM). This
hydraulically operated machine essentially consists of two main units namely the loading unit and the
control panel.
The control panel is located on the right and comprises an oil sump, a pump run by electric motor,
load dial indicator and control buttons. The right side control button operates the flow control valve while
the left one regulates the return valve. The rate of load can be adjusted by the flow control valve.
The loading unit, located on the left, has upper, middle and lower cross head/ jaws. The control
panel and loading unit are connected by pipe through which oil flows under pressure. For tension test, the
specimen is placed/gripped between upper and middle crosshead and for compression test, the specimen
is placed on the bottom and middle crosshead.

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