09/11/2011

Internet Protocols (chapter 18)

CSE 3213
Fall 2011

Internetworking
Terms

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TCP/IP Concepts

Connectionless Operation
• Internetworking involves connectionless
operation at the level of the Internet Protocol
(IP)

IP
• initially developed for the DARPA internet
project
• protocol is needed to access a particular network

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Connectionless Internetworking
• Connectionless internet facility is flexible
• IP provides a connectionless service between
end systems.
– Advantages:
• is flexible
• can be made robust
• does not impose unnecessary overhead

IP Operation

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IP Design Issues
• routing
• datagram lifetime
• fragmentation and reassembly
• error control
• flow control

The Internet as a Network

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Routing

source routing
• indicate next router
to which datagram is
sent • source specifies route
to be followed route recording
• static
• can be useful for
• dynamic
security & priority
ES / routers maintain
routing tables

Datagram Lifetime

• datagrams could loop indefinitely

– consumes resources
– transport protocol may need upper bound on
lifetime of a datagram
• can mark datagram with lifetime
• when lifetime expires, datagram discarded

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Fragmentation and
Re-assembly
• protocol exchanges data between two entities
• lower-level protocols may need to break data up into smaller
blocks, called fragmentation
• reasons for fragmentation:
– network only accepts blocks of a certain size
– more efficient error control & smaller retransmission units
– fairer access to shared facilities
– smaller buffers
• disadvantages:
– smaller buffers
– more interrupts & processing time

Fragmentation and
Re-assembly
packets get smaller
as data traverses
at destination internet

issue of when to re- need large buffers

assemble at routers

intermediate re- buffers may fill with

assembly fragments

all fragments must

go through same
router

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IP Fragmentation
• IP re-assembles at destination only
• uses fields in header
– Data Unit Identifier (ID)
• identifies end system originated datagram
– Data length
• length of user data in octets
– Offset
• position of fragment of user data in original datagram
• in multiples of 64 bits (8 octets)

• indicates that this is not the last fragment

Fragmentation Example

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Error and Flow Control

• Error control
Flow control
– discarded datagram – allows routers to limit
identification is needed the rate they receive
– reasons for discarded data
datagrams include: – send flow control
• lifetime expiration packets requesting
• congestion reduced data flow
• FCS error

Internet Protocol (IP) v4

• defined in RFC 791

• part of TCP/IP suite
• two parts

specification of
specification of
actual protocol
interface with a
format and
higher layer
mechanisms

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IP Services
• Primitives • Parameters
– specifies functions to be – used to pass data and
performed control information
– form of primitive
implementation
dependent
– Send - request
transmission of data unit
– Deliver - notify user of
arrival of data unit

IP Parameters
• source and destination addresses
• protocol
• type of service
• identification
• don’t fragment indicator
• time to live
• data length
• option data
• user data

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IP Options

route
security
recording

source
routing

stream
identification timestamping

IPv4 Header

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IPv4 Address Formats

IP Addresses - Class A

• start with binary 0

• all 0 reserved
• 01111111 (127) reserved for loopback
• range 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x

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IP Addresses - Class B

• start with binary 10

• range 128.x.x.x to 191.x.x.x
• second octet also included in network address
• 214 = 16,384 class B addresses

IP Addresses - Class C

• start with binary 110

• range 192.x.x.x to 223.x.x.x
• second and third octet also part of network
address
• 221 = 2,097,152 addresses
• nearly all allocated
– see IPv6

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Subnets and Subnet Masks

• allows arbitrary complexity of internetworked LANs
within organization
• insulate overall internet from growth of network
numbers and routing complexity
• site looks to rest of internet like single network
• each LAN assigned subnet number
• host portion of address partitioned into subnet
number and host number
• local routers route within subnetted network
• subnet mask indicates which bits are subnet number
and which are host number

IP Addresses and Subnet Masks

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Internet Control Message Protocol

(ICMP)
• RFC 792
• transfer messages from routers and hosts to
hosts
• provides feedback about problems
• datagram cannot reach its destination
• router does not have buffer capacity to forward
• router can send traffic on a shorter route
• encapsulated in IP datagram
– hence not reliable

ICMP Message Format

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Common ICMP Messages

• destination unreachable
• time exceeded
• parameter problem
• source quench
• redirect
• echo and echo reply
• timestamp and timestamp reply
• address mask request and reply

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

need MAC address to send to LAN host

• manual
• included in network address
• use central directory
• use address resolution protocol

ARP (RFC 826) provides dynamic IP to Ethernet

address mapping
• source broadcasts ARP request
• destination replies with ARP response

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IP Versions
• IP v 1-3 defined and replaced
• IP v4 - current version
• IP v5 - streams protocol
• IP v6 - replacement for IP v4
– during development it was called IPng (IP Next
Generation)

Why Change IP?

address space
exhaustion: requirements for new types
• two level addressing (network
of service
and host) wastes space • address configuration
• network addresses used even routing flexibility
if not connected • traffic support
• growth of networks and the
Internet
• extended use of TCP/IP
• single address per host

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IPv6 RFCs

• RFC 1752 - Recommendations for the IP Next

Generation Protocol
– requirements
– PDU formats
– addressing, routing security issues
• RFC 2460 - overall specification
• RFC 4291 - addressing structure

IPv6 Enhancements
• expanded 128 bit address space
• improved option mechanism
– most not examined by intermediate routes
• dynamic address assignment
• increased addressing flexibility
– anycast & multicast
• support for resource allocation
– labeled packet flows

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IPv6
PDU
(Packet)
Structure

IP v6 Header

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IP v6 Flow Label

• related sequence of packets

• special handling
• identified by source and destination address + flow
label
• router treats flow as sharing attributes
• may treat flows differently
• alternative to including all information in every
header
• have requirements on flow label processing

IPv6 Addresses
• 128 bits long
• assigned to interface
• single interface may have multiple unicast addresses

three types of addresses:

• unicast - single interface address

• anycast - one of a set of interface addresses
• multicast - all of a set of interfaces

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Hop-by-Hop Options
• must be examined by every router
– if unknown discard/forward handling is specified
• next header
• header extension length
• options
– Pad1
– PadN
– Jumbo payload
– Router alert

Fragmentation Header

• fragmentation only allowed at source

• no fragmentation at intermediate routers
• node must perform path discovery to find smallest
MTU of intermediate networks
• set source fragments to match MTU
• otherwise limit to 1280 octets

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Routing Header
• contains a list of one or more intermediate nodes to
be visited on the way to a packet’s destination

• next header
header • header extension length
includes • routing type
• segments left

Type 0 routing • initial destination address is first on list

provides a list • current destination address is next on list
of addresses • final destination address will be last in list

Destination Options Header

carries optional format same as

information for hop-by-hop
destination node header

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IPv6 Extension Headers

Reading
• Chapter 18, Stallings
• Next lecture: Internetworking Operation
(Chapter 19)

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