I.T.

S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(NAAC Accredited)
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

UNIT-I
Subject Control Systems-I Code KEC-602
Faculty
Mr. Agha A. Husain
Name
BASIC COMPONENTS OF A CONTROL SYSTEM
A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by controlling the output. Figure-1
shows the simple block diagram of a control system.

Fig. 1: Block Diagram of a Control System

Here, the control system is represented by a single block. Since, the output is controlled by varying input,
the control system got this name. We will vary this input with some mechanism. In the next section on
open loop and closed loop control systems, we will study in detail about the blocks inside the control
system and how to vary this input to get the desired response.
Examples − Traffic lights control system, washing machine.
Traffic Lights Control System is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of input signal is
applied to this control system and the output is one of the three lights that will be on for some duration
of time. During this time, the other two lights will be off. Based on the traffic study at a particular
junction, the on and off times of the lights can be determined. Accordingly, the input signal controls the
output. So, the traffic lights control system operates on time basis.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
Based on some parameters, we can classify the control systems into the following ways.
Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Control Systems
• Control Systems can be classified as continuous time control systems and discrete time control
systems based on the type of the signal used.
• In continuous time control systems, all the signals are continuous in time. But, in discrete
time control systems, there exists one or more discrete time signals.
SISO and MIMO Control Systems
• Control Systems can be classified as SISO control systems and MIMO control systems based on
the number of inputs and outputs present.
• SISO (Single Input and Single Output) control systems have one input and one output.
Whereas, MIMO (Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs) control systems have more than one
input and more than one output.
Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems
• Control Systems can be classified as open loop control systems and closed loop control systems
based on the feedback path.
• In open loop control systems, output is not fed-back to the input. So, the control action is
independent of the desired output. Figure-2 shows the block diagram of the open loop control
system.

Fig. 2: Block Diagram of an Open-Loop Control System

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Here, an input is applied to a controller and it produces an actuating signal or controlling signal. This
signal is given as an input to a plant or process which is to be controlled. So, the plant produces an
output, which is controlled. The traffic lights control system which we discussed earlier is an example of
an open loop control system.
• In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input. So, the control action is
dependent on the desired output. Figure-3 shows the block diagram of negative feedback closed
loop control system.

Fig. 3: Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop Control System

The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input and the feedback
signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback elements) by considering the output of
the overall system as an input to this block. Instead of the direct input, the error signal is applied as an
input to a controller.
So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this combination, the output
of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the desired response. Hence, the closed loop
control systems are also called the automatic control systems. Traffic lights control system having
sensor at the input is an example of a closed loop control system.
The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems are mentioned in the
following table.

Open Loop Control Systems Closed Loop Control Systems

Control action is independent of the desired output. Control action is dependent of the desired output.

Feedback path is not present. Feedback path is present.

These are also called as non-feedback control These are also called as feedback control
systems. systems.

Easy to design. Difficult to design.

These are economical. These are costlier.

Inaccurate. Accurate.

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Mr. Agha A. Husain
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If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and utilized as part of the
system input, then it is known as feedback. Feedback plays an important role to improve the
performance of the control systems. Let us discuss the types of feedback and the effects of feedback.

TYPES OF FEEDBACK
There are two types of feedback −
• Positive feedback
• Negative feedback
Positive Feedback
The positive feedback adds the reference input, R(s) and the feedback output. Figure-4 shows the block
diagram of positive feedback control system.

Fig. 4: Block Diagram of a (+ve) FB Control System Fig. 5: Block Diagram of a (-ve) FB Control System

The concept of transfer function will be discussed later. For the time being, consider the transfer
function of positive feedback control system is,
G
T= (1)
1 − GH
where,
• T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control system.
• G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
• H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.
Negative Feedback
Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference input, R(s) and system output. The following
figure shows the block diagram of the negative feedback control system.
Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,
G
T= (2)
1 + GH
where,
• T is the transfer function or overall gain of negative feedback control system.
• G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
• H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.
The derivation of the above transfer function is simple.

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EFFECTS OF FEEDBACK
Let us now understand the effects of feedback.

Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain

• From Equation 2, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system
is the ratio of 'G' and (1+GH). So, the overall gain may increase or decrease depending on the
value of (1+GH).
• If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this case, 'GH' value is
negative because the gain of the feedback path is negative.
• If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this case, 'GH' value is
positive because the gain of the feedback path is positive.
In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase the overall gain of the
system in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range.

Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity

Sensitivity of the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system (T) to the variation in
open loop gain (G) and is defined as
T T Percentage change in T
S GT = = (3)
G G Percentage change in G
Where, ∂T is the incremental change in T due to incremental change in G. We can rewrite Equation 3 as
T G
SGT = (4)
G T
Do partial differentiation with respect to G on both sides of Equation 2.
T   G  (1 + GH ) 1 − G(H ) 1
=  = =
G G  1 + GH  (1 + GH )2
(1 + GH )2 (5)
From equation 2 we get,
G
= 1 + GH
T (6)
Substituting equation 5 and 6 in equation 4 we obtain
T G
S GT = =
1
(1 + GH ) = 1 (7)
G T (1 + GH )2
1 + GH
So, we got the sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system as the reciprocal of (1+GH).
So, Sensitivity may increase or decrease depending on the value of (1+GH).
• If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case, 'GH' value is negative
because the gain of feedback path is negative.
• If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this case, 'GH' value is
positive because the gain of feedback path is positive.
In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, feedback will increase the sensitivity of the system
gain in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range. Therefore, we have to choose the
values of 'GH' in such a way that the system is insensitive or less sensitive to parameter variations.

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Effect of Feedback on Stability
• A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be unstable.
• In Equation 2, if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output of the control system
will be infinite. So, the control system becomes unstable.
Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the control system stable.

Effect of Feedback on Noise

To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer function relations with and without
feedback due to noise signal alone.
Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown in Figure-6.

Fig. 6: Block Diagram of an Open-Loop Control System with external noise

The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

C (s )
= Gb (8)
N (s )
It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.
Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal as shown in Figure-7.

Fig. 7: Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop Control System with external noise

The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

C (s ) Gb
= (9)
N (s ) 1 + Ga Gb H
It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.

Compare Equation 8 and 8, we observe that in the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal
is decreased by a factor of (1+GaGbH) provided that the term (1+GaGbH) is greater than one.

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 I.T.S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Block diagrams consist of a single block or a combination of blocks. These are used to represent the
control systems in pictorial form.

Basic Elements of Block Diagram

The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point and the take-off point. Let us
consider the block diagram of a closed loop control system as shown in Figure-8 to identify these
elements.

Fig. 8: Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop Control System

The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s). It is also having
one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the direction of the flow of signals. Let us
now discuss these elements one by one.

Block
The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has Single-Input-Single-Output
(SISO). Figure-9 shows a block having input X(s), output Y(s) and the transfer function G(s).

Fig. 9: Block with SISO

Y (s )
Transfer Function: G (s ) =  Y (s ) = G (s )X (s ) .
X (s )
Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of the block with input.

Summing Point
The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two or more inputs and
single output.
It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also performs the summation or subtraction or
combination of summation and subtraction of the inputs based on the polarity of the inputs.
Let us see these three operations one by one.

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Figure-10 (a) shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y). Here, the inputs A and
B have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the output, Y as sum of A and B. i. e., Y = A + B.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 10: Different representations of a summing point

Figure-10 (b) shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y). Here, the inputs A and
B are having opposite signs, i.e., A is having positive sign and B is having negative sign. So, the summing
point produces the output Y as the difference of A and B. i.e. Y = A + (-B) = A - B.

Figure-10 (c) shows the summing point with three inputs (A, B, C) and one output (Y). Here, the inputs A
and B are having positive signs and C is having a negative sign. So, the summing point produces the
output Y as - Y = A + B + (−C) = A + B − C.

Take-off Point
The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through more than one
branch. That means with the help of a take-off point, we can apply the same input to one or more blocks,
summing points.
In Figure-11 (a), the take-off point is used to connect the same input, R(s) to two more blocks.

(a) (b)
Fig. 11: Different representations of a take-off point

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In Figure-11 (b), the take-off point is used to connect the output C(s), as one of the inputs to the summing
point.
BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
In this section, let us represent an electrical system with a block diagram. Electrical systems contain
mainly three basic elements — resistor, inductor and capacitor. Consider a series of RLC circuit as
shown in Figure-12. Where, Vi(t) and Vo(t) are the input and output voltages.
Let i(t) be the current passing through the circuit. This circuit is in time domain. By applying the Laplace
transform to this circuit, will get the circuit in s-domain. The circuit is as shown in the Figure-13. For the
circuit shown below, we can write -

Fig. 12: Series RLC circuit in time-domain Fig. 13: Series RLC circuit in s-domain
V (s ) − V0 (s )  1 
I (s ) = i  I (s ) =  Vi (s ) − V0 (s ) (10)
R + sL  R + sL 
 1 
V0 (s ) =   I (s ) (11)
 sC 
Let us now draw the block diagrams for these two equations individually and then combine those block
diagrams properly in order to get the overall block diagram of series of RLC Circuit (s-domain).

Equation 10 can be implemented with a block having the transfer function, 1/(R + sL). The input and
output of this block are respectively {Vi(s) − V0(s)} and I(s). We require a summing point to get {Vi(s) −
V0(s)}. The block diagram of Equation 10 is shown in Figure-14.

Equation 11 can be implemented with a block having transfer function, (1/sC). The input and output of
this block are respectively I(s) and Vo(s). The block diagram for Equation 11 is shown in the Figure-15.

Fig. 14: Block Diagram for Eq. 10 Fig. 15: Block Diagram for Eq. 11

The overall block diagram of the series of RLC Circuit (s-domain) is shown in the Figure-16.

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Fig. 16: Complete Block Diagram for Electrical Circuit of Figure-12

Similarly, we can draw the block diagram of any electrical circuit or system just by following this simple
procedure.
• Convert the time domain electrical circuit into an s-domain electrical circuit by applying Laplace
transform.
• Write down the equations for the current passing through all series branch elements and voltage
across all shunt branches.
• Draw the block diagrams for all the above equations individually.
• Combine all these block diagrams properly in order to get the overall block diagram of the
electrical circuit (s-domain).

BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA

Block diagram algebra is nothing but the algebra involved with the basic elements of the block diagram.
This algebra deals with the pictorial representation of algebraic equations.
BASIC CONNECTIONS FOR BLOCKS
There are three basic types of connections between two blocks.
SERIES CONNECTION
Series connection is also called cascade connection. In Figure-17, two blocks having transfer
functions G1(s) and G2(s) are connected in series.

Fig. 17: Series Connection of Blocks Fig. 18: Equivalent Representation of Series-connected blocks
For this combination, we will get the output Y(s) as - Y (s ) = G2 (s )Z (s )
Where, Z(s) = G1(s)*X(s)
 Y (s ) = G2 (s )G1 (s )X (s ) = G1 (s )G2 (s )X (s )
 Y (s ) = G1 (s )G2 (s )X (s )
Compare this equation with the standard form of the output equation, Y(s) = G(s)*X(s). Where, G(s) =
G1(s)*G2(s).
That means we can represent the series connection of two blocks with a single block. The transfer
function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of those two blocks. The equivalent
block diagram is shown in Figure-18.
Similarly, we can represent series connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The transfer
function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of all those ‘n’ blocks.
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Parallel Connection
The blocks which are connected in parallel will have the same input. In Figure-19, two blocks having
transfer functions G1(s) and G2(s) are connected in parallel. The outputs of these two blocks are
connected to the summing point.

Fig. 19: Parallel Connection of Blocks Fig. 20: Equivalent Representation of Parallel-connected blocks

For this combination, we will get the output Y(s) as

Y(s)=Y1(s)+Y2(s), where, Y1(s) = G1(s)X(s) and Y2(s) = G2(s)X(s)
⇒Y(s) = G1(s)X(s) + G2(s)X(s) = {G1(s) + G2(s)}X(s)
Compare this equation with the standard form of the output equation,
Y(s) = G(s)*X(s), where, G(s) = G1(s) + G2(s).

That means we can represent the parallel connection of two blocks with a single block. The transfer
function of this single block is the sum of the transfer functions of those two blocks. The equivalent
block diagram is shown in Figure-20.

Similarly, we can represent parallel connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The transfer
function of this single block is the algebraic sum of the transfer functions of all those ‘n’ blocks.

Feedback Connection
As we discussed in the previous section, there are two types of feedback — positive feedback and
negative feedback. Figure-21 shows a negative feedback control system. Here, two blocks having transfer
functions G(s) and H(s) form a closed loop.

Fig. 21: (-ve) FB Control System Fig. 22: Equivalent Block Diagram of a (-ve) FB Control System

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The output of the summing point is -
E(s) = X(s) − H(s)*Y(s)
The output Y(s) is -
Y(s) = E(s)*G(s)
Substitute the value of E(s) in the above equation.
Y(s) = {X(s) − H(s)*Y(s)}*G(s)}
Y(s)*{1+G(s)*H(s)} = X(s)*G(s)}
Y(s ) G(s )
 =
X (s ) 1 + G(s )H(s )
G(s )
Therefore, the negative feedback closed loop transfer function is .
1 + G(s )H(s )
This means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the negative feedback. The
equivalent block diagram is shown in Figure-22.

Similarly, we can represent the positive feedback connection of two blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the positive feedback, i.e.,
G(s )
.
1 − G(s )H(s )
BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA FOR SUMMING POINTS
There are two possibilities of shifting summing points with respect to blocks −
• Shifting summing point after the block
• Shifting summing point before the block
Let us now see what kind of arrangements need to be done in the above two cases one by one.

Shifting Summing Point after the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in Figure-23. Here, the summing point is present before the block.

Fig. 23: Summing Point Before the block Fig. 24: Summing Point shifted after the block

Summing point has two inputs R(s) and X(s).

The output of it is {R(s) + X(s)}.
So, the input to the block G(s) is {R(s) + X(s)} and
The output of it is – Y(s) = G(s)*{R(s) + X(s)}
⇒ Y(s) = G(s)*R(s) + G(s)*X(s) (12)

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Now, shift the summing point after the block. This block diagram is shown in the Figure-24.
Output of the block G(s) is G(s)*R(s).
The output of the summing point is
Y(s) = G(s)*R(s) + X(s) (13)
Compare Equation 12 and 13.
The first term ‘G(s)*R(s)′ is same in both the equations. But, there is difference in the second term. In
order to get the second term also same, we require one more block G(s).
It is having the input X(s) and the output of this block is given as input to summing point instead of X(s).
This block diagram is shown in the Figure-25.

Fig. 25: Equivalent Block Diagram after Summing Point shifted after the block

Shifting Summing Point before the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in Figure-26. Here, the summing point is present after the block.

Fig. 26: Summing Point After the block Fig. 27: Summing Point shifted before the block

Output of this block diagram is -

Y(s) = G(s)*R(s) + X(s) (14)
Now, shift the summing point before the block. This block diagram is shown in Figure-27.

Output of this block diagram is -

Y(s) = G(s)*R(s) + G(s)*X(s) (15)

Compare Equation 14 and 15 we observe that –

The first term ‘G(s)*R(s)′ is same in both equations. But, there is difference in the second term. In order
to get the second term also same, we require one more block 1/G(s).

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It is having the input X(s) and the output of this block is given as input to summing point instead of X(s).
This block diagram is shown in the Figure-28.

Fig. 28: Equivalent Block Diagram after Summing Point shifted before the block

BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA FOR TAKE-OFF POINTS

There are two possibilities of shifting the take-off points with respect to blocks −
• Shifting take-off point after the block
• Shifting take-off point before the block
Let us now see what kind of arrangements is to be done in the above two cases, one by one.

Shifting Take-off Point after the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the Figure-29. In this case, the take-off point is present before the
block.

Fig. 29: Take-off Point Before the block Fig. 30: Eq. after shifting take-off point after the block

Here, X(s) = R(s) and Y(s) = G(s)*R(s).

When we shift the take-off point after the block, the output Y(s) will be same. But, there is difference
in X(s) value. So, in order to get the same X(s) value, we require one more block 1/G(s).

It is having the input Y(s) and the output is X(s). This block diagram is shown in the Figure-30.

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Shifting Take-off Point before the Block
Consider the block diagram shown in the Figure-31. Here, the take-off point is present after the block.

Fig. 31: Take-off Point After the block Fig. 32: Eq. after shifting take-off point before the block

Here, X(s) = Y(s) = G(s)*R(s).

When we shift the take-off point before the block, the output Y(s) will be same. But, there is difference
in X(s) value. So, in order to get same X(s) value, we require one more block G(s). It is having the
input R(s) and the output is X(s). This block diagram is shown in the Figure-32.
BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION
The concepts discussed in the previous section will be helpful for reducing (simplifying) the block
diagrams.
Block Diagram Reduction Rules
Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram, which is having many blocks, summing
points and take-off points.
• Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.
• Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
• Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.
• Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it towards right.
• Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it towards left.
• Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single block.
Note − The transfer function present in this single block is the transfer function of the overall block
diagram.
Example: Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Let us simplify (reduce) this block
diagram using the block diagram reduction rules.

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Step 1 − Use Rule 1 for blocks G1 and G2. Use Rule 2 for blocks G3 and G4. The modified block diagram is
shown in the following figure.

Step 2 − Use Rule 3 for blocks G1G2 and H1. Use Rule 4 for shifting take-off point after the block G5. The
modified block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 3 − Use Rule 1 for blocks (G3+G4) and G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the following
figure.

Step 4 − Use Rule 3 for blocks (G3+G4)G5 and H3. The modified block diagram is shown in the following
figure.

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Step 5 − Use Rule 1 for blocks connected in series. The modified block diagram is shown in the following
figure.

Step 6 − Use Rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop. The modified block diagram is shown in the
following figure. This is the simplified block diagram.

Therefore, the transfer function of the system is –

Y(s) G1G2G52 (G3 + G4 )
=
R (s ) (1 + G1G2H1 )1 + (G3 + G4 )G5H3 G5 − G1G2G5 (G3 + G4 )H2
Note − Follow these steps in order to calculate the transfer function of the block diagram having
multiple inputs.
• Step 1 − Find the transfer function of block diagram by considering one input at a time and make
the remaining inputs as zero.
• Step 2 − Repeat step 1 for remaining inputs.
• Step 3 − Get the overall transfer function by adding all those transfer functions.
The block diagram reduction process takes more time for complicated systems. Because, we have to
draw the (partially simplified) block diagram after each step. So, to overcome this drawback, use signal
flow graphs (representation).
In the next section, we will discuss about the concepts related to signal flow graphs, i.e., how to
represent signal flow graph from a given block diagram and calculation of transfer function just by using
a gain formula without doing any reduction process.
SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS
Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of algebraic equations. In this chapter, let us discuss the
basic concepts related signal flow graph and also learn how to draw signal flow graphs.

Basic Elements of Signal Flow Graph

Nodes and branches are the basic elements of signal flow graph.
Node
Node is a point which represents either a variable or a signal. There are three types of nodes — input
node, output node and mixed node.
• Input Node − It is a node, which has only outgoing branches.
• Output Node − It is a node, which has only incoming branches.

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• Mixed Node − It is a node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches.
Example: Let us consider the following signal flow graph to identify these nodes.

• The nodes present in this signal flow graph are y1, y2, y3 and y4.
• y1 and y4 are the input node and output node respectively.
• y2 and y3 are mixed nodes.
Branch
Branch is a line segment which joins two nodes. It has both gain and direction. For example, there are
four branches in the above signal flow graph. These branches have gains of a, b, c and -d.

Construction of Signal Flow Graph

Let us construct a signal flow graph by considering the following algebraic equations −
y 2 = a 12 y 1 + a 42 y 4

y 3 = a 23 y 2 + a 53 y 5

y 4 = a 34 y 3

y 5 = a 45 y 4 + a 35 y 3

y 6 = a 56 y 5
There will be six nodes (y1, y2, y3, y4, y5 and y6) and eight branches in this signal flow graph. The gains
of the branches are a12, a23, a34, a45, a56, a42, a53 and a35.

To get the overall signal flow graph, draw the signal flow graph for each equation, then combine all these
signal flow graphs and then follow the steps given below –

Step 1 − Signal flow graph for y2 = a12y1 + a42y4 is shown in the following figure.

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 I.T.S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

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Subject Control Systems-I Code KEC-602
Faculty
Mr. Agha A. Husain
Name
Step 2 − Signal flow graph for y3 = a23y2 + a53y5 is shown in the following figure.

Step 3 − Signal flow graph for y4 = a34y3 is shown in the following figure.

Step 4 − Signal flow graph for y5 = a45y4 + a35y3 is shown in the following figure.

Step 5 − Signal flow graph for y6 = a56y5 is shown in the following figure.

Step 6 − Signal flow graph of overall system is shown in the following figure.

CONVERSION OF BLOCK DIAGRAMS INTO SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS

Follow these steps for converting a block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.
• Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off points of block diagram
as nodes in signal flow graph.
• Represent the blocks of block diagram as branches in signal flow graph.
• Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block diagram as gains of the branches in
signal flow graph.
• Connect the nodes as per the block diagram. If there is connection between two nodes (but there
is no block in between), then represent the gain of the branch as one. For example, between two

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 I.T.S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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Mr. Agha A. Husain
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summing points, between summing point and take-off point, between input and summing point,
between take-off point and output.

Example: Let us convert the following block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.

Represent the input signal R(s) and the output signal C(s) of block diagram as input node R(s) and
output node C(s) of signal flow graph.

Just for reference, the remaining nodes (y1 to y9) are labeled in the block diagram. There are nine nodes
other than input and output nodes. That is four nodes for four summing points, four nodes for four take-
off points and one node for the variable between blocks G1 and G2.

The following figure shows the equivalent signal flow graph.

With the help of Mason’s gain formula (as will be discussed in the next section), we will be able to
calculate the transfer function of this signal flow graph.

This is the advantage of signal flow graphs. Here, we no need to simplify (reduce) the signal flow graphs
for calculating the transfer function.

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 I.T.S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

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Mr. Agha A. Husain
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MASON'S GAIN FORMULA
Let us now discuss the Mason’s Gain Formula. Suppose there are ‘N’ forward paths in a signal flow
graph. The gain between the input and the output nodes of a signal flow graph is nothing but
the transfer function of the system. It can be calculated by using Mason’s gain formula.
Mason’s gain formula is –
N

C(s ) i =1
 Pi  i
T= =
R (s ) 
where,
• C(s) is the output node
• R(s) is the input node
• T is the transfer function or gain between R(s) and C(s)
• Pi is the ith forward path gain
Δ = 1 – (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of gain products of all possible two
non-touching loops) – (sum of gain products of all possible three non-touching loops)
Δi is obtained from Δ by removing the loops which are touching the ith forward path.
Example: Consider the following signal flow graph in order to understand the basic terminology
involved here.

PATH
It is a traversal of branches from one node to any other node in the direction of branch arrows. It should
not traverse any node more than once.
Examples –
y2 → y3 → y4 → y5 and

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y5 → y3 → y2
FORWARD PATH
The path that exists from the input node to the output node is known as forward path.
Examples –
y1 → y2 → y3 → y4 → y5 → y6 and
y1 → y2 → y3 → y5 → y6.

FORWARD PATH GAIN

It is obtained by calculating the product of all branch gains of the forward path.
Examples –
“abcde” is the forward path gain of y1 → y2 → y3 → y4 → y5 → y6 and
“abge” is the forward path gain of y1 → y2 → y3 → y5 → y6.

LOOP
The path that starts from one node and ends at the same node is known as loop. Hence, it is a closed
path.
Examples –
y2 → y3 → y2 and
y3 → y5 → y3.

LOOP GAIN
It is obtained by calculating the product of all branch gains of a loop.
Examples –
“bj” is the loop gain of y2 → y3 → y2 and
“gh” is the loop gain of y3 → y5 → y3.

NON-TOUCHING LOOPS
These are the loops, which should not have any common node.
Examples − The loops,
y2 → y3 → y2 and
y4 → y5 → y4
are non-touching.

Calculation of Transfer Function using Mason’s Gain Formula: Let us consider the same
signal flow graph for finding transfer function.

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• Number of forward paths, N = 2.

• First forward path is –
y1 → y2 → y3 → y4 → y5 → y6.
• First forward path gain,
p1 = abcde.
• Second forward path is –
y1 → y2 → y3 → y5 → y6.
• Second forward path gain,
p2 = abge.
• Number of individual loops, L = 5.
• Loops are –
y2 → y3 → y2,
y3 → y5 → y3,
y3 → y4 → y5 → y3,
y4 → y5 → y4 and
y5 → y5.
• Loop gains are –
L1 = bj,
L2 = gh,
L3 = cdh,
L4 = di and
L5 = f.
• Number of two non-touching loops = 2.
• First non-touching loops pair is –
y2 → y3 → y2, y4 → y5 → y4.
• Gain product of first non-touching loops pair,
L1*L4 = (bj)*(di)
• Second non-touching loops pair is –
y2 → y3 → y2, y5 → y5.
Mr. Agha A. Husain Page 22
 I.T.S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

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Subject Control Systems-I Code KEC-602
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Mr. Agha A. Husain
Name
• Gain product of second non-touching loops pair is –
L1*L5 =(bj)*f

Higher number of (more than two) non-touching loops are not present in this signal flow graph. We
know,
Δ = 1 – (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of gain products of all possible two
non-touching loops) – (sum of gain products of all possible three non-touching loops)
Substitute the values in the above equation,
Δ = 1 − (bj + gh + cdh + di + f) + {(bj)*(di) + (bj)*(f)} − (0)
⇒ Δ = 1 − (bj + gh + cdh + di + f)+bdji + bfj
There is no loop which is non-touching to the first forward path.
So, Δ1 = 1.
Similarly, Δ2 = 1. Since, no loop which is non-touching to the second forward path.
Substitute, N = 2 in Mason’s gain formula we obtain –
2

C(s ) i =1
 Pi  i P1  1 + P2  2
T= = =
R (s )  
Substitute all the necessary values in the above equation.

C(s ) (abcde)1 + (abge )1

T= =
R (s ) 1 − (bj + gh + cdh + di + f ) + bdij + bfj
Therefore , the tranfer function is −
C(s ) (abcde) + (abge )
T= =
R (s ) 1 − (bj + gh + cdh + di + f ) + bdij + bfj

Mr. Agha A. Husain Page 23