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Citation preview
Concrete Basics
Contents
CONCRETE BASICS A Guide to Concrete Practice Presented By

www.constructionlibrary.tk CONTENTS page 2
Foreword CHAPTER 1
Concrete Materials
pages 3–5
CHAPTER 2
Concrete Properties
pages 6–9
CHAPTER 3
Concrete Testing
pages 10–13
CHAPTER 4
Ordering Concrete
page 14
CHAPTER 5
Proportioning and Mixing Concrete
pages 15–16
CHAPTER 6
Planning and Site Preparation

pages 17–19
CHAPTER 7
Transporting and Placing Concrete
pages 20–22
CHAPTER 8
Compacting Concrete
pages 23–25
CHAPTER 9
Finishing Concrete
pages 26–27
CHAPTER 10
Curing Concrete
pages 28–30
CHAPTER 11
Joints in Concrete
pages 31–33
CHAPTER 12
Hot and Cold Weather Concreting
pages 34–35
CHAPTER 13
Surface Finishes on Concrete
pages 36–39
CHAPTER 14
Defects in Concrete
pages 40–43
CHAPTER 15
Removing Stains from Concrete
pages 44–46
CHAPTER 16
Cracking in Concrete
pages 47–49
CHAPTER 17
Reinforced Concrete
pages 50–52
CHAPTER 18
Formwork
pages 53–54 pages 55–56
MORE Information
First Published July 1991 Second Edition 1992 Third Edition 1994 Fourth Edition
1996 Fifth Edition October 2002 Sixth Edition August 2004
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia is a
not for profit organisation sponsored by the cement concrete and aggregate
industries in Australia to provide information on the many uses of cement and
concrete. This publication is produced by CCAA for that purpose. Since the
information provided is intended for general guidance only and in no way replaces
the services of professional consultants on particular projects, no legal liability
can be accepted by CCAA for its use.
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia
Concrete Basics CONTENTS
Foreword 2
Foreword Concrete is widely used in domestic, commercial, recreational, rural and

educational construction. Communities around the world rely on concrete as a safe,
strong and simple building material. It is used in all types of construction; from
domestic work to multi-storey office blocks and shopping complexes. Despite the
common usage of concrete, few people are aware of the considerations involved in
designing strong, durable, high quality concrete. Concrete Basics aims to provide a
clear, concise explanation of all aspects of making quality concrete; from the
Materials and Properties involved through Planning, Preparation, Finishing and
Curing. Concrete Basics addresses the needs of unskilled and semi-skilled persons
undertaking general concreting projects including home and handyman projects.
Concrete Basics also assists owner builders in the supervision of construction. It
aims to develop an understanding of highly technical terms through clear definition
accompanied by simple illustrations. A general understanding of these terms will
help to facilitate communication within the building industry. Concrete Basics will
help to generate a higher standard of workmanship on-site and facilitate better
communication among construction workers, builders, engineers, building surveyors,
architects and anyone interested in understanding the processes involved in making
quality concrete.
2
Concrete Basics
Concrete Materials
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 Concrete Materials CONCRETE is made by mixing: CEMENT WATER COARSE AND
FINE AGGREGATES ADMIXTURES (if required). The aim is to mix these materials in
measured amounts to make concrete that is easy to: TRANSPORT PLACE COMPACT FINISH
and which will set, and harden, to give a strong and durable product. The amount of
each material (ie cement, water and aggregates) affects the properties of hardened
concrete. (See CHAPTER 2 Concrete Properties) WATER
CEMENT
CEMENT The cement powder, when mixed with water, forms a paste. This paste acts
like glue and holds or bonds the aggregates together.
AGGREGATES 65–80% of mix volume
There are six major types of cement sold in Australia: Type GP (General Purpose
Portland cement) Type GB (General Purpose Blended Cement) Type HE (High Early
Strength cement) Type LH (Low Heat cement) Type SR (Sulfate Resisting cement) Type
SL (Shrinkage Limited cement) Each type of cement will produce concrete with
different properties. The most common types of cement are Type GP and Type GB.
Blended cements contain portland cement and more than 5% of either fly ash, ground
slag, silica fume, or a combination of these.
Concrete Basics
Concrete Materials
CONTENTS
STORAGE Cement should be stored off the ground in a well-aired, clean, dry place.
Wrapping the cement bags in plastic sheets gives extra protection, Bulk cement will
normally be stored in silos.
AGGREGATES Aggregates are of two basic types: COARSE: crushed rock, gravel or
screenings. FINE: fine and coarse sands and crusher fines. Sand should be
concreting sand and not brickies sand or plasterers sand. Aggregates should be:
STRONG and HARD A stronger, harder aggregate will give a stronger final concrete.
Never use a crumble or flakey rock like sandstone. DURABLE to stand up to wear and
tear and weathering. CHEMICALLY INACTIVE so the aggregates don’t react with the
cement.
CLEAN Dirt or clay sticking to the aggregates will weaken the bond between paste
and aggregates.
GRADED Aggregates should range in size so that they fit together well. This gives a
stronger and denser concrete. Rounded aggregates give a more workable mix. Angular
aggregates make concrete harder to place, work and compact, but can make concrete
stronger. STORAGE Aggregates should be stored where they will stay clean, separated
from other materials and dry. If the aggregates are very wet use less water in the
mix. WATER Water is mixed with the cement powder to form a paste which holds the
aggregates together like glue. Water must be clean, fresh and free from any dirt,
unwanted chemicals or rubbish that may affect concrete. Many concrete plants now
use recycled water.
Concrete Basics
Concrete Materials
CONTENTS
Always check bore water before use. Don’t use sea water as it may rust the steel
reinforcement in the concrete.
ADMIXTURES Admixtures are mixed into the concrete to change or alter its
properties, ie the time concrete takes to set and harden, or its workability. HOW
THE PROCESS WORKS Measured amounts of the coarse and fine aggregates are mixed
together.
A measured amount of cement is added and mixed in. Enough water is added to make
the mix workable. All the materials are then mixed together well. The cement powder
and water form a paste which bonds the aggregates together like glue.
Concrete Basics
Concrete Properties
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 2 Concrete Properties The Properties of Concrete are its characteristics or

basic qualities. The four main properties of concrete are: WORKABILITY COHESIVENESS
STRENGTH and DURABILITY Concrete has three different states: PLASTIC SETTING
HARDENING In each state it has different properties.
CONCRETE STATES Plastic State When the concrete is first mixed it is like 'bread
dough'. It is soft and can be worked or moulded into different shapes. In this
state concrete is called PLASTIC. Concrete is plastic during placing and
compaction. The most important properties of plastic concrete are workability and
cohesiveness. A worker will sink into plastic concrete. Setting State Concrete then
begins to stiffen. The stiffening of concrete, when it is no longer soft, is called
SETTING. Setting takes place after compaction and during finishing. Concrete that
is sloppy or wet may be easy to place but will be more difficult to finish. A
worker leaves footprints in setting concrete.
Hardening State After concrete has set it begins to gain strength and harden. The
properties of hardened concrete are strength and durability. Hardened concrete will
have no footprints on it if walked on.
Concrete Basics
Concrete Properties
CONTENTS
Workability Workability means how easy it is to: PLACE HANDLE COMPACT and FINISH a
concrete mix. Concrete that is stiff or dry may be difficult to Handle, Place,
Compact, and Finish and, if not constructed properly, will not be as strong or
durable when finally hardened. A slump test can be used to measure the workability
of concrete. See CHAPTER 3 Concrete Testing
Workability is affected by: THE AMOUNT OF CEMENT PASTE The cement paste is the soft
or liquid part of the concrete mix. The more paste mixed with the coarse and fine
aggregates, the more workable a mix. THE AGGREGATE GRADING See Aggregate Grading
under Cohesiveness. Well-graded, smooth, rounded aggregates improve the workability
of a mix.
To make a more workable mix: Add more CEMENT PASTE. Use WELL GRADED aggregates. Use
an ADMIXTURE. Never try to make a mixture more workable by just adding more water
because this lowers the strength and durability of concrete.
Concrete Basics
Concrete Properties
CONTENTS
Strength and Durability Well made concrete is a naturally strong and durable
material. It is DENSE, reasonably WATERTIGHT, able to resist changes in
TEMPERATURE, as well as wear and tear from WEATHERING. Strength and Durability are
affected by the density of the concrete. Denser concrete is more watertight (or
less permeable). Concrete durability INCREASES with strength. Well made concrete is
very important to protect the steel in reinforced concrete. See CHAPTER 17
Reinforced Concrete Strength of concrete in the hardened state is usually measured
by the COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH using the Compression Test. See CHAPTER 3 Concrete
Testing Strength and Durability are affected by: COMPACTION Compaction is removing
the air from concrete. Proper compaction results in concrete with an increased
density which is stronger and more durable. See CHAPTER 8 Compacting Concrete
CURING Curing is keeping concrete damp for a period, to allow it to reach maximum
strength. Longer curing will give more durable concrete. See CHAPTER 10 Curing
Concrete WEATHER Warmer weather will cause concrete to have a higher early
strength. See CHAPTER 12 Hot and Cold Weather Concreting TYPE OF CEMENT Different
types of cement will affect concrete properties: ie how quickly or slowly concrete
gains strength. THE WATER TO CEMENT RATIO Too much water and not enough cement
means concrete will be weaker and less durable. The water to cement ratio (W/C) is
the weight of the water divided by the weight of cement. Water W/C =
20 litres ie
Cement
= 0.5 40 kg
Note: 1 litre of water weighs 1 kilogram. The lower the ratio, the stronger the
concrete.
Concrete Basics
Concrete Properties
CONTENTS
Cohesiveness Cohesiveness is how well concrete HOLDS TOGETHER when plastic.

Cohesiveness is affected by: THE AGGREGATE GRADING Graded Aggregate means that
there is a range of size of aggregates, from large rocks to small sands. Well-
graded aggregates give a more cohesive mix, too much coarse aggregate gives a boney
mix. WATER CONTENT A mix that has too much water will not be cohesive and may
separate and bleed.
Concrete Basics
Concrete Testing
CONTENTS
10
CHAPTER 3 Concrete Testing There are two main tests to be done on concrete: The
SLUMP test. The SLUMP test shows the WORKABILITY of concrete. Workability measures
how easy the concrete is to place, handle and compact. See CHAPTER 2 Concrete
Properties The COMPRESSION test. The COMPRESSION test shows the best possible
strength concrete can reach in perfect conditions. The compression test measures
concrete strength in the hardened state. Testing should always be done carefully.
Wrong test results can be costly. SAMPLING The first step is to take a test sample
from the large batch of concrete. This should be done as soon as discharge of the
concrete commences. The sample should be representative of the concrete supplied.
The sample is taken in one of two ways: For purposes of accepting or rejecting the
load: Sampling after 0.2 m3 of the load has been poured. For routine quality
checks: Sampling from three places in the load.
10
Concrete Basics
Concrete Testing
11
CONTENTS
THE SLUMP TEST The slump test is done to make sure a concrete mix is workable. The
measured slump must be within a set range, or tolerance, from the target slump.
Tools Standard slump cone (100 mm top diameter x 200 mm bottom diameter x 300 mm
high) Small scoop Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm long x 16 mm diameter) Rule Slump plate
(500 mm x 500 mm)
Method 1 Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate. The slump
plate should be clean, firm, level and non-absorbent. 2 Collect a sample. See
Sampling 3 Stand firmly on the footpieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with
the sample. Compact the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times. Rodding Rodding means to
push a steel rod in and out of the concrete to compact it into the cylinder, or
slump cone. Always rod in a definite pattern, working from outside into the middle.
4 Now fill to 2 /3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
5 Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second
layer. Top up the cone till it overflows. 6 Level off the surface with the steel
rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from around the base and top of the
cone, push down on the handles and step off the footpieces. 7 Carefully lift the
cone straight up making sure not to move the sample. 8 Turn the cone upside down
and place the rod across the up-turned cone.
The Slump Test continues on the next page
11
Concrete Basics
Concrete Testing
12
CONTENTS
9 Take several measurements and report the average distance to the top of the
sample. 10 If the sample fails by being outside the tolerance (ie the slump is too
high or too low), another must be taken. If this also fails the remainder of the
batch should be rejected.
THE COMPRESSION TEST The compression test shows the compressive strength of
hardened concrete. The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done
on-site is to make a concrete cylinder for the compression test. The strength is
measured in Megapascals (MPa) and is commonly specified as a characteristic
strength of concrete measured at 28 days after mixing. The compressive strength is
a measure of the concrete’s ability to resist loads which tend to crush it. Tools
Cylinders (100 mm diameter x 200 mm high or 150 mm diameter x 300 mm high) (The
small cylinders are normally used for most testing due to their lighter weight)
Small scoop Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm x 16 mm) Steel float Steel plate
Method 1 Clean the cylinder mould and coat the inside lightly with form oil, then
place on a clean, level and firm surface, ie the steel plate. 2 Collect a sample.
See Sampling 3 Fill 1/2 the volume of the mould with concrete then compact by
rodding 25 times. Cylinders may also be compacted by vibrating using a vibrating
table.
The Compression Test continues on the next page
12
Concrete Basics
Concrete Testing
13
CONTENTS
4 Fill the cone to overflowing and rod 25 times into the top of the first layer,
then top up the mould till overflowing. 5 Level off the top with the steel float
and clean any concrete from around the mould.
6 Cap, clearly tag the cylinder and put it in a cool dry place to set for at least
24 hours.
7 After the mould is removed the cylinder is sent to the laboratory where it is
cured and crushed to test compressive strength.
13
Concrete Basics
Ordering Concrete
14
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 4 Ordering Concrete WHEN ORDERING PRE-MIXED concrete you will need to tell
the supplier: Name and address for delivery The use of the concrete (ie driveway,
housing slab, commercial) The amount you need in cubic metres The Class of the
concrete. There are two classes that concrete can be supplied as: Normal Class and
Special Class. NORMAL CLASS CONCRETE has a strength grade of N20, N25, N32, N40 and
N50 with the corresponding characteristic strength of 20, 25, 32, 40 and 50 MPa at
28 days. The slump at the point of delivery should be 20–120 mm and the maximum
size of coarse aggregate should be 10, 14 or 20 mm. Normal class concrete is
suitable for most purposes. For most domestic applications such as driveways and
paths grade N20 and N25 are the common grades ordered. SPECIAL CLASS CONCRETE is
specified when you have additional or alternative requirements to those for normal
class concrete, eg lightweight aggregate, colour pigments, a non-standard strength
grade. Special class concrete will not always be available from every concrete
supplier. The slump in millimetres (mm). The slump measured workability. See slump
test in CHAPTER 3 Concrete Testing The maximum aggregate size (eg 20 mm). How you
want to place the concrete (eg pump, shovel, etc). Time of the first truckload and
the time between truckloads. There must be enough time to place and compact one
load before the next arrives. Any admixtures you may want in the concrete, though
this is normally left to the pre-mixed concrete company. Always order more concrete
(ie 10%) than you need to allow for construction variations and/or some wastage.
Concrete is ordered in 0.2 m3 increments. Ensure you round up when ordering. IF
MIXING YOUR OWN concrete: The cement powder is ordered in bags by weight (eg 20 kg)
and type (eg Type GP). The coarse and fine aggregates are ordered in cubic metres
by maximum size (eg 20 m3 of size 20 mm). Water is used by the litre or kilogram (1
litre of water = 1 kilogram).
14
Concrete Basics
CONTENTS
15
CHAPTER 5 Proportioning and Mixing Concrete A CONCRETE MIX is designed to produce

concrete that can be easily placed at the lowest cost. The concrete must be
workable and cohesive when plastic, then set and harden to give strong and durable
concrete. The mix design must consider the environment that the concrete will be
in; ie exposure to sea water, trucks, cars, forklifts, foot traffic or extremes of
hot and cold. PROPORTIONING Concrete is a mixture of Cement, Water, Coarse and Fine
Aggregates and Admixtures. The proportions of each material in the mixture affects
the properties of the final hardened concrete. These proportions are best measured
by weight. Measurement by volume is not as accurate, but is suitable for minor
projects. CEMENT CONTENT As the cement content increases, so does strength and
durability. Therefore to increase the strength, increase the cement content of a
mix.
WATER CONTENT Adding MORE WATER to a mix gives a WEAKER hardened concrete. Always
use as little water as possible, only enough to make the mix workable.
WATER TO CEMENT RATIO As the Water to Cement ratio INCREASES, the strength and
durability of hardened concrete DECREASES. To increase the strength and durability
of concrete, decrease the Water-Cement ratio. See CHAPTER 2 Concrete Properties
15
Concrete Basics
16
CONTENTS
AGGREGATES Too much fine aggregate gives a sticky mix.
Too much coarse aggregate gives a harsh or boney mix.

MIXING Concrete must be mixed so the Cement, Water, Aggregates and Admixtures blend
into an even mix. Concrete is normally mixed by MACHINE. Machine mixing can be done
on-site or be a Pre-Mixed concrete company. Pre-Mixed concrete is batched
(proportioned) at the plant to the job requirements. Truck Mixing The materials are
normally added to the trucks at batching plants and mixed for required time and
speed at the plant. The trucks drum continues to rotate to agitate the concrete as
it is delivered to the site. Site Mixing When site mixing begin by loading a
MEASURED AMOUNT of coarse aggregate into the mixer drum. Add the sand before the
cement, both in measured amounts. NEVER USE A SHOVEL AS A MEASURE AS VOLUMES CAN
VARY WIDELY. Mix materials together until there is no visible sand in the mix. Add
enough water to get a workable mix. Be careful not to overload the mixer. Too much
concrete in the mixer means each batch takes longer to be properly mixed, which
causes costly delays in the long run or it will not mix at all. Always check how
much the mixer holds so you know how much concrete can be produced at once. Avoid
delays between batches to get maximum output. Small quantities of concrete may be
mixed by hand with a shovel. Mixing should be done on a clean board, or plate, or
in a wheelbarrow. Mix the materials together until they are even. Then dish the
material and add water. Use only enough water to get an even, workable mix. Finish
mixing. Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia
16
Concrete Basics
17
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 6 Planning and Site Preparation The most important step in placing concrete
is planning. Always plan every step before any concrete is delivered. Proper
planning avoids delays, wastage, segregation and problems which develop from these.
To eliminate problems of Delay, Segregation and Wastage, see CHAPTER 7 Transporting
and Placing Concrete SAFETY Workers on the site should always wear protective
clothing, strong boots and, if required, helmets or eye protection. Always avoid
direct contact with cement and never kneel in or touch the concrete mix directly.
Wear gloves or use barrier creams. Ensure that anyone using heavy equipment, such
as screeds or vibrators, has been properly trained. The following steps should be
taken before any concrete is placed. MEASUREMENT Measure and stake out the area to
be concreted and consider how thick the slab must be. The thickness will depend on
the weight the concrete must carry (ie driveway carries the weight of a car and
needs to be thicker than a garden path).
THE FINISHING LEVEL Once the thickness of concrete has been established, work out
where the concrete will finish. Concrete cannot finish too high against steps or
the external house wall and should not cover any part of weepholes in the wall. The
finishing level shows how much digging or excavation must be done. Pavements must
grade away from buildings and boundaries. STEPS Steps must have even risers.
EXCAVATION The ground should be excavated as deep as is required by the finishing
levels. Any roots or grass must be dug out until there is firm soil to place on.
Always dig the hole wider than needed to allow for the formwork. Try to keep the
edges and corners square.
17
Concrete Basics
18
CONTENTS
SUBGRADE The soil a concrete pavement or floor rests on is called the subgrade. If
the soil is soft or varies in softness, a layer of crushed rock should be used. If
there are only a few poor areas these can be dug out, refilled and compacted. It is
important that the soil evenly supports the concrete. Many later problems can be
avoided by properly preparing the subgrade. FORMWORK Formwork gives concrete its
shape, Formwork must be properly braced so it is strong. It should not flex or
move. See CHAPTER 18 Formwork
SERVICES Plumbing, heating or electrical services often run through a slab. These
must be in place before any concrete is poured. UNDERLAY AND SERVICES The underlay,
or vapour barrier, is a heavy plastic covering the ground to minimise water vapour
rising through the hardened concrete. Always overlap the sheets a minimum of 200 mm
and do not tape them. Tape the edges of underlay only around drainage pipes or
services which pass vertically through the concrete slab. Termite protection may be
required around service penetrations and round the perimeter of the slab. Cement
Concrete & Aggregates Australia
18
Concrete Basics
CONTENTS
19
REINFORCEMENT LOCATION Reinforcement can be used to increase the strength of

concrete and/or to help control cracking. For house floors resting on the ground it
is placed in the top 1/3 of slabs and in the bottom of trenches and footings. The
reinforcement must be covered by a set amount of concrete which protects the steel
from rusting. This is called cover. The amount of cover depends on whether it is
inside or outside and is measured to the top or bottom of the outer surface.
Reinforcement should be securely held for slab on ground construction. It should
overlap a set distance or from one piece of reinforcing bar, or wire fabric, to
another and at the corners of a trench. See CHAPTER 17 Reinforced Concrete ACCESS
Clear access must be provided to transport the concrete. If concrete is to be
delivered by trucks make sure they have unrestricted access to the site in all
weather conditions. PLACEMENT Ensure all planning and site preparation takes into
account how concrete will be placed allowing room for trucks, ramps for
wheelbarrows, space for a pump etc. JOINTS The position, type and number of joints
should be planned well before the concrete is placed. See CHAPTER 11 Joints in
Concrete WASTAGE Good planning and site preparation reduces wastage. Reducing
wastage can cut costs, since up to 15% of concrete can be lost this way.
19
Concrete Basics
20
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 7 Transporting and Placing Concrete When transporting and placing concrete,
avoid: DELAY SEGREGATION and WASTAGE. TRANSPORTATION The method used to transport
concrete depends on which one is the lowest cost and easiest for the job size. Some
ways to transport concrete include: a concrete truck, a concrete pump, a crane and
bucket, a chute, a conveyor or a hoist. On small jobs a wheelbarrow is the easiest
way to transport concrete. Always transport concrete as little as possible to
reduce problems of segregation and wastage. PLACING When placing concrete be
careful not to damage or move the formwork and reinforcement. Place concrete as
near to its final position as possible. Start placing from the corners of the
formwork or, in the case of a sloping site, from the lowest level.
IMPORTANT SAFETY INFORMATION When handling and using cement or fresh concrete,
avoid skin contact. Wear suitable protective clothing.
20
Concrete Basics
21
CONTENTS
DELAY Delay can cause the concrete to dry-out and stiffen. Delay is more of a
problem on a hot, and/or windy, day when the concrete will dry-out and stiffen more
quickly.
To avoid delay plan ahead. Check that all labour, tools and containers are ready
and that all preparations for placing have been done before the concrete is
delivered.
Never just add water to the concrete to make it more workable, always use a mix of
cement paste (ie water AND cement).
21
Concrete Basics
22
CONTENTS
SEGREGATION Segregation is when the coarse and fine aggregate, and cement paste,
become separated. Segregation may happen when the concrete is mixed, transported,
placed or compacted. Segregation makes the concrete: WEAKER, LESS DURABLE, and will
leave A POOR SURFACE FINISH. To avoid segregation: Check the concrete is not 'too
wet' or 'too dry'.
Make sure the concrete is properly mixed. It is important that the concrete is
mixed at the correct speed in a transit mixer for at least two minutes immediately
prior to discharge. The concrete should be placed as soon as possible. When
transporting the mix, load carefully. If placing concrete straight from a truck,
pour vertically and never let the concrete fall more than one-and-a-half metres.
Always pour new concrete into the face of concrete already in place.
When compacting with a poker vibrator be sure to use it carefully. See CHAPTER 8
Compacting Concrete Never spread concrete sideways with a poker vibrator as this
may cause segregation of the mix. Always be sure to vibrate concrete evenly.
WASTAGE Wastage can be costly, especially on small jobs. To minimise wastage; mix,
load, transport and place carefully.
22
Concrete Basics
Compacting Concrete
23
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 8 Compacting Concrete
WHAT IS COMPACTION Compaction is done by shaking, or vibrating, the concrete which

liquefies it, allowing the trapped air to rise out. The concrete settles, filling
all the space in the forms.
WHEN TO COMPACT Compaction must be done as concrete is placed, while it is still

plastic. Never let concrete dry-out and stiffen because it will be too hard to
compact. WHY COMPACT Properly compacted concrete is more dense, strong and durable.
Off-form finishes will also be better. EXTERNAL VIBRATION Screeding Screeding
levels and compacts thin concrete slabs and the top layers of thicker slabs. A
screed board will not compact the concrete very well. Mechanical vibration or hand
rodding is required to provide adequate compaction. The Mechanical Screed Concrete
is screeded TWICE. The first screed levels the concrete roughly and compacts it.
The second screed levels and compacts the concrete more. The screed is pulled along
the top of the forms by two workers. Always keep a small amount, or surcharge, of
concrete, in front of both beams of the screed to avoid holes forming in the
surface. If a hollow develops, the screed will not compact the concrete. The
mechanical screed compacts the concrete as it vibrates.
23
Concrete Basics
Compacting Concrete
24
CONTENTS
INTERNAL VIBRATION Internal vibration is done with a mechanical vibrator or poker
vibrator. The POKER is put into concrete and vibrates it from the inside. Method
Make sure there are enough workers so some can compact while others continue to
place. Put the poker into the concrete QUICKLY. Take the poker out very SLOWLY
otherwise a hole, or weak spot, may be left in the concrete.
The SIZE of the poker determines how much concrete is vibrated at one time. The
area vibrated at one time is called the RADIUS OF ACTION. This can be seen by over
what radius air bubbles rise to the surface. The radius of action will be greater
with a LARGER poker and more-workable concrete. Always compact in a definite
pattern so the radius of action overlaps and covers the whole area of the concrete.
The poker should be long enough to reach and enter into the layers of concrete
under the one being compacted.
24
Concrete Basics
Compacting Concrete
CONTENTS
25
PRECAUTIONS Taking the poker out TOO QUICKLY will leave a hole in the concrete. To
close the hole, vibrate near the hole and take the poker out VERY SLOWLY.
NEVER touch the form face with the poker as it can damage the formwork and the
concrete.
NEVER touch the reinforcement with the poker.
NEVER spread or move concrete sideways with the poker, always use a shovel. NEVER
leave the poker running when not in use.
HOW LONG TO COMPACT For concrete of average workability (ie slump of 80 mm) with a
poker size between 25–75 mm, concrete should usually be vibrated for between 5 and
15 seconds. It is worse to UNDER-VIBRATE than to OVER-VIBRATE concrete.
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CHAPTER 9 Finishing Concrete
WHAT IS FINISHING Finishing is screeding, floating or trowelling the concrete

surface to densify and further compact the surface of concrete, as well as giving
it the look you want. Finishing takes place in two stages: INITIAL and FINAL
finishing.
INITIAL FINISHING Concrete is first screeded to the level of the formwork, then
bullfloated and left to set. In some cases screeding leaves a good enough finish,
especially if floor coverings are to be used over the concrete. Water then appears
on the surface of the concrete. This water is called bleed water. No final
finishing can begin until the bleed water has dried up. Mixing bleed water with the
surface paste will weaken it, possibly resulting in a dusty surface. Excess bleed
water can be removed by dragging an ordinary garden hose across the surface of the
concrete. Never try to dry up the bleed water using stone dust or cement as this
will weaken the concrete surface in the long run. Once the bleed water dries up and
concrete can support a person’s weight, with only a slight marking to the surface,
the final finishing can begin.
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FLOATING There may be two stages in floating: The BULLFLOAT, which is part of the
initial float. The POWER or HAND FLOAT which is part of the final float. Floating
helps compact and level the surface and close minor cracks. See CHAPTER 16 Cracking
in Concrete Floating can be done by hand or with a power float. Power floating
leaves a better finish than hand floating.
FINAL FINISHING This involves floating, trowelling, edging, jointing or patterning

the concrete. Special finishes such as brooming, colouring or patterned finishes
can be applied to the surface. See CHAPTER 13 Surface Finishes on Concrete
Trowelling Trowelling leaves a dense, hard, smooth and durable surface. The surface
should be trowelled TWICE. A well trowelled surface will be very smooth and can be
slippery when wet. Trowelling can be done by hand or power trowel.
Edging and Grooving All the edges of a slab should be finished with a special
edging tool. This gives a neater and stronger edge, less prone to chipping. Joints
should be planned before placing and are usually formed into the concrete during
finishing. See CHAPTER 11 Joints in Concrete Once any surface has been finished it
MUST be cured. See CHAPTER 10 Curing Concrete
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CHAPTER 10 Curing Concrete
WHAT IS CURING Curing means to cover the concrete so it stays MOIST. By keeping
concrete moist the bond between the paste and the aggregates gets stronger.
Concrete doesn’t harden properly if it is left to dry out. WHEN TO CURE Curing is
done just after finishing the concrete surface, as soon as it will not be damaged.
Precautions When curing leave the formwork in place to help reduce water loss. In
hot weather (above 30°C), or during high winds and low humidity, concrete can dry
out easily. In these conditions take extra care while curing. See CHAPTER 12 Hot
and Cold Weather Concreting WHY CURE Concrete that is cured is: LESS LIKELY TO
CRACK. More DURABLE. Cured concrete has a surface that wears better, lasts longer
and better protects the steel reinforcement.
Stronger The concrete can carry more weight without breaking.
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HOW TO CURE Concrete is cured by: APPLYING EXTRA WATER to the surface of the
concrete, or STOPPING water loss from the concrete.
Methods The most common methods of curing are explained below. The simplest method
of APPLYING WATER is to put a continuous fine, misty spray of water over the
concrete. BEWARE: The spray must be a very fine mist or else it will damage the
surface of the concrete. Concrete will dry out more quickly in hot weather. Keep
the concrete continuously moist. The most important thing in curing is to keep the
concrete moist at all times. Hosing in the morning and again at night and letting
the concrete dry out in between is no good. Another way to cure concrete is to
cover with PLASTIC SHEETS to slow down water loss. This method is easy and cheap.
The only problem is that the sheets may cause concrete to become darker in places.
To avoid this keep concrete EVENLY moist. The sheets must be held down to stop them
blowing away and the concrete surface drying out. The sheets can be overlapped and
stuck together and/or held down with sand, timber or bricks. Always check under the
plastic from time to time to make sure the concrete is EVENLY moist. If it feels
dry, sprinkle with water and put back the plastic sheets carefully. Condensation on
the underside of the plastic is a good sign.
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Concrete may also be cured by applying a CURING COMPOUND which slows water loss.
This should be applied soon after finishing. Always follow the manufacturer’s
instructions carefully. Curing compounds may be sprayed or brushed on. BEWARE: Some
types of curing compounds may later make it harder or impossible to apply a surface
finish to concrete such as paint, or to stick down floor coverings. When using a
curing compound, check with the supplier to ensure compatibility with surface
coatings or adhesives for future overlay finishes such as vinyl or tiles. In rapid
drying conditions (ie high wind, dry air and/or hot air) the use of an EVAPORATION
RETARDANT minimises the rapid loss of surface moisture and as such reduces the
incidence of early age plastic cracking. See CHAPTER 16 Cracking in Concrete These
products contain a fugitive dye and are applied after initial screeding and
floating, and reapplied after each successive surface working until finished. In
severe conditions retardants will require reapplication. Evaporation retardants are
not curing compounds; their effect is temporary therefore once the concrete is
finished, normal curing techniques should still be used immediately. HOW LONG TO
CURE Concrete keeps getting HARDER AND STRONGER over TIME. Household concrete jobs
MUST be cured for at least 3 DAYS. For better strength and durability, cure
concrete for 7 DAYS. The LONGER concrete is cured, the closer it will be to its
best possible strength and durability. See CHAPTER 2 Concrete Properties and See
CHAPTER 3 Concrete Testing)
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CHAPTER 11 Joints in Concrete
WHAT ARE JOINTS Joints are PLANNED BREAKS in concrete which allow it to move and
prevent random cracking.
WHEN TO MAKE JOINTS Joints can be made at two different times: BEFORE any concrete
is poured. As for Construction joints or Isolation joints. AFTER concrete has been
placed and compacted, as for Control joints. Joints are used to control CRACKING in
concrete. Random cracking can weaken the concrete and spoil its appearance.
TYPES OF JOINTS Control Joints Wet formed joints are inserted with the use of a
grooving tool to create a plane of weakness which conceals where the shrinkage
crack will occur. To be effective the joint must be tooled to a minimum depth of
1/4 to 1/3 the depth of the concrete, eg for 100 mm thick concrete – joint depth
should be a minimum of 25 mm to 35 mm. Control joints may be made while concrete is
hardening by slicing it with a thin piece of metal. The edges of the joints should
be finished with a grooving or edging tool. See CHAPTER 9 Finishing Concrete
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32
Alternatively a crack inducer may be cast, or pressed into, the concrete. Control
joints may also be sawn, but timing is very important. Too early and the sawcut can
ravel and too late the concrete will have already cracked randomly. A joint may be
filled with a flexible filler to minimise water entry and to prevent stones etc
entering which may later cause spalling of the concrete.
The position and number of control joints must be carefully planned. Control joints
in an unreinforced concrete slab should divide it into roughly square areas. (ie A
one-metre-wide path needs a control joint about every one metre). Control joints in
unreinforced concrete should be located at a spacing of a width to depth ratio of
about 20 (to 25) to 1 ie a 100 mm deep slab should have joints every 2 to 2.5 m. In
steel reinforced slabs the joint spacing is controlled by the area of steel. The
more steel there is, the further apart the joints can be. Isolation Joints An
isolation joint totally separates a concrete element from another concrete element,
or a fixed object such as a wall or column, so that each can move and not affect
the other. The joint filling should be full depth and soft. It can be made of cork,
foam rubber, or some other flexible material.
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Construction Joints A construction joint is a place where work finishes

temporarily. Formwork is used to support the edge of the concrete already in place
so that it doesn’t just collapse. Concrete is finished square and the reinforcement
normally runs through the joint. When placing begins again: Remove the formwork and
brush any loose material from the old surface. Roughen the old surface, to expose
the coarse aggregate, to help the new concrete bond properly. Pour the new concrete
against the old surface.
PLANS The position of ALL JOINTS should be shown on the plans for any concrete
slab.
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CHAPTER 12 Hot and Cold Weather Concreting In extremes of heat and cold concrete
must be: HANDLED PLACED COMPACTED FINISHED and CURED carefully. Extremes of heat
and cold mainly cause problems of cracking. When conditions of heat and cold are
expected some of the following precautions will improve the quality of your final
concrete. IN HOT WEATHER Workability In hot and/or windy weather a concrete mix may
stiffen rapidly and not be workable. A 'set retarding' admixture may be added to
the concrete during mixing to give a longer working time. See CHAPTER 2 Concrete
Properties In hot and/or windy weather, if concrete stiffens quickly, a cold
unbonded joint may form between concrete already in place and the new concrete. If
there is a chance of this happening you may need to make a construction joint. See
CHAPTER 11 Joints in Concrete
To Stop Concrete Drying out and Cracking Use one or more of the following: Use
SHADE to keep all materials out of direct sun and keep the aggregates MOIST. DAMPEN
subgrade and formwork, but don’t leave excess water lying around.
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Put up SHADES and WINDBREAKS or try to place in the cooler parts of the day. Avoid
DELAYS once the job begins by planning ahead. Use a 'Set-Retarding' ADMIXTURE.
SPRAY concrete with 'aliphatic Alcohol' after the initial finishing, which reduces
EVAPORATION and CRACKING. CURE concrete carefully. See CHAPTER 10 Curing Concrete
Keep it COOL. In extreme conditions iced water, or other methods, may be used in
the mix to keep it cool. Do not apply cold water to a hot concrete surface as
thermal cracking may result due to the sudden cooling. IN COLD WEATHER Frozen or
very cold water will also slow down the setting time which can cause costly delays.
In extremely cold weather water turns to ice, EXPANDS and can CRACK hardened
concrete. To Stop Water Freezing and Cracking Concrete Use one or more of the
following: Keep all MATERIALS warm. Use WARM WATER in the mix. COVER the formwork
and subgrade, to keep them free of frost and ice.
Use a 'Set-Accelerating' ADMIXTURE. Try to keep concrete as much above 10°C as

possible for the first few days. NEVER lay concrete on frozen ground. CURE concrete
carefully to keep it warm. The best method will be one that KEEPS HEAT in the
concrete. The curing methods should not cool the concrete. An insulating layer may
be needed. In cold climates with frequent freeze/thaw conditions the concrete may
need an Air-Entraining Admixture for long term durability.
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CHAPTER 13 Surface Finishes on Concrete Concrete can be given many different

surface finishes including: BROOMING COLOURING PATTERNING or POLISHING A coloured
or patterned surface finish can make concrete look more attractive and interesting.
CONCRETE In order to minimise problems arising when using any form of coloured
concrete for domestic paving, either a minimum grade of 25 MPa or concrete
containing not less than 280 kg of cement/m3 should be used. Other forms of
decorative concrete, or in commercial work, will normally require a higher grade of
concrete. TEST PANELS To find out how a colour or pattern will look always do a
small test area before beginning the bulk of the work. CURING COLOURED CONCRETE
Curing is the most important step in colouring concrete. The concrete surface must
stay evenly moist or the colour will be uneven. Poorly cured concrete can even
affect a painted concrete surface. See CHAPTER 10 Curing Concrete
COLOURED FINISHES There are four ways to colour concrete. The Dry-Shake Method The
dry-shake method uses a mixture of a mineral oxide pigment (or colour), cement and
specially graded fine aggregates. The colour is added when compaction, screeding
and bleeding has finished, as part of finishing. Uniform reliable results are best
achieved if the concrete is supplied pre-mixed by the supplier using weight batched
dry components. Shake 2/3 of the dry material onto the concrete surface, spreading
it evenly with a float. Leave for a minute or so to soak up some moisture. The Dry-
Shake Method continues on next page Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia
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Shake the last 1/3 of the dry material onto the concrete at right angles to the
first application and again after it has dampened up, spread evenly with a float.
The two applications help to give a more uniform colour and thickness. Re-tool any
edges and joints. See CHAPTER 11 Joints in Concrete After a while the surface must
be re-floated. FULL DEPTH COLOUR The colour is added to the concrete during mixing
so all the concrete is coloured, then the concrete is compacted and finished as for
normal concrete. The colour pigment additives should generally be in the range of
3–7% by weight of the cement. Higher quantities may affect the strength and
durability of the concrete. Check manufacturer details for colour selection. See
CHAPTER 2 Properties of Concrete
Each batch must be accurately proportioned, thoroughly mixed and well floated to
give an even colour. See CHAPTER 9 Finishing Concrete The colour of the cement
powder may effect the shade of the final colour, ie a dark grey cement may affect
light colours. APPLIED FINISHES Applied finishes, including paints, tinted sealers
and trowelled-on coatings provide a wide range of colours and are easily applied to
hardened dry concrete. Paint finishes are either water-based or solvent based. They
will wear easily and will need to be reapplied periodically. CHEMICAL STAINS A
chemical stain soaks into the concrete surface and colours its, only wearing away
as much as the surface does. There is only a limited colour range in concrete
stains.
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STAMPED PATTERN FINISH A number of DIFFERENT PATTERNS can be stamped into the
surface of setting concrete. This includes cobblestone, slate, tile, brick tile and
timber finishes. The concrete is placed and compacted normally, and floated once. A
dry shake colour may also be used. The patter stamps or pads/mats are then placed
carefully on the concrete surface. When mats are used a release agent will be
needed to allow the mat to be removed. At least two moulds are needed to step from
one to another giving continuous and matching patter. Step onto the moulds,
pressing them into the concrete surface to the desired depth; up to 6–10 mm for
cobblestones and less for other patterns. Deep patterns may be a hazard for
pedestrians. When using pads the grooves may be rounded by laying a sheet of
plastic across the concrete surface before stamping. The surface must then be
broomed to give a non-slip finish. Use small handstamps for the edges and any
difficult to reach areas. Brick, or tile finishes, (stencilled concrete) can be
obtained by floating a paper template into the concrete surface before applying a
dry shake. The template forms the mortar lines. EXPOSED AGGREGATE FINISH An exposed
aggregate finish can be an attractive decorative finish. Different sizes and
colours of aggregates allow many different looks. The concrete can be made as
normal, and the course aggregate exposed. This is done by waiting until the surface
is firm, but not dry, then brush, wash or broom away any cement paste until the
aggregates are exposed. Then cure the concrete. A surface retardant can be used to
aid the process. Alternatively, there are two ways to get an exposed aggregate
finish by adding special aggregates to the surface. Method A Place, compact and
level the concrete to about 10 mm below the top of the forms. Spread selected
aggregates over the concrete in a layer and press them into the concrete until
completely covered.
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Method B Place, compact and level concrete to about 5 mm below the top of the
forms. Mix a 'Topping Coat' – A mix of aggregates and cement paste in the ratio
2:1. Use only enough water to make the coat workable. See CHAPTER 2 Concrete
Properties Spread the topping over the concrete, level, tamp down and finish with a
trowel.
FOR BOTH METHODS leave the concrete until the cement paste on the surface is firm,
but not dry, then brush or with a fine mist spray wash away some of the cement
paste covering the aggregates. In both cases extra cleaning can be done with a
dilute solution of hydrochloric acid. The solution should be 1 part acid to 20
parts water. Wet the concrete first and rinse off thoroughly afterwards. Observe
safety procedures. See CHAPTER 15 Removing Stains from Concrete To see what an
aggregate finish will look like, do a test area first. Different colours of cement
can be used to get a better effect. For instance a white or off-white cement may be
used with a light stone where a grey cement may create a clash of colours. A
BROOMED FINISH To give a skid-resistance surface a stiff, or soft, bristle broom
can simply be drawn across the surface of concrete. The broom can be drawn in
straight or 's' shape lines. POLISHED CONCRETE Polished concrete is a finish used
on the interior and exterior of dwellings. A variety of finishes can be achieved by
using different techniques or products. The different finishes can be achieved by
using liquid polishes, latex coatings, chemical sealers, grinding to expose the
aggregates, colours, stains and special aggregates to achieve other desired
effects. For further details please refer to Polished Concrete Floors – Briefing
05.
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CHAPTER 14 Defects in Concrete Some defects are obvious only to a trained eye,
others, such as cracking, are obvious to anyone. Some common defects, their causes
and how to prevent and repair them are explained below. If in doubt please consult
an expert. COLOUR VARIATION Difference in colour across the surface of concrete.
May appear as patches of light and dark. Causes Uneven or variable curing
conditions. See CHAPTER 10 Curing Applying a different brand or type of cement to
the surface as a 'drier'. Prevention Use an even concrete mix when placing,
compacting and finishing and keep concrete evenly moist. Do not use driers. Repair
Many colour variations from workmanship will be permanent. To hide the variation a
SURFACE COATING can be applied. Rectification of colour variation from stains is a
very difficult operation and may need repeated gentle treatments with a weak acid.
See CHAPTER 15 Removing Stains from Concrete. CRAZING A network of fine cracks
across the surface of concrete. Causes Crazing is caused by minor surface shrinkage
in rapid drying conditions. (ie Low humidity and hot temperatures, or alternate
wetting and drying.) Prevention Finish and cure concrete correctly. See CHAPTER 9
Finishing Concrete and See CHAPTER 10 Curing Concrete Repair Repair may not be
necessary because crazing will not weaken concrete. If the crazing looks too bad
then a surface coating of a paint or other overlay sealer can be applied to cover
and/or minimise the effect of the cracks. See CHAPTER 13 Surface Finishes on
Concrete Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia
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DUSTING A fine powder on the concrete surface which comes off on your fingers.
Causes Finishing before the bleed water has dried. Also finishing during the rain.
See CHAPTER 9 Finishing Concrete Not curing properly, or the surface is drying too
quickly. See CHAPTER 10 Curing Concrete Concrete subject to severe abrasion or of
too low a grade for the end use. Prevention Let any bleed water dry up before
trowelling or in cold conditions remove the water. Cure correctly. See CHAPTER 10
Curing Concrete Protect concrete from drying out too quickly in hot or windy
conditions. For harsh conditions use a stronger concrete. Repair As previously
detailed, dusting concrete surfaces result from inadequate attention to prescribed
placement and finishing practices namely, the addition of excess water, working in
of bleedwater, the inadequate compaction and curing of concrete. Where surface
dusting is minimal the application of a surface hardener can be beneficial. If the
surface is showing significant wear distress it is essential to remove all loose
material by grinding or scrapping the surface to a sound base and then applying a
suitable topping. RAIN DAMAGE The surface has bits washed away or many small dents.
Causes Heavy rain while concrete is setting or rainwater being allowed to run
across the concrete surface. Prevention Cover the concrete if it is raining or it
looks like it might rain. Don’t lay concrete if it looks like it might rain. Repair
If the concrete has not hardened and damage is minimal the surface can be refloated
and re-trowelled taking care not to overwork excess water into the surface. See
CHAPTER 9 Finishing Concrete If the concrete has hardened it may be possible to
grind or scrape the minimal amount of the surface layer and apply a topping layer
of new concrete or a repair compound. This may not always be possible and should
only be done with expert advice.
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SPALLING When the slab edges and joints chip or break leaving an elongated cavity.
Causes Edges of joints break because of heavy loads or impact with hard objects. As
concrete expands and contracts the weak edges may crack and break. Entry of hard
objects, such as stones, into joints may cause spalling when the concrete expands.
Poor compaction of concrete at joints. Prevention Design the joints carefully. Keep
joints free from rubbish. Keep heavy loads away from the joints and edges until
they have properly hardened. Ensure proper compaction. Repair For small spalled
areas: scrape, chip or grind away the weak areas until you reach sound concrete,
making sure you brush the old concrete clean of any loose material. Then refill the
area with new concrete or repair mortar. Compact, finish and cure the new patch
carefully. Care should be taken that all joints be maintained and not filled. For
large spalled areas: seek expert advice EFFLORESCENCE A white crystalline deposit
sometimes found on the surface of concrete soon after it is finished. Causes
Sometimes mineral salts are dissolved in water. If water with dissolved mineral
salts collect on the concrete surface as water evaporates salt deposits are left on
the surface. Excess bleeding can also result in efflorescence. Prevention Use
clean, salt-free water and washed sands. Avoid excessive bleeding. Repair Remove
efflorescence by dry brushing and washing with clean water. Do not use a wire
brush. Wash with a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid.
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HONEYCOMBING When too much coarse aggregate appears on the surface. Causes Poor
compaction, segregation during placing or paste leakage from forms. A poor concrete
mix with not enough fine aggregate causing a rocky mix. Prevention Use a better mix
design. Take care during placing concrete to avoid segregation. Compact concrete
properly. Good watertight formwork. Repair If honeycombing happens only on the
surface it can be rendered. If honeycombing happens throughout the concrete it may
need to be removed and replaced. The surface may require rendering. Rendering means
to cover the surface with a layer of mortar.
BLISTERING Blisters are hollow, low profile bumps on the concrete surface filled
with either air or bleed water. Causes They are caused when the fresh concrete
surface is sealed by trowelling while trapping air or bleed water under the
surface. This may particularly occur in thick slabs or on hot, windy days when the
surface is prone to drying out. Prevention After placing, screeding and floating
leave the concrete as long as possible before trowelling, which seals the surface.
Cure to prevent evaporation. If blisters are forming delay trowelling as long as
possible and take steps to reduce evaporation. Repair Grind off the weakened layer
to an even finish.
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CHAPTER 15 Removing Stains from Concrete Simple stains and everyday grime can be
removed by washing and scrubbing. Water jet washing may also be successful. Stains
from oil, rust or paint leave ugly marks on concrete, ruining its appearance. These
stains soak into the concrete surface and can often be very difficult to remove. A
stain may be removed using a special chemical stain remover, or a specially
prepared chemical mix. In extreme cases if a stain cannot be removed chemically, it
may be sand blasted. This removes the surface of the concrete and may expose the
aggregates. Some types of stains can be covered by simply painting over with a
concrete paint. However oil based stains may soak through a paint and must be
removed first. SAFETY When using any chemicals mentioned in this chapter always
wear protective clothing, gloves and shoes. Protective eye goggles and face masks
may also be necessary. Don’t breathe in fumes from any of these chemicals. If
chemicals come in contact with skin or eyes, wash the area with plenty of cold
water, and seek doctor’s advice. Always read the safety directions on the label of
any chemical container prior to starting work.
Ways to remove specific stains are: OIL AND GREASE STAINS These can be difficult to
remove completely because they tend to soak into the concrete surface. If the oil
or grease has hardened it can simply be scraped off. If an oil or grease spill has
just occurred, stop it spreading by encircling it with sand, dirt, sawdust or cat
litter. These can also be used to assist in soaking up or removing as much of the
oil and grease as possible.
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Cover residue stain with a poultice made of 1 part lime to 2 parts mineral
turpentine. Spread a 5 mm layer of the paste over the stained area ensuring the
spread is 50–100 mm beyond the edge of the stained area. Cover with plastic
sheeting and leave for 24 hours. Remove the cover and scrape off the powder. It may
be necessary to repeat this process again within a day or so to remove any deeply
ingrained oil or grease. Scrub with warm water and laundry detergent then rinse
with clean water at the end of the treatment.
RUST External rust, from objects placed on the concrete, may be removed with a
detergent based concrete cleaner or a weak solution (1:25) of hydrochloric acid (if
this is not successful please seek professional advice). Prior to applying the acid
solution, wet the concrete first and always wash down the surface with clean water
afterwards. Be careful where the run off goes as it may create problems on other
concrete surfaces or gardens. A poultice method may also be used. Stains from
rusting of the embedded steel reinforcement, if this type of stain is present, seek
professional advice. TIMBER Timber stains wash off with a domestic chlorine bleach.
Scrub the area with bleach. Wash with water. If this does not work well, mix 120
grams of oxalic acid with 4 litres of hot water. Apply, wash off and neutralise
with a solution of bicarbonate of soda and water.
PAINT Paint spillage stains come off best with a paint remover.
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ALGAL AND FUNGAL GROWTH Algal and fungal stains are removed with domestic chlorine
bleach. Wash and scrub the area with bleach. Leave for a few days. Scrub or scrape
growth off. Wash with water.
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CHAPTER 16 Cracking in Concrete Random cracking in concrete is not desirable, it

can make your concrete look ugly and lead to structural weakness of the concrete.
Reinforcement and joints are used to control cracking. Bad cracking leaves the
reinforcement exposed to air and moisture, which may cause it to rust and weaken
concrete. See CHAPTER 11 Joints in Concrete and See CHAPTER 17 Reinforced Concrete
TYPES OF CRACKS Two types of cracks happen in reinforced concrete: PRE-SETTING
CRACKS Cracks that happen BEFORE concrete hardens, while it is still workable.
HARDENED CRACKING Cracks which happen AFTER concrete hardens. PRE-SETTING CRACKS
Pre-setting cracks are cracks which form during placing, compaction and finishing
caused by movement of concrete before it is dry. There are three types of pre-
setting cracks: PLASTIC SETTLEMENT cracks PLASTIC SHRINKAGE cracks, and Cracks
caused by MOVEMENT OF THE FORMWORK. Pre-setting cracks can be prevented by looking
for them as they happen, while the concrete is still setting. If they are detected
early on they can be easily fixed by re-compacting, re-trowelling or re-floating
the concrete surface.
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Plastic Settlement Cracks When do they form? They form soon after concrete is
placed, while it is still plastic. They get bigger as concrete dries and shrinks
and tend to follow the lines of reinforcement. Prevention Revibrate the concrete.
Re-trowel the surface. Look for cracks as the concrete is setting. At this stage
they can easily be fixed.
Plastic Shrinkage Cracks When do they form? On very hot days or in low humidity and
moderate winds. Cracking is more common in summer but may occur during winter. See
CHAPTER 12 Hot and Cold Weather Concreting Plastic shrinkage cracks appear in
lines, roughly parallel or in a crazed haphazard way. They are usually 300–600 mm
long but may be between 25 mm and 2 m in length.
Prevention Dampen the subgrade and forms and protect concrete from the wind.
Keep all materials cool on hot days.
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Place, compact and cure as quickly as possible on hot days so concrete won’t dry
out. Once the concrete has been compacted, screeded and floated apply a uniform
spray film of EVAPORATIVE RETARDANT (Aliphatic Alcohol) to prevent rapid loss of
surface moisture, then continue with finishing. Try to place at the cooler times of
the day. Repair Cracks may be closed by reworking the plastic concrete.
Formwork Movement If formwork is not strong enough it may bend or bulge. Formwork
movement may happen at any time during placement and compaction. Prevention Make
sure formwork is strong. If the concrete collapses, strengthen the formwork and re-
vibrate the concrete. Thermal Shock Applying cold water, as curing, over concrete
on a hot day can result in cracks from the sudden contraction. Prevention Use warm
water.
CRACKS AFTER HARDENING Cracks after hardening may be caused by drying shrinkage,
movement or settling of the ground, or placing higher loads on the concrete than it
was designed to carry. Little can be done with cracks after hardening. Careful and
correct placement helps prevent serious cracking after hardening. Only uncontrolled
cracks are a possible problem. Cracks at control joints or controlled by steel
reinforcing is expected and acceptable.
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Reinforced Concrete
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 17 Reinforced Concrete The steel found in many concrete structures is

called REINFORCEMENT. Reinforcement helps concrete resist TENSILE and SHEAR forces,
and helps control CRACKING in concrete. CONCRETE PROPERTIES Normal Concrete: HIGH
compressive strength VERY LOW tensile strength VERY LOW shear strength
Reinforced Concrete: VERY HIGH compressive strength VERY HIGH tensile strength VERY
HIGH shear strength
WHY USE REINFORCEMENT? As a force is applied to concrete there will be compressive,

tensile and shear forces acting on the concrete. Concrete naturally resists
compression (squashing), very well, but is relatively weak in tension (stretching).
Horizontal and/or vertical reinforcement is used in all types of concrete
structures where tensile or shear forces may crack or break the concrete.
HORIZONTAL reinforcement helps resist tension forces. VERTICAL reinforcement helps
resist shear forces.
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Concrete Basics
Reinforced Concrete
CONTENTS
51
Below are some examples of reinforcement use: In a SUSPENDED (off-the-ground)

concrete slab, horizontal reinforcement resists tension and vertical reinforcement
(in say supporting beams) resists shear forces. In a SLAB-ON-GROUND, reinforcement
increases the tensile strength and helps control the width of shrinkage cracks. See
CHAPTER 16 Cracking in Concrete It does not prevent cracks but controls the width
that cracks can open. Uses of reinforcement include: Increasing the spacing of
control joints Odd shaped slabs Slabs with re-entrant corners. REINFORCEMENT
POSITION The position of reinforcement will be shown in the plans. Reinforcement
must be fixed in the right position to best resist compressive, tensile and shear
forces and help control cracking. The reinforcement in trenches and slabs rests on
BAR CHAIRS and must be securely fixed to the bar chairs so it won’t move when
concrete is placed around it. Concrete Cover The reinforcement must be placed so
there is enough concrete covering it to protect it from rusting. Typical covers are
shown in the diagram. To ensure durability, both the concrete cover and strength
should be shown in the plans.
51
Concrete Basics
Reinforced Concrete
52
CONTENTS
Cracking and Reinforcement Reinforcement alone WILL NOT STOP cracking, but helps
control cracking. It is used to control the width of shrinkage cracks. See CHAPTER
16 Cracking in Concrete Concrete Reinforcement Bond To help control the width of
cracks, or their location (at joints), there must be a strong bond between concrete
and reinforcement. This allows the tensile forces (which concrete has a very low
ability to resist) to be transferred to the reinforcement. To help achieve a strong
bond: The reinforcement should be CLEAN (free from flakey rust, dirt or grease).
The concrete should be PROPERLY COMPACTED around the reinforcement bars.
Reinforcing bars and mesh should be located so that there is enough room between
the bars to place and compact the concrete. To improve the transfer of tensile
forces to the steel, the reinforcement is often anchored by: BENDING, HOOKING, or
LAPPING the bars.
Types of Reinforcement Two types of steel reinforcement used are mesh sheets or
loose bars. Loose bars are normally deformed, while mesh may be made from either
smooth or deformed bars. Typical bar diameters are 12, 16, 20 and 24 mm. Typical
mesh sizes are SL42, 52, 62, 72 and 82. The SL stands for Square mesh Low Ductility
and the numbers represent meanings as well. For example for SL42 the 4 is the
nominal bar size and the 2 refers to the wire spacing (200 mm).
Fibre Reinforcement Synthetic fibres can be added to concrete to aid in minimising

early age plastic shrinkage and can reduce the presence of excessive bleedwater.
However, synthetic fibres are not a replacement for fabric or steel reinforcement.
In slab on ground construction the control joint spacing is the same as plain
concrete. Steel fibres are used for the above and to improve the toughness of
concrete. However they can be used to control drying shrinkage cracking over
limited spacings and for oddshaped slabs. They also increase the flexural, or
bending, strength of concrete.
52
Concrete Basics
Formwork
CONTENTS
53
CHAPTER 18 Formwork Formwork gives concrete its SHAPE. Formwork provides a mould,
into which concrete is placed. When concrete has hardened the formwork is removed.
Formwork must be: ACCURATE STRONG, and WELL MADE. Formwork that is not will leak
from the joints, may sag, bulge or move and, especially in large construction, will
not be safe. The surface of the forms in contact with concrete affects how concrete
will look. If the final look of the concrete is important choose a material which
will leave the surface texture wanted. PLACEMENT Be sure that formwork is placed so
it can be removed. If formwork is placed in awkward positions or tight corners it
may be difficult to remove when the concrete had hardened. It is helpful if
formwork is: SIMPLE to build, EASY to hand, and RE-USEABLE. Formwork sections
should be of simple design, not too big and of standard sizes if they are to be re-
used. MATERIALS Formwork is normally made from steel or timber. Timber is easy to
make into formwork while steel will allow a greater number of re-uses. Formwork can
be made on site or bought from formwork suppliers. Special forms made from various
materials can be purchased for forming waffle slabs, circular columns and other
special profiles.
53
Concrete Basics
Formwork
CONTENTS
54
REMOVAL TIMES Form Oil should be applied to the inside of the formwork to stop it
sticking to the concrete and make removal easier. Coat BEFORE the reinforcement is
put in place. Formwork may be left in place to help curing. See CHAPTER 10 Curing
Concrete Removal time may vary according to the weather, In cold weather, concrete
may take longer to gain strength than in warmer weather, therefore removal times
will be longer. In normal conditions (around 20°C) 7 days is long enough to leave
the forms in place unless the concrete is suspended when other conditions apply.
54
Concrete Basics
More Information
55
CONTENTS
MORE Information
Table 1 METRIC MEASUREMENTS, some useful approximations 10 millimetres (mm) 25 mm

100 mm 300 mm 1 metre (1000 mm) 1 square metre (1 m2) 1 cubic metre (1 m3) 1 litre
4.5 litres 1 kilograms (kg)
0.4 inch (in) 1 in 4 in 1 foot (ft) 3 ft 3.37 in 10.76 ft2 or 1.2 yard2 (yd2) 35
ft3 or 1.3 yd3 1.75 pint (pt) 1 gallon 2.2 pounds (lb)
If you found Concrete Basics to be useful you may also find the following Cement
Concrete & Aggregates Australia publications available for sale through Standards
Australia (1300 654 646 or www.standards.com.au) to be of interest: Guide to
Concrete Construction C&CAA T41 – 2002 A valuable guide for anyone involved in
concrete construction projects of any size. Provides a guide to the materials,
manufacture, testing and properties of concrete and details techniques and
practices for carrying out various operations involved in concrete construction.
Concrete Practice on Building Sites C&CAA T43 – 1995 Provides a guide to good
practice regarding all aspects of concreting activities on building sites. This
user-friendly guide advises on forming, reinforcing, handling, placing, compacting,
finishing and curing of concrete.
The following FREE OF CHARGE publications and data sheets may also be useful to
you. These can be downloaded from www.concrete.net.au. The Housing Concrete
Handbook Supported by the Housing Industry Association of Australia this
publication is designed for house-builders and on-site workers. Providing more
detailed information than Concrete Basics it acts as a solid reference guide to
understanding, ordering and handling concrete and other cement-based materials to
ensure good quality concreting practices. The Housing Concrete Handbook
55
Concrete Basics
More Information
CONTENTS
56
DATA SHEETS Assessing Concrete Volumes Curing of Concrete Compaction of Concrete

Avoiding Surface Imperfections in Concrete – a series of data sheets covering
Crazing, Popouts, Honeycombing, Dusting and Flaking Plastic Shrinkage Cracking
Plastic Settlement Cracking Cleaning Concrete
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia is committed to being the major source of
information on cement, concrete and aggregates in Australia. For a complete listing
of all retail and free publications please visit and bookmark the CCAA website
www.concrete.net.au.
56
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Contact information
Ronald F. Clayton
[email protected]
Address:
46748 Colby MotorwayHettingermouth, QC T3J 3P0

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Concrete Basics Contents 1 CONCRETE BASICS A Guide to Concrete Practice Presented

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CONCRETE BASICS A Guide to Concrete Practice Presented By

Proportioning and Mixing Concrete

Planning and Site Preparation

Transporting and Placing Concrete

Hot and Cold Weather Concreting

Surface Finishes on Concrete

Removing Stains from Concrete

pages 53–54 pages 55–56

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Concrete Basics CONTENTS

Foreword Concrete is widely used in domestic, commercial, recreational, rural and

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

AGGREGATES 65–80% of mix volume

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

CHAPTER 2 Concrete Properties The Properties of Concrete are its characteristics or

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Cohesiveness Cohesiveness is how well concrete HOLDS TOGETHER when plastic.

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The Slump Test continues on the next page

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The Compression Test continues on the next page

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Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Proportioning and Mixing Concrete

CHAPTER 5 Proportioning and Mixing Concrete A CONCRETE MIX is designed to produce

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Proportioning and Mixing Concrete

AGGREGATES Too much fine aggregate gives a sticky mix.

Too much coarse aggregate gives a harsh or boney mix.

Planning and Site Preparation

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Planning and Site Preparation

Planning and Site Preparation

REINFORCEMENT LOCATION Reinforcement can be used to increase the strength of

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Transporting and Placing Concrete

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

Transporting and Placing Concrete

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

CHAPTER 8 Compacting Concrete

WHAT IS COMPACTION Compaction is done by shaking, or vibrating, the concrete which

WHEN TO COMPACT Compaction must be done as concrete is placed, while it is still

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Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

NEVER touch the reinforcement with the poker.

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia