Republic of the Philippines

Biliran Province State University

(formerly NAVAL STATE UNIVERSITY)
School of Engineering
ISO 9001:2015 CERTIFIED

MODULE 3

TRANSISTORS: BIPOLAR JUNCTION

TRANSISTORS, FIELD-EFFECTMTRANSISTORS
Electronic Circuits: Devices and Analysis (Lecture)

(EE 243)

Prepared by:
Engr. Dante Añasco
Instructor
 CHAPTER I
TRANSISTOR

A Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device that regulates current or voltage

flow and acts as a switch or gate for signals.

Uses of a transistor
 A transistor acts as an Amplifier, where the signal strength has to be increased.
 A transistor also acts as a switch to choose between available options.
 It also regulates the incoming current and voltage of the signals.

Constructional Details of a Transistor

The Transistor is a three terminal solid state device which is formed by connecting two
diodes back to back. Hence it has got two PN junctions. Three terminals are drawn out
of the three semiconductor materials present in it. This type of connection offers two
types of transistors. They are PNP and NPN which means an N-type material between
two Ptypes and the other is a P-type material between two N-types respectively.
The following illustration shows the basic construction of transistors

The three terminals drawn from the transistor indicate Emitter,

Base and Collector terminals. They have their functionality as discussed below.

Emitter
 The left-hand side of the above shown structure can be understood as Emitter.
 This has a moderate size and is heavily doped as its main function is to supply a
number of majority carriers, i.e. either electrons or holes.
  As this emits electrons, it is called as an Emitter.
 This is simply indicated with the letter E.

Base
 The middle material in the above figure is the Base.
 This is thin and lightly doped.
 Its main function is to pass the majority carriers from the emitter to the collector.
 This is indicated by the letter B.

Collector
 The right side material in the above figure can be understood as a Collector.
 Its name implies its function of collecting the carriers.
 This is a bit larger in size than emitter and base. It is moderately doped.
 This is indicated by the letter C.
The symbols of PNP and NPN transistors are as shown below.

The arrow-head in the above figures indicated the emitter of a transistor. As the
collector of a transistor has to dissipate much greater power, it is made large. Due to the
specific functions of emitter and collector, they are not interchangeable. Hence the
terminals are always to be kept in mind while using a transistor.
In a Practical transistor, there is a notch present near the emitter lead for identification.
The PNP and NPN transistors can be differentiated using a Multimeter. The following
image shows how different practical transistors look like.
We have so far discussed the constructional details of a transistor, but to understand the
operation of a transistor, first we need to know about the biasing.

Transistor Biasing
As we know that a transistor is a combination of two diodes, we have two junctions here.
As one junction is between the emitter and base, that is called as Emitter-Base
junction and likewise, the other is Collector-Base junction.
Biasing is controlling the operation of the circuit by providing power supply. The function
of both the PN junctions is controlled by providing bias to the circuit through some dc
supply. The figure below shows how a transistor is biased.
By having a look at the above figure, it is understood that
 The N-type material is provided negative supply and P-type material is given
positive supply to make the circuit Forward bias.
 The N-type material is provided positive supply and P-type material is given
negative supply to make the circuit Reverse bias.
By applying the power, the emitter base junction is always forward biased as the
emitter resistance is very small. The collector base junction is reverse biased and its
resistance is a bit higher. A small forward bias is sufficient at the emitter junction whereas
a high reverse bias has to be applied at the collector junction.
The direction of current indicated in the circuits above, also called as the Conventional
Current, is the movement of hole current which is opposite to the electron current.

Operation of PNP Transistor

The operation of a PNP transistor can be explained by having a look at the following
figure, in which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is
reverse biased.
The voltage VEE provides a positive potential at the emitter which repels the holes in the
P-type material and these holes cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base
region. There a very low percent of holes re-combine with free electrons of N-region.
This provides very low current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes
cross the collector-base junction, to constitute collector current IC, which is the hole
current.
As a hole reaches the collector terminal, an electron from the battery negative terminal
fills the space in the collector. This flow slowly increases and the electron minority current
flows through the emitter, where each electron entering the positive terminal of VEE, is
replaced by a hole by moving towards the emitter junction. This constitutes emitter
current IE.
Hence we can understand that −
 The conduction in a PNP transistor takes place through holes.
 The collector current is slightly less than the emitter current.
 The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.

Operation of NPN Transistor

The operation of an NPN transistor can be explained by having a look at the following
figure, in which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is
reverse biased.
The voltage VEE provides a negative potential at the emitter which repels the electrons in
the N-type material and these electrons cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the
base region. There, a very low percent of electrons re-combine with free holes of P-
region. This provides very low current which constitutes the base current IB. The
remaining holes cross the collector-base junction, to constitute the collector current IC.
As an electron reaches out of the collector terminal, and enters the positive terminal of
the battery, an electron from the negative terminal of the battery VEE enters the emitter
region. This flow slowly increases and the electron current flows through the transistor.
Hence we can understand that −
 The conduction in a NPN transistor takes place through electrons.
 The collector current is higher than the emitter current.
 The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.

Advantages of Transistors
There are many advantages of using a transistor, such as −

 High voltage gain.

 Lower supply voltage is sufficient.
 Most suitable for low power applications.
 Smaller and lighter in weight.
 Mechanically stronger than vacuum tubes.
 No external heating required like vacuum tubes.
 Very suitable to integrate with resistors and diodes to produce ICs.
There are few disadvantages such as they cannot be used for high power applications
due to lower power dissipation. They have lower input impedance and they are
temperature dependent.
 CHAPTER II
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

Introduction to Bipolar Junction Transistors

The invention of the bipolar transistor in 1948 ushered in a revolution in
electronics. Technical feats previously requiring relatively large, mechanically
fragile, power-hungry vacuum tubes were suddenly achievable with tiny,
mechanically rugged, power-thrifty specks of crystalline silicon. This revolution
made possible the design and manufacture of lightweight, inexpensive
electronic devices that we now take for granted. Understanding how
transistors function is of paramount importance to anyone interested in
understanding modern electronics.

The Function and Applications for Bipolar Junction Transistors

My intent here is to focus as exclusively as possible on the practical function
and application of bipolar transistors, rather than to explore the quantum world
of semiconductor theory. Discussions of holes and electrons are better left
to another chapter in my opinion. Here I want to explore how to use these
components, not analyze their intimate internal details. I don’t mean to
downplay the importance of understanding semiconductor physics, but
sometimes an intense focus on solid-state physics detracts from
understanding these devices’ functions on a component level. In taking this
approach, however, I assume that the reader possesses a certain minimum
knowledge of semiconductors: the difference between “P” and “N” doped
semiconductors, the functional characteristics of a PN (diode) junction, and
the meanings of the terms “reverse biased” and “forward biased.” If these
concepts are unclear to you, it is best to refer to earlier chapters in this book
before proceeding with this one.
BJT Layers
A bipolar transistor consists of a three-layer “sandwich” of doped (extrinsic)
semiconductor materials, (a and c) either P-N-P or N-P-N (b and c ). Each
layer forming the transistor has a specific name, and each layer is provided
with a wire contact for connection to a circuit. The schematic symbols are
shown in the figure (a) and (c).
BJT transistor: (a) PNP schematic symbol, (b) layout (c) NPN schematic
symbol, (d) layout.
The functional difference between a PNP transistor and an NPN transistor is
the proper biasing (polarity) of the junctions when operating.
Bipolar transistors work as current-controlled current regulators. In other
words, transistors restrict the amount of current passed according to a
smaller, controlling current. The main current that is controlled goes from
collector to emitter, or from emitter to collector, depending on the type of
transistor it is (NPN or PNP, respectively). The small current that controls the
main current goes from base to emitter, or from emitter to base, once again
depending on the kind of transistor it is (NPN or PNP, respectively). According
to the standards of semiconductor symbology, the arrow always points in the
direction of current flow.

The direction of the small, controlling current and the large controlled current
for (a) a PNP and (b) an NPN transistor.
Bipolar Transistors Contain Two Types of Semiconductor Material
Bipolar transistors are called bipolar because the main flow of current through
them takes place in two types of semiconductor material: P and N, as the
main current goes from emitter to collector (or vice versa). In other words, two
types of charge carriers—electrons and holes—comprise this main current
through the transistor.
As you can see, the controlling current and the controlled current always
mesh together through the emitter wire, and their currents flow in the direction
of the transistor’s arrow. This is the first and foremost rule in the use of
transistors: all currents must be going in the proper directions for the device to
work as a current regulator. The small, controlling current is usually referred to
simply as the base current because it is the only current that goes through the
base wire of the transistor. Conversely, the large, controlled current is referred
to as the collector current because it is the only current that goes through the
collector wire. The emitter current is the sum of the base and collector
currents, in compliance with Kirchhoff’s Current Law.
No current through the base of the transistor shuts the transistor off like an
open switch and prevents current through the collector. A base current turns
the transistor on like a closed switch and allows a proportional amount of
current through the collector. Collector current is primarily limited by the base
current, regardless of the amount of voltage available to push it. The next
section will explore in more detail the use of bipolar transistors as switching
elements.
REVIEW:

 Bipolar transistors are so named because the controlled current must go

through two types of semiconductor material: P and N. The current
consists of both electron and hole flow, in different parts of the transistor.
 Bipolar transistors consist of either a P-N-P or an N-P-N semiconductor
“sandwich” structure.
 The three leads of a bipolar transistor are called the Emitter, Base,
and Collector.
 Transistors function as current regulators by allowing a small current
to control a larger current. The amount of current allowed between
collector and emitter is primarily determined by the amount of current
moving between base and emitter.
 In order for a transistor to properly function as a current regulator, the
controlling (base) current and the controlled (collector) currents must be
going in the proper directions: meshing additively at the emitter and going
in the direction of the emitter arrow symbol.
 CHAPTER III
FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS

A Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a three-terminal semiconductor device. Its operation is

based on a controlled input voltage. By appearance JFET and bipolar transistors are
very similar. However, BJT is a current controlled device and JFET is controlled by input
voltage. Most commonly two types of FETs are available.

 Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

 Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (IGFET)

Junction Field Effect Transistor

The functioning of Junction Field Effect Transistor depends upon the flow of majority
carriers (electrons or holes) only. Basically, JFETs consist of an N type or P type silicon
bar containing PN junctions at the sides. Following are some important points to
remember about FET −
 Gate − By using diffusion or alloying technique, both sides of N type bar are
heavily doped to create PN junction. These doped regions are called gate (G).
 Source − It is the entry point for majority carriers through which they enter into the
semiconductor bar.
 Drain − It is the exit point for majority carriers through which they leave the
semiconductor bar.
 Channel − It is the area of N type material through which majority carriers pass
from the source to drain.
There are two types of JFETs commonly used in the field semiconductor devices: N-
Channel JFET and P-Channel JFET.

N-Channel JFET

It has a thin layer of N type material formed on P type substrate. Following figure shows
the crystal structure and schematic symbol of an N-channel JFET. Then the gate is
formed on top of the N channel with P type material. At the end of the channel and the
gate, lead wires are attached and the substrate has no connection.
When a DC voltage source is connected to the source and the drain leads of a JFET,
maximum current will flow through the channel. The same amount of current will flow
from the source and the drain terminals. The amount of channel current flow will be
determined by the value of VDD and the internal resistance of the channel.
A typical value of source-drain resistance of a JFET is quite a few hundred ohms. It is
clear that even when the gate is open full current conduction will take place in the
channel. Essentially, the amount of bias voltage applied at ID, controls the flow of current
carriers passing through the channel of a JFET. With a small change in gate voltage,
JFET can be controlled anywhere between full conduction and cutoff state.

P-Channel JFETs

It has a thin layer of P type material formed on N type substrate. The following figure
shows the crystal structure and schematic symbol of an N-channel JFET. The gate is
formed on top of the P channel with N type material. At the end of the channel and the
gate, lead wires are attached. Rest of the construction details are similar to that of N-
channel JFET.
Normally for general operation, the gate terminal is made positive with respect to the
source terminal. The size of the P-N junction depletion layer depends upon fluctuations
in the values of reverse biased gate voltage. With a small change in gate voltage, JFET
can be controlled anywhere between full conduction and cutoff state.

Output Characteristics of JFET

The output characteristics of JFET are drawn between drain current (ID) and drain source
voltage (VDS) at constant gate source voltage (VGS) as shown in the following figure.

Initially, the drain current (ID) rises rapidly with drain source voltage (VDS) however
suddenly becomes constant at a voltage known as pinch-off voltage (VP). Above pinch-
off voltage, the channel width becomes so narrow that it allows very small drain current
to pass through it. Therefore, drain current (ID) remains constant above pinch-off voltage.

Parameters of JFET

The main parameters of JFET are −

 AC drain resistance (Rd)

 Transconductance
 Amplification factor
AC drain resistance (Rd) − It is the ratio of change in the drain source voltage (ΔVDS) to
the change in drain current (ΔID) at constant gate-source voltage. It can be expressed
as,
Rd = (ΔVDS)/(ΔID) at Constant VGS
Transconductance (gfs) − It is the ratio of change in drain current (ΔID) to the change in
gate source voltage (ΔVGS) at constant drain-source voltage. It can be expressed as,
gfs = (ΔID)/(ΔVGS) at constant VDS
Amplification Factor (u) − It is the ratio of change in drain-source voltage (ΔVDS) to the
change in gate source voltage (ΔVGS) constant drain current (ΔID). It can be expressed
as,
u = (ΔVDS)/(ΔVGS) at constant ID

Self-Bias Method
The following figure shows the self-bias method of n-channel JFET. The drain current
flows through Rs and produces the required bias voltage. Therefore, Rs is the bias
resistor.
Therefore, voltage across bias resistor,
$$V_s = I_{DRS}$$
As we know, gate current is negligibly small, the gate terminal is at DC ground, V G = 0,
$$V_{GS} = V_G - V_s = 0 - I_{DRS}$$
Or $V_{GS} = -I_{DRS}$
VGS keeps gate negative w.r.t. to the source.

Voltage Divider Method

The following figure shows voltage divider method of biasing the JFETs. Here, resistor
R1 and R2 form a voltage divider circuit across drain supply voltage (VDD), and it is more
or less identical to the one used in transistor biasing.
The voltage across R2 provides necessary bias −
$$V_2 = V_G = \frac{V_{DD}}{R_1 + R_2} \times R_2$$
$= V_2 + V_{GS} + I_D + R_S$
Or $V_{GS} = V_2 - I_{DRS}$
The circuit is so designed that VGS is always negative. The operating point can be found
using the following formula −
$$I_D = \frac{V_2 - V_{GS}}{R_S}$$
and $V_{DS} = V_{DD} - I_D(R_D + R_S)$
Metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors, also known as MOSFETs, have
greater importance and are a new addition to the FET family.
It has a lightly doped P type substrate into which two highly doped N type zones are
diffused. A unique feature of this device is its gate construction. Here, the gate is
completely insulated from the channel. When voltage is applied to the gate, it will develop
an electrostatic charge.
At this point of time, no current is allowed to flow in the gate region of the device. Also,
the gate is an area of the device, which is coated with metal. Generally, silicon dioxide
is used as an insulating material between the gate and the channel. Due to this reason,
it is also known as insulated gate FET. There are two MOSFETS widely used i)
Depletion MOSFET ii) Enhancement MOSFET.

D MOSFET

The following figures show n-channel D-MOSFET and the symbol. The gate forms a
capacitor with gate as one plate, and the other plate is the channel with SiO 2 layer as
dielectric. When the gate voltage varies, the electric field of the capacitor changes, which
in turn varies the resistance of the n-channel.
In this case, we can either apply positive or negative voltage to the gate. When MOSFET
is operated with negative gate voltage, it is called depletion mode and when operated
with positive gate voltage it is called as enhancement mode of operation of MOSFET.

Depletion Mode

The following figure shows an n-channel D-MOSFET under depletion mode of operation.
Its operation is as follows −
 Most electrons are available on the gate as the gate is negative and it repels the
electrons of n channel.
 This action leaves positive ions in the part of the channel. In other words, some of
the free electrons of the n channel are depleted. As a result, less number of
electrons are available for current conduction through the n channel.
 The greater the negative voltage at the gate, less is the current from the source to
the drain. Thus, we can change the resistance of the n channel and the current
from the source to the drain by varying the negative voltage on the gate.

Enhancement Mode

The following figure shows n channel D MOSFET under enhancement mode of

operation. Here, the gate acts as a capacitor. However, in this case the gate is positive.
It provokes the electrons in the n channel and the number of electrons increases in
the n channel.
A positive gate voltage enhances or increases conductivity of the channel. The larger
the positive voltage on the gate, greater the conduction from the source to the drain.
Thus, we can change the resistance of the n channel and the current from the source to
the drain by varying the positive voltage on the gate.
Transfer Characteristics of D – MOSFET

The following figure shows transfer characteristics of D-MOSFET.

When VGS goes negative, ID falls below the value of IDSS, till it reaches zero and VGS =
VGS (off) (Depletion mode). When VGS is zero, ID = IDSS because the gate and the source
terminals are shorted. ID increases above the value of IDSS, when VGS is positive and the
MOSFET is in enhancement mode.