Republic of the Philippines

Biliran Province State University

(formerly NAVAL STATE UNIVERSITY)
School of Engineering
ISO 9001:2015 CERTIFIED

MODULE 4

TRANSISTOR BIASING, TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT

Electronic Circuits: Devices and Analysis (Lecture)

(EE 243)

Prepared by:
Engr. Dante Añasco
Instructor
 CHAPTER I
TRANSISTOR BIASING

Transistor Biasing
Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating voltage or
current conditions to the correct level so that any AC input signal can be amplified
correctly by the transistor

The steady state operation of a transistor depends a great deal on its base
current, collector voltage, and collector current values and therefore, if the
transistor is to operate correctly as a linear amplifier, it must be properly biased
around its operating point.
Establishing the correct operating point requires the selection of bias resistors
and load resistors to provide the appropriate input current and collector voltage
conditions. The correct biasing point for a bipolar transistor, either NPN or PNP,
generally lies somewhere between the two extremes of operation with respect
to it being either “fully-ON” or “fully-OFF” along its DC load line. This central
operating point is called the “Quiescent Operating Point”, or Q-point for short.
When a bipolar transistor is biased so that the Q-point is near the middle of its
operating range, that is approximately halfway between cut-off and saturation,
it is said to be operating as a Class-A amplifier. This mode of operation allows
the output voltage to increase and decrease around the amplifiers Q-point
without distortion as the input signal swings through one complete cycle. In
other words, the output is available for the full 360o of the input cycle.

The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance of proper
collectoremitter voltage during the passage of signal is known as Transistor Biasing.
The circuit which provides transistor biasing is called as Biasing Circuit.

Need for DC biasing

If a signal of very small voltage is given to the input of BJT, it cannot be amplified.
Because, for a BJT, to amplify a signal, two conditions have to be met.
 The input voltage should exceed cut-in voltage for the transistor to be ON.
 The BJT should be in the active region, to be operated as an amplifier.
If appropriate DC voltages and currents are given through BJT by external sources, so
that BJT operates in active region and superimpose the AC signals to be amplified, then
this problem can be avoided. The given DC voltage and currents are so chosen that the
transistor remains in active region for entire input AC cycle. Hence, DC biasing is
needed.
The below figure shows a transistor amplifier that is provided with DC biasing on both
input and output circuits.

For a transistor to be operated as a faithful amplifier, the operating point should be

stabilized. Let us have a look at the factors that affect the stabilization of operating point.

Factors affecting the operating point

The main factor that affect the operating point is the temperature. The operating point
shifts due to change in temperature.
As temperature increases, the values of ICE, β, VBE gets affected.

 ICBO gets doubled (for every 10o rise)

 VBE decreases by 2.5mv (for every 1o rise)
So the main problem which affects the operating point is temperature. Hence operating
point should be made independent of the temperature so as to achieve stability. To
achieve this, biasing circuits are introduced.

Stabilization
The process of making the operating point independent of temperature changes or
variations in transistor parameters is known as Stabilization.
Once the stabilization is achieved, the values of IC and VCE become independent of
temperature variations or replacement of transistor. A good biasing circuit helps in the
stabilization of operating point.
Need for Stabilization
Stabilization of the operating point has to be achieved due to the following reasons.

 Temperature dependence of IC
 Individual variations
 Thermal runaway
Let us understand these concepts in detail.

Temperature Dependence of IC
As the expression for collector current IC is
IC=βIB+ICEOIC=βIB+ICEO
=βIB+(β+1)ICBO=βIB+(β+1)ICBO
The collector leakage current ICBO is greatly influenced by temperature variations. To
come out of this, the biasing conditions are set so that zero signal collector current IC =
1 mA. Therefore, the operating point needs to be stabilized i.e. it is necessary to keep
IC constant.

Individual Variations
As the value of β and the value of VBE are not same for every transistor, whenever a
transistor is replaced, the operating point tends to change. Hence it is necessary to
stabilize the operating point.

Thermal Runaway
As the expression for collector current IC is
IC=βIB+ICEOIC=βIB+ICEO
=βIB+(β+1)ICBO=βIB+(β+1)ICBO
The flow of collector current and also the collector leakage current causes heat
dissipation. If the operating point is not stabilized, there occurs a cumulative effect which
increases this heat dissipation.
The self-destruction of such an unstabilized transistor is known as Thermal run away.
In order to avoid thermal runaway and the destruction of transistor, it is necessary to
stabilize the operating point, i.e., to keep IC constant.
Stability Factor
It is understood that IC should be kept constant in spite of variations of ICBO or ICO. The
extent to which a biasing circuit is successful in maintaining this is measured by Stability
factor. It denoted by S.
By definition, the rate of change of collector current IC with respect to the collector
leakage current ICO at constant β and IB is called Stability factor.
S=dICdICOS=dICdICO at constant IB and β
Hence we can understand that any change in collector leakage current changes the
collector current to a great extent. The stability factor should be as low as possible so
that the collector current doesn’t get affected. S=1 is the ideal value.
The general expression of stability factor for a CE configuration can be obtained as
under.
IC=βIB+(β+1)ICOIC=βIB+(β+1)ICO
Differentiating above expression with respect to IC, we get
1=βdIBdIC+(β+1)dICOdIC1=βdIBdIC+(β+1)dICOdIC
Or
1=βdIBdIC+(β+1)S1=βdIBdIC+(β+1)S
Since dICOdIC=1SdICOdIC=1S
Or
S=β+11−β(dIBdIC)S=β+11−β(dIBdIC)
Hence, the stability factor S depends on β, IB and IC.
 CHAPTER II

TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS

Transistor circuits lie at the very center of today’s electronic circuit design technology. Although
integrated circuits are used for many circuits these days, basic transistor circuit design is often required
in a variety of areas.

Although using discrete electronic components with transistors uses more components, it is possible
to tailor the circuit to provide exactly the functionality that is required. Accordingly circuits using discrete
transistors and a few additional electronic components is till at the heart of electronic circuit design .

This means that understanding transistor circuit design is still important as it not only enables basic
transistor circuits to be designed, but it also provides a greater understanding into the operation of
integrated circuits that are based on bipolar transistor technology.

Bipolar transistor basics

Obviously the key electronic component in any transistor circuit is the transistor itself. These electronic
components can be obtained in a discrete form, or they may be within an integrated circuit.

The transistors are manufactured in a variety of formats and can be obtained to fulfil a variety of roles
from small signal to high power, and audio to RF and switching.

Although NPN transistors are more widely used, this does not mean that PNP transistors are not
used. They often find applications complementing NPN transistors and a few other circuits.
Note on the Bipolar Transistor Device:
The bipolar transistor is a three terminal device which provides current gain where the collector current
is Β times that of the base current. The bipolar transistor is widely available and its performance
optimise over many years.

The bipolar transistor has been available for over seventy years - its technology is very well
established, and although field effect transistor technology is probably more widely used in integrated
circuits, bipolar transistors are still used in huge quantities in various analogue and digital circuits, both
within integrated circuits and as discrete electronic components.

The bipolar transistor was first invented in 1949 by a team of scientists working at Bell Labs in the
USA. Its discovery makes interesting reading.

Note on Transistor History:

The bipolar transistor was invented by three researchers working at Bell Labroratories: John Bardeen,
Walter Brattain, and William Schockley. They had been working on an idea that used a field effect to
control the current in a semiconductor, but they were unable to make the idea work. They turned their
focus onto another possibility and made a three terminal device using two closely spaced point
contacts on a wafer of germanium. This idea worked and they were able to demonstrate it provided
gain in late 1949.

Transistor circuit design parameters

Before starting on the electronic circuit design for a transistor circuit, it is necessary to define the
requirements for the circuits: some of the main parameters associated with transistor circuits.

There can be a number of parameters required in the requirements for the transistor circuit design:

 Voltage gain: The voltage gain is often a key requirement for electronic circuit design. The voltage
gain of the circuit is the increase in voltage from the input to the output of the circuit. In terms of the
mathematics, the voltage gain, Av is the output voltage divided by the input voltage.
Voltage gain is one of the key aims of many circuits because it enables the "size"

 Current gain: The current gain of the circuit is often important, in electronic circuit design,
especially where the circuit is driving a low impedance load. Often a circuit with no voltage gain,
 and only current gain is needed to enable a circuit with a relatively high impedance output to drive
another circuit that has a lower impedance.
There are many examples of this: an RF oscillator often needs a buffer stage to ensure that the
oscillator circuit itself is not loaded unduly, but an output is needed to drive other circuits. Current
gain is also used in power supply circuits where the series pass element of the voltage regulator
needs to provide significant levels of current, but using a low current voltage reference. There are
many other examples of where current gain is needed.

Like the voltage gan, the current gain of a circuit compares the input and output levels, but in terms
of current. The Current gain is equal to the output current divided by the input current.

 Input impedance: The input impedance of a transistor circuit is always important. It determines
the loading on the previous stage, and it is also important in RF circuits where impedance matching
is an important parameter.
In many electronic circuit designs, a high input impedance is desirable because it means that the
previous stage is not unduly loaded. If the input impedance of the transistor circuit is too low then
it will load the previous one, reducing the signal level and possibly causing distortion in some
instances. Configuring a transistor stage to provide the right input impedance is a key element of
the electronic circuit design process.

 Output impedance: The output impedance is also important. If the transistor circuit is driving a
low impedance circuit, then its output must have a low impedance, otherwise a large voltage drop
will occur in the transistor output stage and in some instances distortion of the signal could occur.
If the load impedance is low, then a circuit with a high current gain is typically needed and a suitable
circuit format can be chosen during the electronic circuit design process. If a higher output
impedance is allowable, then a circuit with a higher voltage gain is often more suitable.

 Frequency response: Frequency response is another important factor that will affect the
transistor circuit design. Low frequency or audio transistor circuit designs are very different to those
used for RF applications. Also the choice of the electronic components within the circuit govern the
response: the transistors, as well as the capacitor and resistor values in the electronic circuit design
all affect the frequency response.
In the early part of the circuit design, it is necessary to have a defined requirement for the frequency
response needed, and then the circuit can be designed around the requirement.

 Supply voltage and current: One of the key parameters for any circuit is the power requirements
in terms of voltage and current required. In this way, it can be ensured that the right voltage is
provided with the required current capability at the electronics circuit design stage.
 Power dissipation: Another parameter very much allied to the voltage and current supplied to
the circuit is the power that is dissipated. If the power dissipation is high, then arrangements may
need to be made for cooling and generally removing heat from the circuit, and in particular any
electronic components that may dissipate large amounts of heat. Typically this will be the transistor,
but other components too may dissipate heat.

Transistor circuit function

There are many different functions that transistor circuits can perform. There are normally standard
blocks for the common functions like amplifier, oscillator, filter, current source, differential amplifier and
a host of others.

These standard circuit formats are widely used and can be adopted and the electronic component
values determined during the electronic circuit design process.
The circuits often follow proven circuits that have been used for many years. These circuits have often
been used with the old vacuum tube or thermionic valve technology and work equally well with bipolar
transistors as well as field effect transistors, FETs, and sometimes even operational amplifiers.

The basic format is adopted and the values for the electronic components is determined to provide the
required performance.Often this requires a little experimentation, but these days circuit simulation
software is able to accurately replicate the operation for the circuit so that the electronic component
values can be optimised for the required performance and functionality.

Transistor circuit configuration or topology

Whatever the overall function of the circuit, it is also necessary to consider the topology at the
beginning of the electronic circuit design process.

Transistors circuits can be designed using different topologies, each one offering different
characteristics, especially in terms of the input and output impedance.

These topologies of configurations are chosen according to the electronic circuit design requirements
and include common emitter, common collector or emitter follower, and common base.

Read more about . . . . Transistor Circuit Configurations / Topologies.

Transistor circuit design process

There are several stages to the transistor design process. These are typically taken in a logical order,
but often there is some revisiting of the different stages to optimise the values of the various electronic
components to provide the required overall performance.

 Determine requirements: Determining the real requirements is an important stage, and getting
this right will mean that the concept of the circuit does not change at a later date.
 Define circuit function & topology: Once the overall requirements have been settled for the
complete electronics device, it is necessary to decide upon the actual transistor circuit. For example
there are many oscillator circuits, filters, amplifiers, etc. for transistors and the optimum type can
be chosen for the particular requirement. This often also defines the actual circuit topology, i.e. the
use of common emitter, common collector, common base, but if not this can form part of the overall
decision making at this time, because loading on oscillators, gain, output impedance and the like
can be considered at this time.
 Set up bias conditions: In any circuit, one of the key features of the electronic circuit design is
to ensure that the bias levels for the active devices: in this case the bipolar transistors are set
correctly. If the bias is incorrect, the transistor circuit will not function. Determining the values of the
electronic components (mainly the resistors) that set the bias is one of the key stages in the design.
 Determine functional electronic component values: Along with setting the bias conditions, the
values for the other electronic components to provide the circuit functionality need to be
determined. This part of the electronic circuit design process proceeds along with setting the bias
conditions, as the values for one will affect the other and vice versa.
 Revisit electronic component values for bias and function: With the circuit values set, there
is always a little iteration needed to balance the requirements for bias and circuit overall
functionality. There is likely to be some iteration around this process.
 Test circuit: Testing the circuit is a key element of any design. Often many laboratories will have
circuit simulation software and therefore the circuit can be simulated before it is built to remove
most of the issues. However the final test is to build and run the circuit under conditions as close
as possible to the operational conditions.
 Rework and modify: Often it will be necessary to modify the electronic circuit. If this is required,
then it is reworked and tested with the new electronic component values, layout, etc.

These represent some of the major circuit parameters required for a transistor circuit design. Knowing
these parameters can govern the choice of the circuit configuration, and it will certainly govern the
determination of the component values and many other factors.

Accordingly it is necessary to know the parameters governing the operation of the transistor circuit
before the design can be started.

When considering the electronic circuit design for a transistor circuit there are three different basic
circuit configurations that can be used.

The three different transistor circuit configurations are: common emitter, common base and common
collector (emitter follower), these three circuit configurations have different characteristics and one
type will be chosen for a circuit dependent upon what is required.

Each has different properties in terms of the gain, and input and output impedance, etc and as a result,
a particular configuration will be selected during the electronic circuit design process.

Each of the different transistor topologies has the inputs and outputs applied to different points, with
one terminal common to both input and output.

In addition to selecting the right circuit configuration or topology in the electronic circuit design stage,
to provide the required basic performance, additional electronic components are placed around the
transistor: typically resistors and capacitors, and the values are calculated to give the exact
performance needed.

Both the selection of the topology and the calculation of the electronic component values are key
elements of the electronic circuit design process.

Transistor circuit configurations

The naming of the three basic transistor configurations indicates the transistor terminal that is common
to both input and output circuits. This gives rise to the three terms: common base, common collector
and common emitter.
The term grounded, i.e. grounded base, grounded collector and grounded emitter may also be used
on occasions because the common element signal is normally grounded.

There are equivalent circuit configurations for FETs, and also thermionic valves / vacuum tubes. These
configurations have the same types of properties, although slightly modified for the type of electronic
device used.

For FETs terms like common drain, common source and common gate are used, and for valves /
tubes, terminology includes common cathode, common anode and common grid.

Common base transistor configuration

Alphabetically, this is the first transistor configuration, but it is probably the least likely to be used.

This transistor configuration provides a low input impedance while offering a high output impedance.
Although the voltage is high, the current gain is low and the overall power gain is also low when
compared to the other transistor configurations available. The other salient feature of this configuration
is that the input and output are in phase.

This transistor configuration is probably the least used, but it does provide advantages that the base
which is common to input and output is grounded and this has advantages in reducing unwanted
feedback between output and input for various RF circuit design applications. This occurs because
the base, which is the electrode physically between the emitter and collector is grounded, thereby
providing a barrier between the two.

As a result, the common base configuration tends to be used for RF amplifiers where the increased
isolation between input and output gives a greater level of stability and reduces the likelihood of
unwanted oscillation. As anyone involved in RF design will attest, this is a very useful attribute.

Also the low input impedance can often able this to provide a good match to 50Ω, a useful attribute for
many RF design scenarios.
Common collector (emitter follower)
The common collector circuit configuration is possibly more widely known as the emitter follower
because the emitter voltage follows that of the base, although lower in voltage by an amount equal tot
he turn on voltage of the base emitter junction.

The common collector, emitter follower offers a high input impedance and a low output impedance.
The voltage gain is unity, although current gain is high. The input and output signals are in phase.

In view of these characteristics, the emitter follower configuration is widely used as a buffer circuit
providing a high input impedance to prevent loading of the previous stage, and a low output impedance
to drive following stages.
As can be seen from the diagram, in this transistor configuration, the collector electrode is common to
both input and output circuits. A few additional electronic components are used with a resistor for the
emitter, possibly capacitors at the input and output and bias resistors on the base if needed. In some
instances, the emitter follower may be directly coupled to the previous stage as the output DC voltage
may be suitable to be accommodated by the follower circuit. This means that very few additional
electronic components are needed.

Common emitter transistor configuration

This transistor configuration is probably the most widely used. The circuit provides a medium input
and output impedance levels. Both current and voltage gain can be described as medium, but the
output is the inverse of the input, i.e. 180° phase change. This provides a good overall performance
and as such it is often the most widely used configuration.
As can be seen from the diagram, in this transistor configuration, the emitter electrode is common to
both input and output circuits.

Transistor circuit configuration summary table

The table below gives a summary of the major properties of the different transistor configurations. Not
only is gain a major aspect when designing a transistor circuit, but so too are parameters like input
and output impedance.

TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATION SUMMARY TABLE

TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATION COMMON BASE COMMON COLLECTOR COMMON EMITTER

(EMITTER FOLLOWER)
Voltage gain High Low Medium
Current gain Low High Medium
Power gain Low Medium High
Input / output phase relationship 0° 0° 180°
Input resistance Low High Medium
Output resistance High Low Medium
Additional electronic components
Whatever form of transistor confirmation is chosen in the electronic circuit design stage, additional
components will be needed around the transistor: resistors to set the bias points and capacitors to
provide the coupling and decoupling.

In this circuit of the common emitter amplifier, the basic configuration sets the basic circuit conditions
of medium input impedance, medium output impedance, reasonable voltage gain and the like. The
additional electronic components are then calculated to give the required operating conditions beyond
this.

Each of the electronic components needs to be calculated during the electronic circuit design stage to
give the required performance.

Although the common emitter will probably be seen most often with electronic components like
resistors and capacitors, when used for RF circuit design, components like inductors, and transformers
may also be incorporated into the circuit. The same is true for the other transistor circuit configurations
as well.

The most commonly used circuit configuration is the common emitter - this is used for many amplifier
stages providing voltage gain. The emitter follower or common collector is also widely used. Providing
a high input impedance and low output impedance it acts as a buffer and provides only current gain -
its voltage gain is unity. The common base is used in more specialist applications and is seen
considerably less