DON MARIANO MARCOS MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY

Mid - La Union Campus

College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical
Engineering

ADVANCED MATHEMATICS FOR MECHANICAL

ENGINEER

LESSON 1: INTERPOLATION

LESSON 2: LEAST SQUARE APPROXIMATION

LESSON 3: CURVE FITTING OPTIMIZATION

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 MODULE 5

 INTRODUCTION

In the mathematical field of numerical analysis, interpolation is a type of

estimation, a method of constructing (finding) new data points based on the range of
a discrete set of known data points. In engineering and science, one often has a
number of data points, obtained by sampling or experimentation, which represent the
values of a function for a limited number of values of the independent variable. It is
often required to interpolate; that is, estimate the value of that function for an
intermediate value of the independent variable. A closely related problem is the
approximation of a complicated function by a simple function. Suppose the formula
for some given function is known, but too complicated to evaluate efficiently. A few
data points from the original function can be interpolated to produce a simpler
function which is still fairly close to the original. The resulting gain in simplicity may
outweigh the loss from interpolation error and give better performance in calculation
process. OBJECTIVES *The ultimate goal is to find a solution that makes all the
equations true simultaneously, if such a solution exists. * The goal of solving linear
equations is to find the values of the variables that satisfy the given equations. *The
purpose of linear equations is to model and analyze relationships between variables
that exhibit a constant rate of change.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

 The ultimate goal is to find a solution that makes all the equations true
simultaneously, if such a solution exists.
 The goal of solving linear equations is to find the values of the variables that
satisfy the given equations.
 The purpose of linear equations is to model and analyze relationships between
variables that exhibit a constant rate of change.

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 MODULE 5

Lesson 1

 INTERPOLATION
Interpolation is the process for finding a particular value between two given
points on a line or curve. Here the word, ‘inter,’ means we will ‘enter,’ into the data
set. This tool is not only useful in statistics but is also useful in science, business and
many more real-life applications that fall within two existing data points.

 Linear interpolation
Linear interpolation is the simplest form of interpolation, used to estimate
values between two known data points on a straight line. It assumes a linear
relationship between the data points.
Given two points (x₁, y₁) and (x₂, y₂) where x₁ < x < x₂, the interpolated value y at a
point x can be calculated using the equation of a straight line:
y 2− y 1
y = y1 + (x−x1) ×
x 2−x 1
Example:
At the supermarket, one kilogram of dress chicken cost 180 pesos and 2 kilograms cost
360 pesos. As the butcher weighs your chosen cuts, it scales at 1.65 kilograms, how
much should you pay?
Given:
x1 = 1 y 1 = 180
x2 = 2 y 2 = 360
x = 1.65

Find: y
Using the linear interpolation formula,
y 2− y 1
y = y1 + (x−x1) ×
x 2−x 1
360−180
y = 180 + (1.65 − 1) ×
2−1
3
y = 279 pesos
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 Polynomial interpolation
Polynomial interpolation is a method used to estimate values between known
data points using a polynomial function. Unlike linear interpolation, which uses a
straight line to connect two points, polynomial interpolation employs a polynomial
curve to pass through multiple data points.
The general form of a polynomial interpolation function is:
1 2 n
P ( x )=a 0+ a1 x +a 2 x + …+a n x
There are several types of polynomial interpolation methods, each with its own
approach to fitting a polynomial curve to a set of data points. Here are three common
types of polynomial interpolation methods along with short descriptions and a
comparison of their characteristics:

1. Lagrange Interpolation:

( x−x 1 ) ( x−x 2 ) …(x−x n ) ( x−x 0 )( x −x2 ) … (x−x n)

y= × y0 + × y1 + … +
( x 0−x 1 ) ( x 0−x 2 ) … ( x 0−x n ) ( x 1−x 0 )( x 1−x 2 ) … ( x 1−x n )
( x−x 0 ) ( x−x 1 ) …(x−x n−1)
× yn
( x n−x 0 ) ( x n−x 1) … ( x n− xn −1 )
 Lagrange interpolation constructs a polynomial by determining coefficients that
satisfy the requirement of passing through all the given data points.
 It uses a basis polynomial for each data point, where the polynomial evaluates
to 1 at its own data point and evaluates to 0 at all other data points.
 However, it can suffer from numerical instability, especially when dealing with
high-degree polynomials or closely spaced data points.

2. Newton interpolation
y p ( p−1) 2 p ( p−1 )( p−2) 3
p=¿ y0 + p ∆ y 0 + ∆ y0 + ∆ y 0+ …¿
2! 3!

( x−x 0)
Where: p=
h

 Newton interpolation constructs a polynomial using divided difference

coefficients.

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  It starts with a divided difference table, which is used to calculate the
coefficients of the interpolating polynomial.
 Newton interpolation is generally more stable numerically than Lagrange
interpolation.
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 It is efficient for adding new data points, as the divided difference table can be
updated without recalculating the entire polynomial.
 However, constructing the divided difference table can require more
computational effort than Lagrange interpolation.

3. Hermite interpolation
n −1 n−1

P(x) = ∑ hi ( x ) y i+ ¿ ∑ g i ( x ) f '( xi )¿
i=0 i=0

 Hermite interpolation is used when both function values and derivative values
are known at the data points.
 It constructs a polynomial that not only passes through the data points but also
matches the derivative values at those points.
 Hermite interpolation is useful for interpolating curves with known slopes or
when the underlying function is better represented by its derivatives.
 However, it can be more complex to implement compared to Lagrange and
Newton interpolation methods.
 Hermite interpolation may also introduce oscillations in the interpolating
polynomial, especially if the derivative values are not accurately known.

 Extrapolation
Extrapolation involves predicting values beyond the range of known data points, while
interpolation estimates values within the range of known data points.
Interpolation Extrapolation
Interpolation involves estimating values Extrapolation involves estimating values
within the range of known data points. beyond the range of known data points.
It is used to approximate values between It is used to predict or forecast values
data points to fill in missing information outside the range of the available data
or to create a smooth curve that passes based on the observed trend within the
through the given data. data range.
Interpolation assumes that the Extrapolation assumes that the trend
relationship between the data points is observed within the data range will
reasonably continuous and that the continue beyond the known data points,

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 estimated values will be consistent with which may not always be valid,
the trend observed in the existing data. especially if the underlying relationship
is not well understood or subject to
change.

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Common methods for interpolation Common methods for extrapolation

include polynomial interpolation (e.g., include linear regression, curve fitting,
Lagrange, Newton, Hermite), spline and time series forecasting techniques.
interpolation, and linear interpolation.

 Interpolation error
Interpolation error refers to the discrepancy between the true (actual) value and the
estimated value obtained through an interpolation method at a specific point within
the range of known data points.
The formula for interpolation error depends on the specific interpolation method
being used and the context of the problem. However, a general formula to estimate
the interpolation error is often based on the difference between the true function
value and the interpolated function value at a given point.
E ( x )=|f ( x )−P(x)|

Where:
E(x) = interpolation error
f(x) = the true function
P(x) = interpolating polynomial obtained through interpolation at point x

Lesson 2

 LEAST SQUARE APPROXIMATION

In many scientific investigations, data are collected that relate two variables.
For example, if x is the number of dollars spent on advertising by a manufacturer and
y is the value of sales in the region in question, the manufacturer could generate data
by spending x 1 , x 2 ,… , x n dollars at different times and measuring the corresponding
sales values y 1 , y 2 , … , y n .

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 Suppose it is known that a linear relationship exists between the variables x
and y —in other words, that y=a+bx for some constants a and b . If the data are
plotted, the points (x 1 , y 1 ), (x2 , y 2) , … , ( x n , y n ) may appear to lie on a straight line and
estimating a and b requires finding the “best-fitting” line through these data points.
For example, if five data points occur as shown in the diagram, line 1 is clearly a
better fit than line 2. In general, the problem is to find the values of the constants a
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and b such that the line y=a+bx best approximates the data in question. Note that an
exact fit would be obtained if a and b were such that y i=a+b x i were true for each
data point ( x i , y i ). But this is too much to expect. Experimental errors in measurement
are bound to occur, so the choice of a and b should be made in such a way that the
errors between the observed values y i and the corresponding fitted values a+ b xi are
in some sense minimized. Least squares approximation is a way to do this.
The first thing we must do is explain exactly what we mean by the best fit of a
line y=a+bx to an observed set of data points (x 1 , y 1 ), (x2 , y 2) , … , ( x n , y n ). For
convenience, write the linear function r 0 +r 1 x as
f ( x )=r 0 +r 1 x

So that the fitted point (on the line) has coordinates ( x 1 , f ( x 1 ) ) , … , ( x n , f ( xn ) ) .

The second diagram is a sketch of what the line y=f (x ) might look like. For
each i the observed data point ( x i , y i )and the fitted point ( x i , f ( x i ) ) need not be the
same, and the distance d i between them measures how far the line misses the
observed point. For this reason, d i is often called the error at x i, and a natural
measure of how close the line y=f ( x ) is to the observed data points is the
sum d 1 +d 2 +d 3 +…+ d n of all these errors. However, it turns out to be better to use the
sum of squares
2 2 2
S=d 1 + d 2 +…+ d n
as the measure pf error, and the line y=f ( x ) is to be choses so as to make this sum as
small as possible. This line is said to be the least square approximating line for the
data points (x 1 , y 1 ), (x2 , y 2) , … , ( x n , y n ).
2
The square of the error d i is given by d i =[ yi −f ( x i ) ] for each i. So the quantity S to be
2

minimized is the sum:

2 2 2
S= [ y 1−f ( x 1 ) ] + [ y 2 −f ( x 2 ) ] +…+ [ y n−f ( x n ) ]

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Note that all the numbers x i and y i are given here; what is required is that the
function f be chosen in such way as to minimize S. Because f ( x )=r 0 +r 1 x , this amounts
to choosing r 0 and r 1 to minimize S. This problem can be solved using Theorem. The
following notation is convenient.

[] [ ] [ ][ ]
x1 y1 f ( x1) r 0 +r 1 x 1
x= 2 y= 2 and f ( x )= f ( x 2 ) = r 0 +r 1 x 2
x y
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
xn yn f ( xn) r 0 +r 1 x n

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Then the problem takes the following form: Choose r 0 and r 1 such that

2 2 2 2
S= [ y 1−f ( x 1 ) ] + [ y 2 −f ( x 2 ) ] +…+ [ y n−f ( x n ) ] =‖ y−f ( x )‖

is as small as possible. Now write

[ ]
1 x1
M=
1
⋮
x2
⋮
and r = []
r0
r1
1 xn

r0
Then M r=f ( x ) , so we are looking for a column r =
r1 [] 2
such that ‖ y −f ( x )‖ is as small

as possible. In other words, we are looking for a best approximation z to the system
M r= y . Hence Theorem applies directly, we have

Suppose that n data points (x 1 , y 1 ), (x2 , y 2) , … , ( x n , y n ) are given, where at least two of
x 1 , x 2 ,… , x n are distinct. Put

[] [ ]
y1 1 x1
1 x2
y= y 2 M =
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
yn 1 xn

Then the least squares approximating line for these data points has equation
y=z 0 + z 1 r

Where z= []
z0
z1
is found by gaussian elimination from the normal equations

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 ( M T M ) z=M T y
The condition that at least two of x 1 , x 2 ,… , x n are distinct ensures that M T M is an
invertible matrix, so z is unique:
−1
z=( M M ) M y
T T

Let data points (x 1 , y 1 ), (x2 , y 2) , … , ( x5 , y 5 ) be given as in the accompanying table. Find

the least squares approximating line for these data.
x y
1 1
3 2
4 3
6 4
7 5
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In this case we have

[ ]
1 x1
M M=
T
[ 1 1
x1 x2
⋯ 1 1
⋯ x5 ⋮ ] x2
⋮
1 x5

¿
[ 5 x 1+ ⋯ + x 5
x 1 + ⋯ + x 5 x 21+ ⋯ + x 25 ][
= 5 21
21 111 ]

[]
y1

and M y=
T
[ 1 1 ⋯
x1 x 2 ⋯
1
x5 ]⋮
y2
we
y5

¿
[ y 1+ y 2 ⋯ + y 5
=
15
x 1 y 1+ x 2 y 2+ ⋯ + x 5 y 5 78 ][]
So, the normal equations (M ¿¿ T M )z=M y for z=
T
[]
z0
z1
¿ become

[ 5 21
21 111
z
= 0=
15
z 1 78 ][][ ]

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The solution using (gaussian elimination is z= [][ ]
z0
z1
=
0.24
0.66
to two decimal places, so

the least squares approximating line for this data is y=0.24+0.66 x .

Note that M T M is indeed invertible here (the determinant in 114), and the exact
solution is
−1
z=( M M ) M y=
T T
[
1 111 −21 15
114 −21 ][ ]
=
1 27
=
5 78 114 75 38 25[ ] [ ]
1 9

Limitations for Least Square Method

Even though the least-squares method is considered the best method to find the line
of best fit, it has a few limitations. They are:
 This method exhibits only the relationship between the two variables. All other
causes and effects are not taken into consideration.

 This method is unreliable when data is not evenly distributed.

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 This method is very sensitive to outliers. In fact, this can skew the results of
the least-squares analysis.

In linear regression, the line of best fit is a straight line as shown in the following
diagram:

The given data points are to be minimized by the method of reducing

residuals or offsets of each point from the line. The vertical offsets are

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 generally used in surface, polynomial and hyperplane problems, while
perpendicular offsets are utilized in common practice.

Least-square method is the curve that best fits a set of observations with a minimum
sum of squared residuals or errors. Let us assume that the given points of data are
(x 1 , y 1 ), (x2 , y 2),(x 3 , y 3 ), … ,(x n , y n ) in which all x’s are independent variables,
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while all y’s are dependent ones. This method is used to find a linear line of the form
y = mx + b, where y and x are variables, m is the slope, and b is the y-intercept. The
formula to calculate slope m and the value of b is given by:
m=¿
b=(∑ y−m ∑ x)/n
Here, n is the number of data points.
Following are the steps to calculate the least square using the above formulas.
 Step 1: Draw a table with 4 columns where the first two columns are for x and
y points.

 Step 2: In the next two columns, find xy and (x)2.

 Step 3: Find ∑x, ∑y, ∑xy, and ∑(x)2.

 Step 4: Find the value of slope m using the above formula.

 Step 5: Calculate the value of b using the above formula.

 Step 6: Substitute the value of m and b in the equation y = mx +

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Example:
1) Let us say we have data as shown below.

x 1 2 3 4 5

y 2 5 3 8 7

 Solution: We will follow the steps to find the linear line.

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x y xy x2

1 2 2 1

2 5 10 4

3 3 9 9

4 8 32 16

5 7 35 25

∑x =15 ∑y = 25 ∑xy = 88 ∑x2 = 55

 Find the value of m by using the formula,

m=(n ∑ xy−∑ y ∑ x )/n∑ x 2−(∑ x)2

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 m=[(5 ×88)−(15 ×25)]/(5× 55)−(15)2
m=(440−375)/(275−225)
m=65 /50=13 /10

Find the value of b by using the formula,

b=(∑ y−m ∑ x)/n

b=(25−1.3 ×15)/5
b=(25−19.5)/5
b=5.5/5

So, the required equation of least squares is y=mx+b=13/10 x+ 5.5/5.

2) Consider the set of points: (1, 1), (-2, -1), and (3, 2). Plot these points and the
least-squares regression line in the same graph.

Solution: There are three points, so the value of n is 3

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x y xy x2

1 1 1 1

-2 -1 2 4

3 2 6 9

∑x = 2 ∑y = 2 ∑xy = 9 ∑x2 = 14

Now, find the value of m, using the formula.

m=(n ∑ xy−∑ y ∑ x )/n∑ x 2−(∑ x)2

m=[(3 ×9)−(2 ×2)]/(3 × 14)−(2)2
m=(27−4)/(42−4)
m=23 /38

Now, find the value of b using the formula,

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 b=(∑ y−m ∑ x)/n
b=[2−(23 /38)×2]/3
b=[2−(23 /19)]/3
b=15/(3× 19)
b=5/19

So, the required equation of least squares is y=mx+ b=23/38 x+5 /19 . The required
graph is shown as:

MODULE 5

Therefore, the equation of regression line is y=23/38 x +5 /19.

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3) Consider the set of points: (-1, 0), (0, 2), (1, 4), and (k, 5). The values of slope
and y-intercept in the equation of least squares are 1.7 and 1.9 respectively. Can
you determine the value of k?

Solution: Here, there are four data points.

So, the value of n is 4

The slope of the least-squares line, m = 1.7

The value of y-intercept of the least-squares line, b = 1.9

x y

-1 0

0 2

1 4

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k 5

∑x = k ∑y =11

Now, to evaluate the value of unknown k, substitute m = 1.7, b = 1.9, ∑x =k, and ∑y 11
in the formula,

b = (∑y – m ∑x)/n

1.9 = (11 - 1.7k)/4

1.9×4 = 11 - 1.7k

1.7k = 11 - 7.6

k = 3.4/1.7

k=2

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 Therefore, the value of k is 2.
Supplementary Questions:
1. The following data shows the sales (in million dollars) of a company.

x 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

y 12 19 29 37 45
Can you estimate the sales in the year 2020 using the regression line? ANS: 53.6

2. Consider the time series data given below:

xi 8 3 2 10 11 3 6 5 6 8

yi 4 12 1 12 9 4 9 6 1 14

Use the least square method to determine the equation of line of best fit for the
data. Then plot the line. ANS: y = 3.0026 + 0.677x

MODULE 5

Lesson 3

 CURVE FITTING OPTIMIZATION

Curve fitting Optimization is the process of finding a mathematical function in an

analytic form that best fits this set of data. The first question that may arise is why do we need
that. There are many cases that curve fitting can prove useful:
 Quantify a general trend of the measured data
 Remove noise from a function
 Extract meaningful parameters from the learning curve
 Summarize the relationships among two or more variables

All engineering experiments land into collection of data which has discrete values. This section
deals with techniques to fit curves to such data in order to obtain intermediate estimates.

16
The simplest method for fitting a curve to data is to plot the points and then sketch a line that
visually conforms to the data. But this approach results into different results as illustrated in
below figure.

Fitted curves can be used for data visualization, inferring function values when no data is
available, and summarizing the connections between two or more variables. Extrapolation is the
use of a fitted curve outside the range of the observed data, and it is prone to some ambiguity
since it may reflect the method used to generate the curve as much as the actual data.

In linear algebraic data analysis, "fitting" often refers to attempting to identify the curve
that minimises the vertical (y-axis) displacement of a point from the curve (e.g., ordinary least
squares). However, for graphical and picture applications, geometric fitting aims to offer the

MODULE 5

greatest visual fit, which often entails minimizing the orthogonal distance to the curve (e.g., total
least squares) or include both axes of displacement of a point from the curve.

 Applications for Curve Fitting

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Fitting of straight line
1. Find a least squares straight line for the following data:
X 1 2 3 4 5 6
Y 6 4 3 5 4 2
and estimate (predict) Y at X – 4 at Y – 4.
Solution:
2 2
X Y X Y XY
1 6 1 36 6
2 4 4 16 8
3 3 9 9 9
4 5 15 25 20
5 4 25 16 20
6 2 36 4 12
21 24 91 106 75
So
∑ X=21
∑ Y =24
∑ X 2=91
∑ Y 2=105
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∑ XY =75
N=6

Assume that at least squares straight line of Y on X is Y = a u + a 1 X .

Its normal equations are
∑ Y = Na0 + a 1 ∑ X
∑ XY =a 0 ∑ X + a 1 ∑ X 2
Substituting the values
24 = 6 a 0 + 21 a1
75 = 21 a0 + 91 a1

Solving a 0 = 5.7999, a 1 = -0.51428571

Thus, the least square straight-line Y on X is

Y = 5.7999 – 0.514X
Y estimate = Y (at X = 4) = 5.7999 – 0.514 (4) = 3.743

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Similarly, L.S.S.L. of X on Y is assumed to be
X = b0 + b1Y

where b 0 , b 1 are obtained as solutions of the normal equations

∑ X = Nb0 + b 1 ∑ Y
∑ XY = b 0 ∑ Y + b 1 ∑ Y 2
or 21 = 6 b 0 + 24 b 1
75 = 24 b 0 + 106 b1

Solving b 0 = 7.1, b 1 = -0.9

2. Fit a straight line to the following data.

Year x: 1951 1961 1971 1981 1997
Production y (000 tons): 10 12 8 10 15
Also estimate the production in 1987.

Solution: Now the means of x and y are x = 1971 and y = 11.

Since x and y are round figure, we shall take deviations from 1971 and 11.

Calculations of ∑ X , ∑ Y etc.
x y X = x - 1971 Y = y - 11 ∑ X2 XY
1951 10 -20 -1 400 20

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1961 12 -10 1 100 -10

1971 8 0 -3 0 0
1981 10 10 -1 100 -10
1991 15 20 4 400 80
N=5 0 0 1000 80

Now, Y = a + bX
Therefore, ∑ Y = Na + b∑ X
∑ XY = a∑ X +b ∑ X 2
Putting the above values
0 = 5a + 0 therefore, a = 0

And 80 = 0 + 1000 b therefore b = 0.08

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Hence, the equation is Y = 0.08 X.

Putting the values of X, Y, we get

y – 11 = 0.08 (x – 1971)
therefore y = -146.68 + 0.08 x.

putting x = 1987.
y = -146.68 + 0.08 (1987) = 12.28

therefore, the production in 1987 is 12.28.

3. Find the best fitting straight line to the following data.

x 1 2 3 4 5
y 4 3 6 7 11
(i) [Answer: y = 5.909x + 0.965]

x 5 10 15 20 25
y 15 19 23 26 30
(ii) [Answer: y = 0.74x + 11.5]

x 1 2 3 4 5
y 14 27 40 55 68
(iii) [Answer: y = 13.6x]

x 1 2 3 4 5 6
y 1200 900 600 200 110 50
(iv) [Answer: y = 1361.97 – 243.42x]
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(v) Fit a straight line to the following data and estimate the production in the year 1957.

Year: 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991

Production in the 10 12 08 10 13
Thousand tons:
[Answer: y = -68.24 + 0.04x; Production in 1957 – 10.04 thousand tons]

4. Fit a first-degree curve to the following data and estimate the value of y when x = 73.
x 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
y 1 3 5 10 6 4 2 1
[Answer: y = 4 – 0.071u where u = (x - 45)/5, y = 3.595, when x = 73]

5. Fit a straight line to the following data and estimate y when x = 12.

20
 x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 52.5 58.7 65.0 70.2 75.4 81.1 87.2 95.5 102.2 108.4
[Answer: Y = -79.62 + 3.08X where X = (x – 5.5)2, when x = 12, y = 119.66]

TWO MAIN CATEGORIES OF CURVE FITTING

 BEST FIT
The simplest best fit approach is linear regression, which uses a straight line as the curve. More
technically, we have the parametric function y = an x + b, where an is the slope and b is the
intercept, and a collection of samples ( x 1, y 1), ( x 2, y 2), ... ( x n , y n ). Our objective is to find the
values of a and b that will minimise an error criterion on the provided samples.

Polynomial regression refers to the case that want to fit a polynomial of a specific order to our
data:
 linear when y= ax + b
 quadratic when y = a x 2 + bx + c
 cubic when y = a x 3+ b x 2+ cx + d

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 EXACT FIT
The samples are not noisy, and we wish to train a curve that connects each point. It is useful
when to develop finite-difference approximations or determine a function's minimums,
maximums, and zero crossings.

The figure below depicts an example of a perfect fit with polynomial interpolation.

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Curve fitting can have certain drawbacks for optimization, such as overfitting, which occurs
when your model or system becomes overly complicated or unique to the data, losing its capacity
to generalize. This might result in poor performance or excessive risk in real trading since your
approach may not catch changing market conditions. Curve fitting may also lead to data
snooping, which occurs when you utilize the same data to build and test your model or system,
potentially inflating performance metrics or statistics.

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 References

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Cuemath(2024). Least Square Method. Retrieved on March 17, 2024 from https:/
/www.
cuemath.com/data/least-squares/.

Byju’s (2024). Least Square Method. Retrieved March 17, 2024 from
https://byjus.com
/maths/least-square-method/?fbclid=IwAR1lkr70u32BhO3-K0z9B0saPT8MnrEp3
WwR_Po6wTKFsxxQ1BhGyM0I8Q

Kenton (2023). Least Squares Method: What It Means, How to Use It, With Examples.
Retrieved on March 17, 2024 from https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/
least-squares-method.asp

L. (2023, July 29). 5.6: Best Approximation and Least Squares. Mathematics
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fitting-optimization

DON MARIANO MARCOS MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY

Mid - La Union Campus
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

23
 Submitted By:
Alunday, Jerome
Baoas, Shien Grace
Caluza, Gerone
Datay, Hashley L.
Ducusin, John Rafael
Guerrero, Irish Mae
Iglesia, Haslyn
Marquez, Ryan Carylle
Quinoane, Cleyand
Tumlos, Rojen

Submitted To:
Engr. Bonifacio Cabradilla, Jr.

24