WHAT IS PHYSICS?

Physics is the scientific study of the properties of matter and energy. Matter refers to
any materials which occupy space and can be examined by measuring, by weighing or
by experimental testing.

Energy is something a body possesses which enables it to do ‘work’ and to bring about
all sorts of changes. Light and electricity are forms of energy with which we are all
familiar.

Physics enables us to find out about the natural laws operating in the world of which we
are a part. Physicists use their knowledge about motion and matter on earth to
investigate time and space throughout the whole universe. The work of physicists
includes “developing theories, performing experiments and improving manufacturing
processes and products. Much of our modern technology has resulted from the work of
physicists.

The study of physics can be divided into the following branches.

1. MECHANICS
The study of the laws governing the motion of objects and the forces acting on them.

2. OPTION
Which deals with behaviour of light.

3. THERMODYNAMICS
Which deals with heat and temperature.

4. Electricity
5. Magnetism
6. Electronics
7. Sound and wave motion
8. Atomic and nuclear physics

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Measurable features of properties of objects (matter) are often called Physical
Quantities. The area of a football field, the mass of a bag of wheat and the speed of a
motor car are some of the examples of physical quantities. Some non-physical, difficult
– to – measure quantities are hate, love and hope. Physical quantities are expressed in
terms of a numerical value and a unit.

THE BASIC UNITS

In the past, scientists in many parts of the world used different units of measurements,
but now all units have been standardized. A metric system now exists and is called the

1
international system of units (SI). These are called fundamental units and every
measurement that you make is related to these fundamental units.

The seven base (or fundamental) units of the SI are given below.

PHYSICAL QUANTITY NAME OF UNIT SYMBOL FOR UNIT

Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second S
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole mol
Luminous intensity candela Cd

DERIVED UNITS
Most of the units commonly used are a combination of basic units. They are known as
Derived Units. The table below shows some of the common derived unit.

QUANTITY NAME OF UNIT SYMBOL FOR UNIT

Velocity Meter per second m/s or ms-1
Acceleration Meter per square second m/s2 or ms-2
Force Newton N (kgm/s2)
Energy Joule J (kgm2/s2)
Frequency Hertz Hz
Angle Radian Rad
Area Square meter M2
Volume Cubic meter M3
Density Kilogram per cubic meter Kg/m3
Momentum Kilogram meter per second Kgm/s
Pressure Pascal Pa
Power Watt W
Electric charge Coulomb C
Potential difference Volt V
Resistance Ohm Ω
Capacitance Farad F

2
PREFIXES OF SI UNITS
Sometimes the measurements used are too big or too small for our basic units. For
purposes of convenience, prefixes like centimeters are used. The table below shows
some common prefixes used in our daily lives.

PREFIX SYMBOL MEANING VALUE POWER OF

TEN
Deci d One tenth 0.1 10-1
Centi c One hundredth 0.01 10-2
Milli m One thousandth 0.001 10-3
Micro u One millionth 0.000001 10-6
Nano n One thousand millionth 0.000 000 001 10-9
Pica p One million millionth 0.000 000 000 001 10-12
Deca da Ten 10 101
Hecta h One hundred 100 102
Kilo k One thousand 1000 103
Mega m One million 1 000 000 106
giga G One thousand million 1 000 000 000 109

EXAMPLES
Convert
(a) 10dm to meters
(b) 100cm to meters
(c) 10g to kilograms
(d) 6m to kilometer
Type equation here.
SOLUTIONS
(a) 10dm = 0.1m
1.0dm = x

10 × 0.1
= =1
1

 10dm = 1m

(b) 1cm = 0.01m

100cm = x

100𝑐𝑚 × 0.01𝑚
x= 1𝑐𝑚

x = 1m

 100cm = 1m
3
 (c) 1kg = 1000g
x = 10g

1𝑘𝑔 × 10𝑔
x= 1000𝑔

x = 0.01kg

 10g = 0.01kg

(d) 6m to km
1km = 1000m (103)
xkm = 6m

1𝑘𝑚 × 6𝑚
x= 1000𝑚

 6m = 0.006km

APPROXIMATIONS
If you were asked to find the mass or weight of a packet of beans continued in a packet,
it would be more difficult to be accurate when measuring very large quantities, it is
difficult to be exact and we have to bring in a certain degree of approximation.

1. ROUNDING OFF
Normally, measurements are calculated, to a desirable degree of approximation. To
achieve this desirable of approximation, it is necessary to round off. We can round off
to the,

 Nearest unit
 Nearest fraction of a unit
 Approximate number of decimal places
 Appropriate number of significant figures

1.1 TO THE NEAREST UNIT

To round off to the nearest unit of length means rounding off to, for example, the nearest
centimeter (cm), meter (m) or kilometer.

4
 WORKED EXAMPLES
Round off;
(a) 19.3cm to the nearest centimeter.
(b) 19.8cm to the nearest centimeter

SOLUTIONS
(a) 19.3cm is nearer to 19cm than to 20cm.
 19.cm = 19cm to the nearest centimeter.

(b) 19.8cm is nearer to 20cm than to 19cm.

19.8cm = 20cm to the nearest centimeter.

NOTE
If the digit after the round off is 5 or more, then increase the round off digit by 1. Thus 19.5cm
rounded off to the nearest centimeter becomes 20cm.

In a similar way, the mass of a 2kg packet of meat could actually be something like 2.02kg,
2.09kg or 1.89kg when measured.

But to the nearest kilogram all the above masses would be 2kg.

1.1.2 ROUNDING OFF WHOLE NUMBERS

Whole numbers can also be rounded off.

EXAMPLE
Round off 4489km to the
(a) Nearest thousand
(b) Nearest hundred
(c) Nearest ten

SOLUTIONS
(a) 4489km = 4000km to the nearest thousand
(b) 4489km = 4500km to the nearest hundred
(c) 4489km = 4490km to the nearest ten

1.2 TO THE NEAREST FRACTION OF A UNIT

Measurement can also be rounded off to the nearest fraction of a unit.

WORKED EXAMPLE
1. Round off the following measurements to the nearest tenth of a kilogram.
(a) 2.23kg
(b) 2.09kg
(c) 1.89kg
5
2. Round off 47.285km
(a) To the nearest kilometer
(b) To the nearest hundredth of a kilometer

SOLUTIONS
1. (a) 2.23kg = 2.2kg to the nearest tenth of a kilogram
(b) 2.09kg = 2.1kg
(c) 1.89kg = 1.9kg
2. (a) 47.285km = 47.3km to the nearest tenth of a kilometer.
(b) 47.285km = 47.29km to the nearest hundredth of a kilometer.

1.3 TO A NUMBER OF DECIMAL PLACES

Approximation can also be achieved by expressing a number to an appropriate number of
decimal places.

WORKED EXAMPLES
Round off 2.04752 to:

(a) 3 decimal places

(b) 2 decimal places
(c) 1 decimal place

SOLUTIONS
(a) 2.04752 = 2.048 to 3 decimal
(b) 2.04752 = 2.05 to 2 decimal places
(c) 2.04752 = 2.0 to 1 decimal places

2.0 STANDARD FORM OR SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

Many of the numbers that will be dealt with are either very small or very large. Often these
numbers will be expressed in powers of ten. We call this system of representing numbers the
scientific notation or standard form.

Standard form is a method of expressing a number in the form. A x 10n, where 1≤ a < 10 and n
is an integer.

2.1 NUMBERS GREATER THAN 1

Numbers greater than 1 can be expressed in standard form.

EXAMPLE
Express 509,970,000km2 in scientific notation.

ANSWER
509,970,000 =5.0997 × 100 000 000
= 5.0997 × 108
6
 The answer above has been expressed in standard form or scientific notation. In order to write
509,970,000 in the form 5.0977 x 10n, the value of n is found by counting the number of places
the decimal point is moved from right to left before it is placed between 5 and 0. In this case n =
8.

WORKED EXAMPLES
Express the following in standard form.
(a) 840.52
(b) 300, 000, 000
(c) 730

SOLUTIONS
(a) 840.52 = 8.4052 ×102
(b) 300,000,000 = 3×108
(c) 730 = 7.3 × 102

EXPRESSING NUMBERS LESS THAN 0.1 IN STANDARD FORM

Numbers less than 1 can also be expressed in standard form. For example 0.001
1 1 1
= 100 = 10 𝑥 10 𝑥 10 = 103 = 1 × 10-3

NOTE
A quicker method of writing numbers in scientific notation is to count the number of places the
decimal point has been moved from left to right before it is placed between 2 and 4 in the
number 0.0245. Since the decimal is moved from left to right the power will be negative.

WORKED EXAMPLES
Express the following in standard form.
(a) 0.0762
(b) 0.0000276
(c) 0.21
(d) 0.6
SOLUTIONS
(a) 0.0762 = 7.62 10-2
(b) 0.0000276 = 2.76 × 10-5
(c) 0.21 = 2.1 × 10-1
(d) 0.6 = 6×10-1

3.0 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

If a number is very large or has an infinite number of digits, then this number is made simpler by
only referring to a specific number of digits, i.e. a specific number of significant figures.

7
In order to determine the number of significant figures in the measurement we shall be using the
following rules.

(i) All non-zero figures are significant. For example in the figure 4560, there are 3
significant figures; zero is not significant in this figure.

(ii) All zeros between non-zero figures are significant. For example in the figure 7000200,
the zeros between 7 and 2 are significant.

(iii) When a decimal point is shown, zeros to the right of non-zero figures are significant.
For example, in the figure 24.050 there are 5 significant figures.

(vi) Zeros to the left of the first non-zero figure are not significant. For example, in the
figure 0.000985, there are 3 significant figures. For example, in the figure 0.00488, only
4, 8, 8 are significant.

NOTE
The significant figures of a number can also be found by expressing the number in standard
form.

EXAMPLES
State the number of significant figures in
(a) 627,000
(b) 0.004210

SOLUTIONS
(a) 627,000 = 6.27×105
 627,000 has 3 significant figures

(b) 0.004210 = 3.210×10-4

 0.004210 has 4 significant figures.

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF MEASUREMENTS

When we add and subtract measurements the measured value with the fewest decimal places
(d.p) determines the number of significant figures (s.f) in the answer.

For example, add the following numbers;

308.7810g (4dig, 7 s.f)
0.0034g(5d.p, 2 s.f)
10.31 (2 d.p, 4 s.f)
319.09134g

The answer should have 2 decimal places; 319.09g

8
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF MEASUREMENTS
During multiplication and division of measurements, the value with the fewest number of
significant figures determines the number of significant figure in the answer. For example,
calculate;

3.0𝑔 (2 𝑠.𝑓)𝑥 4297𝑔 (4 𝑠.𝑓)

0.0721𝑔 (3 𝑠.𝑓)
= 178793.3426g

In standard form = 1.787933426g × 105

The final answer will be 1.8 x 105gto 2 s.f

CONVERSION FACTORS

(i) MASS
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
1𝑘𝑔
= 103g = 1000g

(ii) LENGTH
1dm = 10-1 = 0.1m
10dm = 1m

1cm = 10-2 = 0.01m

100cm = 1m

(iii) TIME
1ms = 10-3 = 0.00/s
100ms = 1s

1 minute = 60s
60 minutes = 1 hour
3600s = 1 hour
𝟏
1s = 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒔

(iv) VOLUME
1dm3 = 1dm ×1dm x 1dm
1dm3 = 0.1m ×0.1m x 0.1m
1dm3 = 1000cm3

1m3 = (1m ×1m× 1m)

1m3 = 100cm ×100cm×100cm
1m3 = 1,000,000cm3 or 106cm3

9
WORKED EXAMPLES
Convert the following measurements.
(a) (i) 25cm3 to dm3
(ii) 10dm3 to cm3

(b) (i) 90km/h to m/s

(ii) 2.4km/h to m/s
(iii) 25m/s to km/h

(c) (i) 2.6kg/m3 to g/cm3

(ii) 100kg /m3 to g/cm3
(iii) 13.6g/cm3 to kg/m3

SOLUTIONS
(a) (i) 25cm3 to dm3
1dm3 = 1000cm3
x = 25cm3

25𝑐𝑚3 𝑥 ×1𝑑𝑚3 25
x = 1000𝑐𝑚3
= 1000 = 0.025dm3

x = 0.25dm3 or 2.5 × 10-2 dm3

 25cm3 = 0.025dm3 or 2.5 x 10-2 dm3

(ii) 10dm3 to cm3

1dm3 = 1000cm3

10dm3 = x

10𝑑𝑚3 𝑥 ×100𝑐𝑚3 25
x= = = 10,000cm3
1𝑑𝑚3 1000

 10dm3 = 10,000cm3

(b) (i) 90km/h to m/s; distance = 90km, time = 1h

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚)
Speed = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)

(90𝑘𝑚 × 1000)
Speed = 60 × 60

10
 90,000𝑚
Speed = 3600
= 25m/s

90km/h = 25m/s

(ii) 2.4km/h to m/s to m/s

Distance = 2.4km, time = 1hour

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚)
Speed = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)

(2.4 × 1000)𝑚 2400𝑚

Speed = (60 𝑥 60)𝑠
= 3600𝑠

Speed = 0.6667

 2.4km/h to m/s = 0.67m/s to 2 s.f

(iii) 25m/s to km/h

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑘𝑚)
Speed = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (ℎ)

25𝑘𝑚 1 ℎ
Speed = 1000
÷ 3600

25 𝑘𝑚 3600ℎ
Speed = ×
1000 1

 25m/s = 90km/h

(c) (i) 2.6kg/m3 to g/cm3

𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 (2.6 × 1000)𝑔
D= 𝑐𝑚3
= 1000000𝑐𝑚3
= 2.6 × 10-3

D = 2.6×10-3g /cm3

 2.6kg/m3 = 2.6 × 10-3g /cm3

11
 (ii) 100kg /m3 to g/cm3

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔) (1000 × 1000)𝑔

D= = = 1g/cm3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ( 𝑐𝑚3 ) 1000000𝑐𝑚3

 100kg /m3 = 1g/cm3

(iii) 13.6g/cm3 to kg/m3

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 13.6𝑘𝑔 1
D = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 1000
÷ 1000000m3

 3.6g /cm3 = 13600kg/m3

PRACTICAL WORK
Throughout your study of physics, you will perform a wide variety of experiments.
They are all designed to aid you in your learning and to clarify certain ideas that can not
easily be understood from theory.

A practical exam paper is an integral part of the final examination at the end of the final
examination at the end of the senior school course in physics. It is therefore necessary
that you develop skills that will help you to perform the practical work with as little
assistance as possible.

CONDUCTING AN EXPERIMENT
Before carrying out any experiment, it is necessary that you plan carefully in advance.
Ensure that you understand the principles involved in the experiments and read the
instructions given in the experiment very carefully.

Prepare the apparatus to be used in the experiment and make sure it is all in working
order.

Where appropriate, sketch the general outline and arrangement of the apparatus – this is
particularly useful in electrical experiments where a sketch of the circuit diagram can be
drawn.

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
Before proceeding with any experiment, it is a good idea for you to think about some of
the possible sources (and reasons for) errors and uncertainties. It should be noted that
when taking measurements of physical quantities, there is always some degree of error
or uncertainty.

12
 Errors are caused by the limitations of the measuring instruments, the conditions under
which the measurement is made and the different ways the operator uses the instrument.
Some errors you could experience are:-

 Zero error
 Pointer not pivoted at the center of a circular scale
 Parallax error (reading the scale at an angle)
 Incorrect adjustment of the instrument.
 Pointer thickness

These errors can be classified into two main types; namely systematic and random
errors.

1. SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
These are errors caused by faulty instruments, wrong uses of instrument or wrong
experimental design. Using a stop clock that is running too fast or using an ammeter
with a zero reading of -0.2A, will result in a systematic error. Systematic errors can be
avoided by using right apparatus correctly and using the appropriate experimental
design. The systematic errors affect the results in one direction; all the measurements
might be lower or higher than the acceptable value. Thus systematic errors affect the
accuracy of the results.

2. RANDOM ERRORS (IRREGULAR OR ACCIDENTAL)

Random errors are errors of observation. They usually follow no fixed pattern and cause
an increase or decrease in a reading at random, such as parallax error. Random errors
can be minimized by repeating the measurement for at least three times and work out the
average.

TAKING READINGS
A measuring instrument should be used to its full precision. Thermometers are often
marked with intervals of 1oC. It is appropriate to record a reading which coincides
exactly with a mark as, for example, 22.0oC interpolation between scale divisions should
be to better than one half of a division. For example, consider a thermometer with scale
division of 1oC. a reading of 22.3oC, since 0.3 is nearer “0.5” than “0”. That is, where a
reading lies between those two marks, rather than simply rounding to the nearest mark.
The length of an object measured on a rule with a centimeter and millimeter scale should
be recorded as 12.0cm rather than a bald 12cm, if the ends of the object coincide exactly
with the 0 and 12cm marks.

13
RECORDING READINGS
When performing an experiment, you are required to get more than one set of value and
it is always better to record the data in a table. The table should have a title and each
result should be clearly written with the correct units of measure. The number of
decimal places for all values recorded should be the same as shown in the example
below.
X (m) I (A) Y= I (A)
0.000 0.09 1.11
0.300 0.48 2.08
0.500 0.36 2.78
0.700 0.28 3.57
0.800 0.26 3.85
0.900 0.26 4.17

When making calculations from measurements that have been determined from am
experiment, it is important that the result has the same number of significant figures as
the measurement or given value that has the least precise value.

For example;
3.2
r =1.3 = 2.463

The answer has a wrong number of significant figures. The correct value should be 2.5.

The results recorded can be used to draw graphs.

GRAPHS
Check the size of the graph paper and try to choose simple scales that will give a graph
which will cover more than half the page. For example, choose one large square (2cm)
on the graph paper to represent 10g or 20g.

Avoid choosing numbers such as 3g, 7g or 9g as it becomes very difficult to plot

fractions for these values.

Avoid choosing a scale that represents an even number of units by an odd number of
squares. For example, do not try to represent 10g by 3 squares on the graph paper.

Determine what each small division on the scale chosen would stand for.

When the scale has been chosen, make sure that you show it clearly on the graph and
indicate the unit of measure. For example, you can indicate; 2cm = 1 or 2 or 5v. The

14
 axes should be labeled with quantity and unit. The scales for the axes should allow the
majority of the graph paper to be used in both directions.

PLOTTING A GRAPH
When plotting points, select a pair of value (co-ordinates) and mark their position with a
fine dot, with a circle drawn around it using a sharp pencil. Large “dots” are penalized.
The graphs could be curves or straight lines.

If the pattern of a number of plotted points suggests a straight line, always draw a
straight line using a ruler. Do not connect each mark together when some marks are
found to be a little way away from the main straight lines.

If the marks suggest a curve, draw a smooth curve through the marks using free hand. If
there are certain marks which seem to be off the curve or straight line, leave them out.
They could have been obtained inaccurately and it is good practice to repeat the
measurements again and re-plot those marks.

DEDUCTIONS FROM GRAPHS

1. The Straight Line Graph
If you are required to determine the gradient of a straight line graph, there are two
methods that can be used.

(a) Choose two points on the graph. The interval between the two points should
cover more than half the line. The coordinates of these points should clearly be
shown on either the graph itself or in the report.

15
 The gradient is determined as shown in the figure below.

𝑦 −𝑦
Gradient = 𝑥2−𝑥1
2 1

(b) The second

method involves the
use of a right-angled
triangle; once again
points selected on the
line must cover at
least half its length.

The lengths of two other sides of the triangle are determined using the scales on
the graph. These values are recorded and the gradient of the line can then be
calculated using the formula.

𝑦 −𝑦 𝑦
Gradient = g= 𝑥2 −𝑥1 = 𝑥
2 1

If you want to find a

corresponding point given
one point on either axes,
then read off the point by
drawing perpendicular lines
to both axes from the given
point.

16
At times, you may be asked to get information from a graph which may not lie within the range
of the collected data. Often it is necessary to extend the graph to include the range of data
required. This is called extrapolation.Zero on the method used when obtaining zero on the
Kelvin scale.

Extrapolating a graph to include data outside the collected data.

SOUND WAVES
Sound is a form of energy which can travel from one point to another in form of waves.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves and the following are necessary for the
transmission of sound.

(a) A source; the vibrating object which produces the sound such as a turning fork.

(b) A medium to transmit the sound which can be a solid, liquid or gas.

(c) A receiver such as the ear or a microphone to receive the sound.

There are a variety of sounds around us such as: clocks ticking, aero planes flying, cars
moving, people talking, dogs barking and music being played.

PRODUCTION OF SOUND
Sound is produced when a source such as the skin of a drum, turning fork and wire in a
piano vibrates. Sound waves are caused by vibrations. The following examples show
that sound is caused by vibration.

17
(i) When a turning fork is struck on a table top, its prongs move. If the prongs are
quickly dipped into water, the water splashes. Although it is hard to see, the
prongs are actually vibrating. The vibration causes the water to splash.

(ii) Clamp a thin ruler or hacksaw blade. Pull its free end to one side and release it.
It vibrates to and from and as a result produces sound. This shows that sound is
produced by a vibrating matter. As the vibrating ruler moves from left to right
while those on the left expand into the space left behind by the ruler. They
become rarefied. The same thing happens as the ruler moves to the left. A series
of compressions and rare factions is therefore produced and this results into a
sound wave. The wavelength can be measured from the center of one
compression to the center of the next.

Likewise, when a string on a guitar is plucked, it vibrates producing sound.

Because vibrations can be produced in different ways, so can sound.

Speed sounds from our bodies are as a result of vibrations of the vocal cords in
the throat. These vibrations cause movement of air through the vocal cords.

Sound from musical instrument is produced by the vibration of something in the

instrument. The guitar, violin, piano and bass are instruments in which strings
vibrate. The flute, trumpet and trombone are instruments in which air inside the
instrument vibrates.

When sound reaches us, we can hear because our ear drums are set into vibration.
Energy is required to set the ear drums into vibration. Thus sound carries energy
18
 from the source to our ear drums. Sound is therefore a from of energy produced
by a vibrating source.

TRANSMISSION OF SOUND
Sound from a vibrating source is able to travel through air and reach our ears.

Consider a vibrating turning fork. We know that air consists of particles of gases. As
the prongs of the turning fork move outwards, they give the particles of air a push. This
compresses the air and thus the push gets passed on theneighbouring particles. Where
the particles are close together, the pressure increases slightly and this compressed
region of particle is called compression. As the prongs move inwards, a space is left
where air particles are further apart and the pressure reduces or decreases. This region
where particles are further apart is a called the rarefaction. The compressions and
rarefactions are equally spaced.

On their next outward movement, the prongs compress move air particles. Then the
prongs move inward and produce another region of rarefaction. This compression –
rarefaction process continually repeats itself while the vibration continues. As the
amount of vibration decreases, so does the amount of compression and rarefaction. The
series of compression and rarefaction form a sound wave.

19
The distance between adjacent compressions is the wavelength and the distance from
one compression to the next successive rarefaction is called the amplitude. Note that
sound waves are longitudinal waves because the vibration is parallel to the direction of
travel.

We have seen that sound waves are produced when an object vibrates. The number of
complete vibrations per second is the frequency of vibration (measured in Hertz).
Frequency is also the number of compressions (or rare factions) produced per second by
the vibrating source.
Different sounds have different frequencies, but the audible range for the ear of a
human being is between 20Hz and 20000Hz. Therefore any sound with the frequency
out of this range will not be detected by the human ear.

Human speed contains sound of frequencies 600Hz and 4800Hz.

Different instruments of music produce different notes made up of different sets of

frequencies. The sounds we actually hear consist of many waves, each with its own
frequency.

ULTRASONIC WAVES
Sounds with frequencies above 20,000Hz are known as ultrasonic waves. They cannot
be heard but they still affect the eardrums, and can cause acute pain. Such waves are
usually produced by applying high frequencies alternating current to a quartz crystal to
set it into vibration. By this method, it is possible to produce ultrasonic waves of very
high frequencies.

Ultrasonic waves have many practical applications:-

20
1. They are used in echo depth – sounding devices to determine the depth of the sea.

2. They can be used to build up a picture of the baby inside the mother’s womb. Sound
waves are passed across the womb’s abdomen and the reflection of theses sound waves
from the baby are used to build a picture of the baby on a computer. This is much safer
than x-rays which can damage the baby.

3. Ultrasonic waves can also be used to clean metallic surfaces.

4. Bats use ultrasonic waves to help them find their way around.

PROPAGATION OF SOUND
Sound spreads out in all directions from a source. This spreading is called propagation
of sound. Most of the sounds we hear travel through the air, but does not travel through
a vacuum.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To show that sound requires a tangible medium to propagate it.

MATERIALS / APPARATUS
Battery, connecting wires, bell jar, suction pump, electric bell, cork.

METHOD
 Hang an electric bell under a bell jar and connect it to the battery as shown below.

21
 Switch on so that the bell rings. When you close the switch, sound is heard and the
hammer is seen to hit the gong.

 Slowly pump the air out of the bell jar by the means of a vacuum pump. When the pump
starts, the sound gradually becomes fainter and fainter but the hammer can still be seen
hitting the gong (bell).

 Slowly readmit the air into the bell jar and you will hear that sound becomes louder.

CONCLUSION
Sound requires a tangible medium for its transmission and it does not travel through
vacuum.

THE SPEED OF SOUND

Sound waves travel through solids and liquids as well as through gases. The speed of sound
depends on the substances the sound is travelling through. In general, sound travels more
rapidly through liquids than through gases, and fastest of all through solids. Higher speeds

22
result partly from stronger forces between molecules. The speed of sound in a gas depends
on the temperature of the gas; the higher the temperature, the faster the sound travels.

 Speed of sound in air (dry air) at 0oC 330m/s

 Speed of sound in air at 15oC 342m/s

 Speed of sound in water at 0oC 1400m/s

 Speed of sound in water at 15oC 1450m/s

 Speed of sound in concrete 5000m/s

 Speed of sound in copper at 20oC 3560m/s

Light travels faster in air than sound. For example, when lightning strikes an object, a few
kilometers from the observer, he sees the flash several seconds before he hears the resulting
thunder. The time difference is the time required for the sound to travel from where the
lighting strikes to the observes since light reaches him practically instantaneously.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
How to determine the speed of sound in air.

MATERIALS /APPARATUS
A pistol, stopwatch and two experiments.

METHOD
Two experimenters, one with a stopwatch and the other with a pistol containing blanks
rounds should stand a reasonable measured distance within sight of each other. The one
with a pistol signals to a friend that he is about to fire and he fires. The friend starts the
clock as soon as he sees the flash and stops it when he hears the sound. He takes note of the
time taken for the sound to reach him.

They repeat the experiment several times and calculate the average time.

To compensate for any wind effects, the experiment is repeated in the reverse direction.
They then calculate the velocity of sound using the formula;

2 ×𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
Velocity of sound = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

23
 𝑥
= 𝑡

REFLECTION OF SOUND
If you stand about 30m from a wall and clap your hands once, you soon hear a similar
clapping sound coming from the wall. This reflected sound is calledecho. Walls, mountains,
cliff surfaces, the ground e.t.c. reflect sound waves and produce echo. The thunder roars
mainly because of successive reflections between the clouds and the grounds. The human
ear can distinguish a sound and its echo only if they are at least o./s apart. The reflecting
surface must be at least 16.55m away, since sound travelling at about 331m/s will travel
33./m from the observer to the reflector and back in 0./s.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To determine the speed of sound by the echo method.

MATERIALS/APPARATUS
Drum, stop clock

METHOD
Two experimenters, one with a drum and the other with a stop clock, stand about 100m from
a smooth, vertical wall. The one with the drum beats it at regular intervals and adjust the
rhythm until the echo coincides with the next beat of the drum. The length of the time
between the drum beat is now the time taken by the sound to travel to the wall and back, that
is twice the distance to the wall. The man with a stop clock should time 50 steady drum
beats and then calculate the average time interval between the beats. The velocity of sound
is then calculated from:

2 ×𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙

Velocity of sound = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠
2𝑥
V= 𝑡

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. A woman stands 120m away from a high wall. She claps two blocks of wood together at
a steady rate such that 40 claps are made in 30 seconds. If each clap coincides with the
echo of the one before, what is the speed of sound?
2𝑑
V= 𝑡
40 claps 30 seconds
1 clap = xs

30
x =40 = 0.75s

2𝑥 (2× 120)𝑚
V= = = 320m/s
𝑡 0.75𝑠
24
2. Echo sounding equipment on a ship receives sound pulses reflected from the sea bed
0.02 seconds after they were sent out. If the speed of sound in sea water is 1500m/s,
what is the depth of water under the ship?

2𝑑
V= 𝑡

V x t = 2d

1500m/s × 0.02s = 2d

30𝑚 2𝑑
= =
2 2

15m = d

d = 15m

3. A person fires a gun and hears the echo from the cliff after 4s. how far away is the cliff,
if the speed of sound in air is 340m/s.

2𝑑
V= 𝑡

𝑣×𝑡
d= 2

340𝑚/𝑠 × 4𝑠
d= 2𝑠

= 680m

4. An echo sounder produces a high pitched sound whose echo is picked by a hydrophone
after 35. Given that the velocity of sound is 1410m/s in water, how deep is the water at
this point?

2 x distance = v × t

1410 × 3
Distance (depth) = 2

x = 2115m

25
5. The range of frequencies which the human ear can hear is from about 20Hz to 20,000Hz.
What wavelengths correspond to these frequencies in air? Take v = 330m/s.

𝑣 330𝑚/𝑠
(a)  = = = 16.5m
𝑓 20𝐻𝑧

𝑣 330𝑚/𝑠
(b) = = 20,000𝐻𝑧
𝑓
= 0.0165m

PROPERTIES OF SOUND
The sound we hear differ from each other in a number of ways; three of which are
loudness, pitch and quality.

1. LOUDNESS
The loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude of the wave that produces it. The
greater the amplitude the louder the note, because more energy is used to produce a large
amplitude. Increasing the ‘volume’ of the radio increases the amplitude of the sound
waves produced by radio speakers, so the sound from the radio is louder. Changing the
loudness does not alter the frequency of the sound.

NOTE
The energy transmitted by a wave depends upon the frequency as well as the amplitude.
If the frequency of a note is doubled, twice as many compressions and rare factions
strike the ear each second and more energy is received. In fact the energy in a wave is
proportional to both (frequency)2 and (amplitude)2.

2. PITCH
The highest or lowness of sound is called pitch. The pitch depends on the frequency of
the sound waves. Increasing the frequency makes the pitch higher.

Girls’ voices are generally ‘higher’ than boys’ voices. A short hacksaw blade clamped
at one end vibrates more rapidly than a long one when the free end is pulled to one side
and then released. A short blade which vibrates at a higher frequency produces higher
sound than a long blade which vibrates at a low frequency.

3. QUALITY
The sound quality depends on how close the sound wave is to a wave with a constant
frequency. A high quality note is said to be more ‘pure’ than a quality note.

26
In the two figures above, they both have the same pitch but (b) is louder than (a).

THE SOURCES AND NATURE OF LIGHT

SOURCES OF LIGHT
Visible light is the form of energy that can be detected unaided by our naked eye. An
object can only be ‘seen’ if visible light coming from the objet enters our eyes.

Some objects produce their own light and are called luminous sources. Luminous
sources of light can either be natural or artificial. Some examples of natural sources of
light are the sun and fireflies. Examples of artificial sources of light are electric lamps, a
candle flame and wood fire.

Most of the objects we see however do not produce light of their own but merely reflect
the light which they received from other sources. Such sources are referred to as non-
luminous sources. Some examples of non-luminous sources are the moon, the planets
and most of the things that we see around us every day.

Sometimes, the luminous and non-luminous sources are referred to as primary and
secondary sources respectively.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To show that light travels in a straight line.
MATERIALS/APPARATUS
A light candle, three large cards with holes on their centres.

METHOD
Set up three large cards, which have a hole through their centres in a straight line. To
ensure that the holes are in a straight line, pass a string or thread through each hole and
pull it taut.

27
Place a lighted candle at one end of the cardboard sequence and then look through the
holes in the centres of each board from the other end as shown below.

OBSERVATIONS
When the holes of the cardboards are arranged in a straight line; one is able to see the
candle flame on the other side. However, when one of the cardboards is put slightly out
of the line, the light is not able to pass through the holes and reach your eye.

CONCLUSION
Light travels in a straight line.

EXPLANATION
The theory that light travels in a straight line is known as rectilinear propagation of
light. Light will only travel in a straight line if there are no obstacles between the source
and the reception point i.e. your eye. Shadow formation also offers evidence that light
travels in straight lines.

THE NATURE OF LIGHT

The nature of light can be understood a little more easily if light is thought of in terms of
rays or beams. A ray is considered to be a single unit of light and a beam is made up of
a number of rays. A beam of light rays maybe parallel, diverging or converging as
shown above. The divergence or convergence of light rays is caused by obstacles in the
path of the beam of light. Light rays naturally travel in parallel lines.
Sometimes it is possible to actually see light beams. For example you have probably

seen beams of light coming from the trees in the early morning sun or perhaps light
28
 beams from a film projector on their way to the screen. The beams are visible because
dust particles in the air reflect some of the light into your eyes.

Light is said to be the radiation in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
There are a large number of light frequencies on either side of the visible spectrum.
These are known as the infra-red and ultra-violet regions respectively.

REFLECTIONS OF LIGHT
When light strikes an object, one or more of the following may occur: the light may pass
right through the object, it may be absorbed, or it may be reflected or turned back from
the surface. Smooth, shiny objects reflect light. Reflection is the bouncing of light off
objects. The figure below illustrates reflection of light from regular surfaces.

TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH REFLECTION

1. INCIDENT RAY
The ray that falls on the mirror or reflecting surface is called the incident ray.

2. NORMAL
This is the line drawn perpendicular to the reflecting surface at the point of incident.

3. POINT OF INCIDENCE
This is the point the point on the reflecting surface at which the incident ray strikes the
reflecting surface.

4. REFLECTED RAY
This is the ray that bounces off the reflecting surface.

29
5. ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
This is the angle between the normal and the incident ray.

6. ANGLE OF REFLECTION
This is the angle between the normal and the reflected ray.

7. ANGLE OF TURNING
This is the angle between the reflected ray and the incident ray.

LAWS OF REFLECTION
1. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.

2. The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray all lie in the same plane.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To verify the first law of reflection.

MATERIALS/APPARATUS
Ray box, blank sheet of plain paper, drawing board, protractor, drawing pins, ruler,
pencil and plane mirror.

METHOD
Fix a black sheet of plain paper onto a drawing board using drawing pins. Draw a
horizontal line MM1, 10cm long near the bottom edge of the sheet of plain paper. Draw
another line ON, perpendicular to the horizontal line MM1 at its middle point 0. The
horizontal line MM1 represents the shining edge of the mirror while the vertical line ON
is the normal to it.

Using a

protractor, construct a straight line making 30o with the normal as shown below. This
30
line is the incident ray. The angle between this line and the normal is the angle of
incidence.

Place a plane mirror upright along the line MM1 and fix it in position using plasticine.
Use a ray box to shine a ray of light onto the mirror along the line you have drawn
representing the incident ray.

CAUTION
The mirror should not be disturbed during the experiment.

Mark the position of the reflected ray of light on the paper using at least two crosses and
then remove the mirror. Draw a straight line from O through the marked points.Measure
the angle of reflection r from the normal.

Repeat the same procedure using a variety of angles of incidence that are less than 90 o.
record the readings as shown in the table shown.

Angle of incidence 30o 40o 50o 60o 70 o 80o

Angle of reflection

OBSERVATION
For angles less that 90o, reflection takes place and the angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection.

31
WORKED EXAMPLES

If the angle between the mirror and he incident ray is 12o, calculate:-
(a) Angle of incidence
(b) The angle of reflection
(c) The angle through which light turns

SOLUTION
(a) L MON = 90o
12o +i = 90o

i = 90o - 12o

i = 78o

The angle of incidence = 78o from the normal

(b) The angle of incidence = to the angle of reflection, therefore r = 78o

(c) The angle through which light turns.

GOB = 180o- (i + r)

= 180o - (78o + 78o)

= 180o – 156o

GOB = 24o

32
2. Calculate the angle of incidence from the diagram given below.

MˊON = 90o

 90o = 40o + r

90o – 40o = r

50o = r

r = 50o

Since the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection r, i = 50o.

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR REFLECTION

What we have just seen was reflection on a plane mirror. However, the two laws of
reflection apply on other reflecting surfaces as well. If a parallel beam of light falls on a
smooth surface, it will be reflected as a parallel beam as seen in the diagram below. This
kind of reflection is known as regular orspecular reflection. The angles of incidence
in the
beam
are all
equal.

33
On the other hand, if a parallel beam falls onto a rough reflecting surface, the reflected
rays are scattered and are no longer parallel as indicated below. This type of reflection is
known as irregular or diffuse reflection and it occurs when the incident rays strike the
reflecting surface are different angles.

The angles in this case are all different from one another. The angle of incidence, i and
A is different from i in B and as well as i in C. The same applies for the angles of
reflection. Such a mirror cannot form an image.

If

you look at the surface of a piece of paper and a mirror with your naked eye, both will
appear to be smooth. However, if they are viewed under a microscope, you will see that
the mirror has a smooth surface whereas the piece of paper has a rough surface. No
image is formed by the light rays reflected from a rough surface as the rays are scattered
in different directions and at various angles. A reflected image is formed when the light
rays are reflected parallel to each other and this usually occurs when they are reflected
from a smooth or highly polished surface.

IMAGE FORMED BY A PLANE MIRROR

When an object is placed in front of a plane mirror, rays from it that strike the mirror are
reflected and appear to come from behind the mirror. The following experiment enables
us to locate the image that appears to be at the back of the mirror.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To determine the position of the image formed by a plane mirror.

MATERIALS/APPARATUS
Small pins and a large pin, blank sheet of paper, drawing board, ruler, plane mirror

34
 METHOD
 Fix the blank sheet of plain paper onto a drawing board using pins.

 Draw a straight line on a sheet of plain paper. Stand a mirror upright with its back on
the line.

 Stick a large pin (O) in front of a mirror to represent the object. View the image in the
mirror from some convenient position P1. Place two other pins 1 and 2 so that they and
the image are all in one straight line.

 Remove them, mark their positions, and repeat the process from another position P2.

 Remove the mirror and all the pins. Join the positions of pins 1 and 2, and the positions
of 3 and 4 with solid lines touching the mirror.

 Extend these behind the mirror as dotted lines.

 Where these meet behind the mirror is the position of the image you observed from
positions P1 and P2.

 Mark it as I. Repeat the experiment to confirm your results.

35
Now join O with I. Measure the object distance and the image distance from the mirror.
They should be equal.

Also measure the angle between the mirror and the line joining I and O. It is a right
angle.

This image is not a real image because light rays do not actually intersect there. It is
formed at the point where the reflected rays appear to have come from, or to intersect
when their directions are extended behind the mirror. We therefore call it a virtual
image. It cannot be formed on a screen.

METHOD 2
It can be demonstrated as shown below.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To compare the size of the object with its image.

MATERIALS/APPARATUS
A sheet of plain paper, a pencil, rule.

METHOD
Draw a straight line on a sheet of plain paper to represent the mirror and a straight ABC
to represent an object. Take one point of the object after another (A, B, C) and locate its
image (a, b, c) respectively, the join the points together.
The image appear as shown below.

36
The explanation for this is as follows: the ray AX strikes the mirror normally and is
reflected back on itself. Ray AY reaches the mirror at Y and is reflected along YZ,
making i equal to r. Lines AX and YZ when extended behind the mirror, intersect at ‘a’
the image of A. Repeating the process for B and C gives the image as it appears in the
diagram. The following points should be apparent about the image. It is as far behind
the mirror as the object is in front. The image is the same size as the object. It is also
laterally inverted (the image always has its left and right sides reversed). E.g.

To summarize, an image formed by a plane mirror has the following characteristics:-

37
 1. It is as far behind the mirror as the object in front of the mirror.
2. It is the same size as the object
3. It is laterally inverted
4. It is a virtual image

MIRRORS AT RIGHT ANGLES

If two mirrors are positioned at angle of 90o to each other as shown above and an object
‘O’ placed in front of the two mirrors, three separate images will be seen. Each mirror
initially forms its own image by single reflection and the third image is formed by
reflection from both mirrors.

APPLICATION OF MIRRORS
1. Mirrors are used in instruments such as galvanometers, ammeters and voltmeters and are
usually placed behind the needle or pointer. This increases the accuracy of reading the
instrument and helps to eliminate parallax error.

2. Parallel mirrors are sometimes used as merchandising, tools in shops. Two plane
mirrors fixed parallel to one another on two opposite walls give the impression that the
shop is well stocked. This arrangement can also add colour and beauty to the shop.

3. In a simple periscope, two plane mirrors are arranged at an angle of 45o to the direction
from which the rays are coming, with their reflecting surfaces facing each other. The

38
periscope enables the user to see over an obstacle without being seen himself; it is useful
to the military. The image seen through the periscope is not in the same plane as the
object.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
A coin placed at the bottom of a trough of water appears to be at a shallower depth than
it actually is. A pencil or a ruler partly immersed in water appears bent. These optical
illusions arise because when light passes from water to air its rays bend and change
direction. The bending of light as it crosses the boundary between two different media is
called refraction.

THE CAUSES OF REFRACTION

When light passes from one transparent medium into another transparent but denser
medium, its speed reduces. When it passes from a denser to a rare medium, its speed
increases. If the light is at an angle to the surface of the second medium, the change in
speed will result in a change of direction, in other words, it is refracted.

TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH REFRACTION OF LIGHT

39
 The terms associated with refraction are illustrated and described as follows.
1.

INCIDENT RAY
The ray passing from the first medium to the surface of the second medium.

2. REFRACTION RAY
The ray after the incident ray has been bent on entering the second medium.

3. ANGLE OF INCIDENCE (i)

The angle between the incident ray and the normal.

4. ANGLE OF REFRACTION (r)

The angle between the refracted ray and the normal.

5. ANGLE OF DEVIATION (D)

The angle between the original direction of the incident ray and the refracted ray.

6. OPTICAL DENSITY
The ability of a transparent medium to refract a light ray entering it from a different
medium. A light ray travelling at an angle from air into water bends towards the normal.
When it emerges from the water and re-enters the air, it bends away from the normal.
The water is said to have a greater optical density than air.

Light is refracted towards the normal. When it passes from a less to a more optically
dense medium. It can also be demonstrated that light is refracted away from the normal
when it passes from a more to a less optically dense medium. A medium which is less
optically denser than another is referred to as the rare medium.

40
These results are illustrated as shown below.

However, whether the light is from a les dense medium to a denser medium or vice-
versa refraction will not take place if it strikes the surface at right angles as shown
below. Hence no angles are formed.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To show how to determine the refractive index of glass.

41
 MATERIALS/APPARATUS
Drawing pins, drawing board, pencil, plain sheet of paper, ruler, rectangular glass block.

METHOD
 Place a rectangular glass block on a sheet of paper on a drawing board.
 Mark its outline with a very sharp pencil.
 Remove the block temporarily and draw the normal and several long lines to represent
rays at measured angles.

 Replace the block right on the outline.

 Stick two optical pins P1 and P2 as far apart as possible along the line to represent a ray
of light incident on the block through the normal.

 View these pins from the opposite side of the block and stick two more pins P3 and P4 in
the same manner so that all the four pins appear to be in one straight line.
 Remove the pins; mark their positions with crosses or dots.
 Join the position of P3 and P4 with a straight line up to the outline. Line P1 P2 represents
the incident ray while P3 P4 represents the emergent ray.

 Draw the refracted ray by joining point N with point M and draw he normal at M.
 Measure i and r and record their values as shown below.

 Repeat the procedure for all the angles of incidence.

42
 i r Sin i Sin r 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓

sin 𝑖
Calculate the ratio for each pair of angles and complete the table above.
sin 𝑟

sin 𝑖
is constant and is what is called the refractive index (n):-
sin 𝑟

sin 𝑖
n = sin 𝑟; ratio of sin i to sin r is a constant (n), the refractive index.

sin 𝑖
The relationship, sin 𝑟 = constant was discovered by Snell and is called Snell’s Law.

For glass the refractive index is approximately 1.5 to 1.6 depending on the kind of glass
used. The refractive index of water is 1.33 and that od alcohol is 1.36.

From the results you will see that a light ray bends towards the normal when it passes
from air (rare medium) to glass (Dense medium), except when it passes along the
normal. In the latter case there is no refraction because there is no angle of incidence (i
= O). for a parallel sided block the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray. The
incident ray, the normal and the refracted ray all lie in the same plane.

Refraction takes place because light travels at different velocities in different media. It
could be shown that:
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
Refraction index (n) = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚

𝑣
n = 𝑣1
2

LAWS OF REFRACTION

1. The incident ray, the normal and the refracted ray all lie in the same plane.

2. Snell’s law; which state, ratio of sin i to sin r is a constant n, the refractive index

WORKED EXAMPLES
43
 (a) A ray of light makes an angle of 14o with the normal to a glass block. If the
angle of refraction within glass is 9o, calculate the refractive index of the block.

SOLUTION
sin 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛14𝑜 0.2492
n=sin 𝑟 = = 0.1564 = 1.55
sin 9𝑜

The refractive index of glass = 1.55

(b) What would be the angle of refraction if the angle of incidence were 49o?

SOLUTION
sin 𝑖
n = sin 𝑟

sin 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛49𝑜
sinr = = = 0.4869
𝑛 1.55

sinr = 0.4869

r = 29o (Approximately)

2. A ray of light travelling from air to water makes an angle of incidence 50o with the
normal. The angle of refraction is 35o, calculate the refraction index.

44
 sin 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛50𝑜 0.7660
n = sin 𝑟 = sin 35𝑜 = 0.5736 = 1.33

n = 1.33

3. The velocity of light in air is 3 x 108m/s. The refractive index for glass is 1.5. Calculate
the velocity of light in glass.

SOLUTION
𝑣
n = 𝑣1
2

𝑣 3 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠
v2 = 𝑛1 = = 2 × 108m/s
1.5

 Velocity of light in glass = 2 x 108m/s in glass = 2×108m/s

4. The speed of light in air is 3 x 108m/s. Calculate the of light in glass of refractive index
1.5. Calculate the wave length of light (a) in air, (b)in glass, if the frequency of light is
6.0 x 1014Hz.

SOLUTION

n = 1.5, V1 = 3×108 m/s, V2= ?

𝑣
n = 𝑣1
2

𝑣1 3 × 108 𝑚𝑙𝑠
v2 = = = 2 × 108 𝑚𝑙𝑠
𝑛 1.5

∴ Speed of light in glass is 2 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒍𝒔

(a) C = 3× 108 𝑚𝑙𝑠, f = 6.0× 1014 𝐻𝑧,  = ?

C = f
𝑐
=
𝑓

3 × 108 𝑚𝑙𝑠
=
6 × 1014 𝑚𝑙𝑠

5 × 10-7 = 

 = 5 × 10-7m

45
∴ Wavelength of light in air = 5 × 10-7m

(b) V2 = 2 × 108 𝑚𝑙𝑠, f = 6× 1014 𝐻𝑧,  = ?

V2 = f
𝑉2
=
𝑓

2 × 108 𝑚𝑙𝑠
=
6 × 1014 𝐻𝑧

3.3 × 10-7m = 

 = 3.3 × 10-7m

∴ Wavelength of the light in glass is 3.3 × 10-7m

SOME OPTICAL ILLUSIONS CAUSED BY REFRACTION

We have seen already that a stick placed at an angle in water looks bent and now we will
discover the reason for this.

Rays diverging from end B of the rule are refracted away from the normal as they move
from water (dense medium) to air (rare medium). To the observer the rays appear
to have diverged from C. Any other point on the stick that lies below the water surface
can be located in a similar manner and so the shape of the stick or rule appears as
shown above. This is called the bending effect of refraction of light.

46
 The other illusion is called the shallowness. A pond appears shallower than it
actually is when it is viewed vertically from above because of refraction. In the
diagram below, take point A to be the bottom of the pond. Rays diverging from it
are refracted away from their normal as shown below and appear to come from B. A
is the actual position of the point and is called the real depth. B is its apparent
position and this depth is called apparent depth.

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
Refractive index = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

WORKED EXAMPLE

1. A pin is placed at the bottom of a jar of water which is 8cm below the surface of the
water. If its image is at a depth of 6cm, calculate the refractive index of water.
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 8𝑐𝑚
n = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = 6𝑐𝑚 = 1.33

n = 1.33

2. A coin is placed at the bottom of a jar containing water 10cm deep. Calculate the
apparent depth of the coin, given that the refraction index of water 4/3.
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
n = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 10𝑐𝑚

Apparent depth = = 4⁄
𝑛 3

Apparent depth = 10cm ÷ 4⁄3

47
 3 30
10cm × 4 = = 7.5cm
4

Apparent depth = 7.5cm

CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

A ray passing from a dense to a rare medium is refracted away from the normal at
the boundary of the two media. the angle of refraction is therefore nigger than the
angle of incidence. Now we will examine what happens as the angle of incidences
increase.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To show what happens when the of incidence is increased.

MATERIALS/APPARATUS
A ray box, a semi-circular glass block, a plain sheet of paper, pencil, ruler, drawing
board , drawing pins.

METHOD
 Place a semi-circular glass block on a sheet of paper on a drawing board.
 Draw its outline as accurately as possible.
 Mark the center of its straight edge with C.
 Now direct a ray of light towards C as shown below.
 Since the ray passes along a radius of the semi-circular, it makes a right angle with the
curved surface and reaches C unrefracted.
 Note that a bit of light is reflected back through the glass at the boundary of two media,
but most of it is refracted away from the normal.

48
Slowly increase the angle of incidence at C until the refracted ray travels as close to
the straight surface as possible. When the angle of refraction becomes 90o, the angle
of incidence that causes it is called the critical angle. Mark this angle of incidence
and measure it. It should be about 42o for glass.

i=C

As a light ray moves from a medium of high refractive index (glass) g to one of low
refractive index (air) a, at critical angle we obtain.

a sin90𝑜
g sin C = a sin 90o, sin C = g

The refractive index of air = 1 and sing 90o = 1.

Substitute this in the equation, it becomes

g sin C = 1 × 1

1
Sin C = g

WORKED EXAMPLES
Find the critical angle for a ray of light travelling from.

(a) Water (n = 1.33) to air (n = 1)

49
 1 1
Sin C = 𝑛𝑤 = 1.33 = 0.7519

Sin i C = 0.75519

C = 48.75o

(c) From glass (n = 1.5) to water (n = 1.33)

𝑛𝑤 1.33
Sin iC = g = = 0.8867
1.5

Sin i C = 0.8867

Sin C = 0.8867

C = 62.46o

iC = 62.46o

If you increase the angle of incidence beyond 42o, the refracted ray disappears
completely from the straight surface. It is totally reflected. The total internal
reflection occurs when a ray moving from a denser medium to a rare medium makes
an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle.

i> C

50
Total internal reflection also occurs in glass prisms. The figure below shows how a
right-angled glass prism may be used to deviate a ray of light through 90o or 180o

respectively.
In diagram (a) the ray passes through the first surface unrefracted as it moves along
the normal. It reaches the hypotenuse at an angle of 45 o, which is greater than the
critical angle and is therefore internally reflected. When the ray reaches the third
surface along the normal, it goes through unrefracted. The same reasoning explains
why the ray takes the path shown in diagram (b).

Total internal reflection finds an application in a prism binoculars and prism

periscope.

LENSES
A lens is a transparent refracting medium bound by two surfaces of regular
geometrical forms such as spherical or plain or cylindrical surfaces are called
cylindrical lenses.
Lenses are divided into two types:
(i) Convex and
(ii) Concave

51
1. CONVEX
A convex lens is thicker at the middle than the edges. Convex lens is also known as
a converging lens because it has the ability to converge (bring together) parallel rays
of light passing through it.

2. CONCAVE
A concave lens is thicker at the edges than the middle. It is also called a diverging
lens because it has the ability to diverge (spread out) parallel rays of light that pass
through it.

TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH LENSES

1. CENTRES OF CURVATURE WITH LENSES (C1 and C2).

This is the center of the sphere of which the surface of a lens is a part. Thus each lens
has two centers of curvature and hence two radii curvature.

2. PRINCIPAL AXIS (xx1)

This is a straight line which passes through the centers of curvature.

52
3. OPTICAL CENTER (O)
This is a point on the principal axis where all rays passing through it are not refracted
or deviated but continue in a straight line. For a lens with both surfaces having equal
curvature, the optical center is at the center of the lens.

4. FOCUS OR PRINCIPAL FOCUS (F)

This is a point at which rays parallel and close to the principal axis converge or appear
to diverge from after refraction through the lens. The principal focus is also called the
focal point, and each lens has two foci, one on each side.

5. FOCAL LENGTH (F)

This is the distance between the optical. Centre and the principal focus.

6. POWER OF THE LENS (P)

Thick lenses are more curved than thin lenses. The thicker the lens, the shorter is it
is focal length and the more ‘powerful’ it is at bending rays of light. The power of
the lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length measured in meters.

1
Power of the lens = 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝑚)

53
 The unit of optical power is diopter (D). Converging (convex). Lenses have a
positive power while diverging (concave) lenses have a negative power. Siopters are
commonly used by spectacle makers.

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. (a) Find the power of (ii) a convex lens of focal length 20cm and (ii) a concave
of focal length 10cm.

1 1
(a) (i) P = 𝑓 (𝑚) = 0.2𝑚 = +5D (the plus sign indicates that the lens is a
convex lens).

1 1
(a) (ii) P = 𝑓 = 0.1𝑚 = -10D (the minus sign indicates that the lens is
concave).

(d) What is the focal length of (i) a lens of power +17D and (ii) a lens of power -
7D?

SOLUTIONS

𝐼
(i) P=𝑓

𝐼 𝐼
F=𝑃= = 0.06m
17

F = 6cm (the lens of convex)

𝐼 −1
(ii) f=𝑃= = 0.14m
7

f = -14cm (the lens is concave)

TYPES OF IMAGE FORMED BY LENSES

Usually there are two types of image formal by spherical lenses:-
(i) Real image
(ii) Virtual image (Not real)

1. REAL IMAGES
Real images are formed by actual intersection of the rays after refraction. Real
images are inverted (upside down) and can be projected (seen) on a screen.

54
2. VIRTUAL IMAGES
Virtual images are formed by the intersection of imaginary ray i.e. by producing the
refracted rays in the backwards direction. These images are erect and cannot be
projected on the screen.

HOW TO LOCATE THE IMAGE FORMED BY A THIN LENS

Images formed by lenses can be located using ray diagrams. The following rules are
applied when drawing ray diagrams.

1. A ray that is parallel to the principal axis will pass through the focus after emerging
from the lens.

2. A ray through the optical center is undeviated (not refracted), it continues in a

straight line.

3. A ray through the principal focus leaves the lens parallel to the principal axis after
refraction. In order to locate the image, only two rays from the object are needed.
You can use rules 1 and 2, where they intersect, that is where the image is.

55
 LOCATING AN IMAGE FORMED BY A CONVEX LENS
In each of the following cases, the lens will be drawn as a straight vertical line. The
refraction of rays takes place on a vertical line representing the lens. The object will
be represented by an upright arrow and this object will be drawn on the left side of
the lens.

1. OBJECT AT INFINITY

Characteristics of the Image Formed

(i) The image is formed on the focal plane of the lens.
(ii) The image is real and inverted.
(iii) The image is diminished (smaller than the object).

2. OBJECT PLACED BEYOND 2F

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE IMAGE FORMED.

The image is formed between F and 2F behind the lens and is:-
(i) Real
(ii) Diminished
(iii) Inverted

Note that the lens is used in this way in a camera.

56
3. OBJECT AT 2F.

Characteristic of the Image

The image is formed at 2F and is:-
(i) Real
(ii) Inverted
(iii) Same size as the object

4. OBJECT PLACED BETWEEN F AND 2F

The image is formed beyond 2F and is:-

(i) Real
(ii) Inverted
(iii) Magnified

Note
A lens is used in this in a film projector.

57
5. OBJECT PLACED AT F

The image is at infinity.

6. OBJECT PLACED BETWEEN F AND THE LENS.

The image formed is on the same side as the object and is:-

(i) Virtual (not real)

(ii) Magnified (bigger than the object)
(iii) Erect (upright)

Note: A lens is used in this way in microscope and magnifying glass.

58
IMAGES FORMED BY CONCAVE LENSES
A concave lens forms an upright, virtual image of any object placed in front of it. The
image is always smaller than the object and close to the lens.

Changing the position of the object changes the position and the size of the image, but
the basic form of the diagram is unchanged.

ACCURATE RAY DIAGRAMS

EXAMPLE
An object 2cm high stands on the principal axis at a distance of 9cm from a convex lens.
If the focal length of the lens is 6cm, what is the position, height and nature of the
image?

59
 LINEAR MAGNIFICATION
Often we would like to know exactly how big or small the image is compared with the
object. This is obtained by calculating magnification. Magnification is the ratio of the
size of image to the size of object. It can also be calculated by dividing the height of the
image by the height of the object. It can also be found by diving the distance of the
image from the lens by the distance of the image from the object from the lens.

Mathematically, these expressions can be represented as:-

𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
Magnification = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 or

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠

Magnification = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠

𝐼 𝑣
i.e. m = 𝑈 Or m=𝑢

Note that magnification has no unit and represents how big or small the image is
compared with the object.

When; (i) m < 1, then the image is smaller than the object.

(ii) m = 1; then the image and the object are of the same size.

(iii) m> 1, then the image is magnified (bigger than the object)

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. An object 2cm high is 40cm from a convex lens. Find the magnification and size of the
image that is 20cm from the lens.

SOLUTION

𝑣 20𝑐𝑚
(a) m= =
𝑈 40𝑐𝑚

= 0.5

m = 0.5X

60
 𝐼
(b) m=0

I=m×0

I = 0.5 × 2 = 1.0cm high

2. An object 1cm high is 2cm in front of the lens. A virtual image is formed 4cm in front
of the lens. Find the magnification and the size of the image

Solutions

𝑣 4𝑐𝑚
m= = = -2
𝑈 2𝑐𝑚

 m = 2x

𝐼
m=0

m× 0 = 1

2 × 1cm = 2cm high

THE LENS FORMULA

It can be shown that for lenses:-

𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
=𝑈+ where;
𝑓 𝑣

f = focal length, u = distance to the object form the lens and v = distance to the image
from the lens.

The formula applies to both convex and concave lenses provided that the real-is-positive
sign convention is followed in this convention:-

1. All distances are measured from the optical center of the lens.

2. All distances to real objects and images are positive: all distances to virtual images are
negative.

3. The focal length of a converging lens (convex) is positive, that of a diverging lens
(concave) is negative.

61
 WORKED EXAMPLES
1. An object is placed 30cm from a convex lens of focal length 20cm. Find the position
and magnification of the image.

SOLUTIONS
DATA : U = 30cm, f = 20cm

𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝑉
(a) =𝑈+ (b) m=𝑈
𝑓 𝑣

1 1 𝐼 60𝑐𝑚
= 30 + m = 30𝑐𝑚
20 𝑣

1 1 𝐼
- + m = X2
20 30 𝑣

3−2 1
=𝑣
60

1 𝐼
=
60 𝑣

V = 60cm; since v is positive the image is real.

2. An object is placed 10cm from a convex lens of focal length 20cm. find the position
and magnification of the image

SOLUTIONS
DATA : U = 10cm, f= 20cm

𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝑉
(a) =𝑈+ (b) m=𝑈
𝑓 𝑣

1 1 𝐼 60𝑐𝑚
= 10 + m = 30𝑐𝑚
20 𝑣

1 1 𝐼
- + m = ˗2x
20 10 𝑣

1−2 1
=𝑣  = 2x
20

−1 𝐼
=
20 𝑣

-v = 20
V = -20cm

62
 Write notes on:
1. Lens Camera
2. Film Projector
3. Optical System of Human Eye
4. Defects if the Light eye

THE MAGNIFYING GLASS

A magnifying glass is a convex lens of a short focal length. When it is used, the object
is placed at a distance shorter than its focal length.

The image above is characterized by the following

1. Virtual image (not real)
2. Upright (erect)
3. Magnified image
4. Formed on the same side as the object

DISPERSION OF LIGHT
Newton Isaac discovered that a narrow beam of white light entering a prism left the
prism as a band of colours. The prism splits light into a beam of colours. The band of
colours is called a spectrum. The colours appear in the following order:-

Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet. The splitting of white light into
its component colours is called dispersion.

63
The amount of dispersion depends on the wavelength. Different colours of light have
different wavelengths and are therefore refracted differently.

As light travels from air to glass, the speed of all the colours is reduced. Violet travels
the lowest in glass and it is refracted the most. Red is refracted the least because it
travels the fastest. Note that when light passes through a glass prism, it is refracted
towards the wider part of the prism. The angle between the original and he final
direction of the light is called the angle of deviation.

64
 GRADE TWELVE WORK

MAGNETISM
The phenomenon of magnetism has been known to man since early times. The
ancient Chinese noticed that certain rocks always oriented themselves in a North- South
direction when freely suspended. They adapted this knowledge to make instruments for
navigation when at sea. Later on the ancient Greeks noticed a similar type of behavior
exhibited by a certain rock found in a place called magnesia in Asia minor. In particular
they noticed that certain forms of iron ore called magnetite or lodestone always pointed in
the same direction when freely suspended.

Furthermore, they observed that these rocks attracted small pieces of iron which stuck
to them. This phenomenon came to be known as magnetism.

PROPERTIES OF MAGNETISM
1. Magnets have got poles called magnetic poles. When a bar magnet is rolled in iron
filings it attracts a large quantity of them, but most of them cling at the ends. Few of
them stick to the middle of a bar. The regions on a magnet where its strength is
concentrated are called magnetic poles.

2. Any magnet which is freely pivoted will always come to rest with the same pole of
the magnet point in the northerly direction.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To demonstrate the North-South alignment of a bar magnet.

MATERIALS/APPARATUS
A bar magnet, a string, clamp stand.

65
 METHOD
 Suspend a bar magnet horizontally by a cotton thread so that it is free to rotate as shown
below. Notice the direction in which the bar comes to rest every time you disturb it by
rotting it in the horizontal plane.

OBSERVATION
A magnet suspended from a string so that it is free to rotate always come to rest with
the poles pointing in a North-South direction. One pole always points towards the
north and is therefore called the north-seeking pole or North Pole (N) and the point
pointing to the south is known as the South seeking pole or the South Pole (S).

The poles of a magnet are usually marked with ‘N’ or ‘S’ for identification purpose.
However, sometimes the poles are identified by colours, a north pole is painted red
and south pole is painted blue.

When a magnet is used to show us the direction of the north or south of the earth, it
is called a magnetic compass.

3. Magnetic pole will either attract or repel each other.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To demonstrate attraction and repulsion to magnetic poles.

MATERIALS/APPARATUS
Two cotton threads, two clean stand, two bars of magnets.

66
 METHODS
 Bring two bar magnets and place their north poles near each other as shown below. You
will notice that they repel each other.

 Now bring the south pole of the bar magnet close to the north pole of the other bar
magnet. North pole and south pole attract each other.

These observations are summarized in the first law of magnetism which states that;
unlike poles attract while like repel each other.

MAGNETIC SUBSTANCES
Substances which are attracted by a magnet are known as Ferro-magnetic materials
and this group of materials and this group of materials includes iron, steel, nickel, cobalt
and some oxides by iron. Many Ferro-magnetic substances are alloys, which are a mixture
alloys are used in making powerful magnets.

Pure iron is referred to as soft iron and it is a strong Ferro-magnetic substance.

However, soft iron cannot be made into a permanent magnetic material because it
loses its magnetism easily.

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon and there are a large variety of different forms of
steel depending on the amount of carbon and other impurities added to the iron. Many
steels are ferromagnetic. Steel is a hard magnetic material because it does not easily
lose its magnetism.

THE TEST FOR A MAGNETIC

In order for one to be sure that a material is a magnet or not, the material has to be
tested using a known magnet. The test is carried out by bringing the magnet close to
the material being tested. If upon bringing either the north or south pole of the
magnet closer; the two repel each other, there is a possibility that the material being
tested is not a magnet. Hence, the surest way of determining whether a material is a
magnet is repulsion.

67
 MAGNETIC INDUCTION
An iron nail placed in contact with a permanent magnet becomes magnetized and is
able to attract other pieces of magnetic materials such as steel pins as long as it is in
contact with the magnet. We say that it has magnetism induced into it by the
permanent magnet. This phenomenon is called induced magnetism. Before am
unmagnetized piece of iron such as a nail can be attracted, magnetism has to be
induced into it in such a way that adjacent poles are unlike. The iron nail can only attract
iron filings when it is in contact with the magnet. When the magnet is removed, the iron
filings fall off or the second nail falls because induced magnetism is lost. Thus when the
inducing force is removed the induced magnetism disappears. This does not happen
always. Had a steel nail been used instead of a soft iron nail, some of the induced
magnetism would have been retained.

A magnet is not the only source of induced magnetism. Whenever a magnetic

substance is placed in a strong magnetic field, it becomes an induced magnet.

MAGNETIC FIELDS
A magnetic compass needle can be deflected from its usual North-south direction by
a magnet placed a few centimeters from it. The space around a magnet in which it
exerts it magnetic forces of attraction or repulsion is known as the magnetic field.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To investigate the magnetic field around a bar magnet with iron filings.

MATERIALS/APPARATUS
A bar magnet, iron filings, stiff piece of paper.

METHOD
 Place a stiff piece of paper over a bar magnet and sprinkle iron filings evenly over the
surface of the paper. Tap the paper gently with your finger for a few moments.
 You will observe that the filings arrange themselves in a very distinct pattern as shown
below.

68
If another bar magnet is brought close to a magnetic field of the bar magnet, then the
magnetic field which result are shown below depending on which poles are brought
closer.

(a) Unlike Poles

(b) Like Poles

N S S N

If instead the two magnets are brought closer to each other in a parallel manner, their
fields interact as shown below.

N S

S N

All of the patterns demonstrated in the experiments above would be formed just as
clearly if a thin piece of plywood were used instead of the paper. This suggests that
magnetism can pass through non-magnetic materials. Any substance that allows
magnetic forces to act through it is said to be permeable to the magnetic field.

69
 For ease of presentation, diagrams are generally drawn with depicting lines of force
as continuous lines with arrows showing the direction in which the force is moving.
Therefore, a magnetic field has both magnitude and direction.

The direction of the magnetic field is from the North Pole to the south pole of the
magnet. We can therefore, draw the magnetic fields around the magnets for the
experiments above.

(a) Direction diagram of magnetic field around a bar magnet.

Diag.

The iron fillings always arrange themselves in curved lines between the poles except for the
line which run directly from one pole to the other which are straight. These lines are
called magnetic field lines or lines of force. A magnetic field line is a line along which a
freely suspended magnet would swing around in order to line itself up in a north-south
direction. A group of lines of force or a group of magnetic field lines is known as the
magnetic flux. The measure of the number of field line of force through a unit area is called
the magnetic flux density. The areas marked with ‘X’ are called neutral points. A neutral
point is an area where the magnetic fields cancel each other out. If the like poles of two
magnets are close together, a neutral point is created between them where the two magnetic
fields are equal but in opposite fields are equal but in opposite directions.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
How to plot a magnetic field with a small compass.

MATERIALS/APPARATUS
A sheet of paper, a magnetic compass, pencil and a bar magnet.

METHOD
Place a bar magnet on a sheet of which paper and draw its outline. Bring a small
magnetic compass near the north pole of the magnet. The compass needle will
deflect pointing away from the north pole of the bar magnet. When the compass has
settled, mark the position of the ends of the needle with dots using a pencil and label
them N and S. Then move the compass to position (ii) so that the South Pole rests
on the dot which previously marked the N-pole and put a third dot against the N- pole.

70
Move the compass on to position (iii) and repeat the procedure continue the process until
you obtain a curved line of dots reaching the South Pole as shown below. Join the dots with a
solid line. Plot more lines starting at different points near the North Pole. You will
obtain a complete pattern of lines of force or magnetic field lines.

MAKING A BAR MAGNET

There are about three methods of magnetization.

1. THE HAMMER METHOD

One way of making a magnet is to hammer a red hot bar of steel when it is lying in a
north-south direction. The earth induces its magnetism in the bar. The end facing
north becomes the North Pole and the end facing south becomes the society pole. This
method produces very weak but permanent magnets.
2. STROKING
(a) SINGLE TOUCH STROKING
A bar of steel is stroked from one end to the other by a single pole of a magnet. The
stroking should be carried out in the same direction all the time as shown below. The
magnet should be lifted high above the bar at the end of each stroke so that the process is not
reversed by subjecting the steel to opposite magnetic fields.

71
(b) DOUBLE TOUCH-STROKING
The other way of producing permanent magnets is to use the double touch stroking
method. Here two magnets are used. The stroking can be done either from the center
going outwards or from outwards to the center. If we want to produce a magnet with north
and south poles at the end, then we must use different poles for the two permanent magnets
as shown below.

(i) STARTING FROM THE CENTER

(ii) STARTING FROM THE ENDS

It instead of using different poles for stroking, we use the same poles for the two
permanent magnets, and then the magnet produced will have the same poles at the
ends. Such a magnet is said to have consequent poles.

72
 The advantage of double touch method is that it produces a stronger magnet as
compared to the single tough method.

3. ELECTRICAL METHOD
Place a steel bar inside a coil of insulated copper wire with several hundred turns
connect the ends of the coil to a 12v battery. Switch the direct current on, then switch
it off before the coil begins to overheat. When the coil cools, down, repeat the process a
few more times. Dip the bar into iron filings. It will attract a lot of them.

The polarity of the magnet produced depends on the direction in which the electric
current was flowing. The following two simple rules of thumb help to determine the
polarity of the magnet.

73
1. If you look at the end of the solenoid with the current flowing in a clockwise
direction over the top of the bar, then that end of the solenoid will be the south pole;
if the current flows anti-clockwise over the top of the bar, then that end will be the
North Pole.

2. If the solenoid is gripped in your right hand so that your fingers curl in the direction
of the current, then your thumb will be pointing in the direction of the north pole.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL

As already mentioned, steel retains magnetism for a long time while iron does not.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
How to compare magnetic properties of iron and steel.

74
 MATERIALS/APPARATUS
2 identical bars of steel and iron, copper wire, iron filling.

METHOD
Place two identical bars of iron and steel in identical coils of insulated copper wire
connected in a circuit as shown below. Clamp the bars as shown below clamp the
bars vertically and dip them into dishes iron filling. Switch on.

As long as the current is flowing, the iron bar holds more iron filing, showing that it
is easier to magnetize than steel. But when the current is switched off, iron drops most
of it iron filings while steel retains most of them. Steel is hard to magnetize and to
demagnetize.

METHOD 2
Bring two bars of the same size, one of soft iron and the other of steel in contact with
a bar magnet. Whilst still in contact with the magnet, dip them into piles of iron filings
as shown below.

75
 You will observe that more iron filings will be lifted by the soft iron bar than the steel
bar.

However, when the bar magnet is detached and removed from the vicinity of both
bars, the iron fillings will fall off almost immediately from the iron bar, whereas the
fillings on the steel rod will continue to cling on. This is because steel bar retains
magnetism and is said to have a greater magnetism retentivity induced in soft iron is
temporary whereas magnetism induced in steel is more permanent.

DEMAGNETIZATION
The best way of demagnetizing a bar magnet is to place it inside a solenoid through
which an alternating current (ac) is flowing. Alternating current can be obtained from
12v or 24v transformer. This current reverses its direction fifty times per second and therefore
no fixed poles result. When the bar is slowly removed until it is several meters from the
coil, it is found to be demagnetized.

76
 Other methods of demagnetizing a bar magnet are heating the magnet to red hot,
hammering on it or dropping it many times. Conversely, to enable a magnet to retain
its magnetism for a long time, keep it in a cool place and avoid jerking it.

TYPES OF MAGNET
There are many different types of magnet and depending on the function that the
magnet has to perform, many varieties within the same type. Some examples are as
follows:

1. THE BAR MAGNET

2. HORSE-SHORE MAGNET

77
3. U-SHAPED MAGNET

4. CYLINDRICAL OR RING MAGNET

5. ANNULAR MAGNET

78
6. MAGNADUR MAGNET

This type of magnet has its poles on the flat surfaces rather than at each end.

SOME USES OF PERMANENT MAGNETS

1. In hospitals, magnets are used to remove ferromagnetic objects during operations.

2. In computers, small ring magnets may be used as magnetic memory cores.

3. The rubber lining of refrigerator doors have a magnetic substance sealed in them which
help keep the door closed. This substance is a flexible rod of a magnet. The mutual
attraction between this rod and the iron body of the refrigerator keep the door rightly shut
all the time.

4. The oil drain plug on most vehicles is a magnet. This plug picks up the tiny pieces
of metal from the oil that would otherwise damage the rotating parts of the engine.

5. Magnets are an integral part of loud speakers and earphones.

6. Many industrial machines like electric motors and generators have moving parts that
employ magnets.

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

In 1819 Oersted discovered that a magnetic field existed around a current – carrying
wire. When he placed a compass needle under the wire the needle refused to point in
its usual north-south direction but was deflected to one side. When e reversed the

79
 direction of the current the needle also discovered that the direction. He also
discovered that the direction of the motion of the needle also reversed when he placed
the compass above the wire.

However, when current was turned off, the compass needle returns to its original north-
south direction. This shows us that a wire carrying a current has a magnetic effect. In
other words, it tells us that a magnetic field always accompanies the electric current.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To show the magnetic field due to a straight wire.

MATERIALS/APPARATUS
Iron filing, a piece of cardboard, magnetic compass, battery, wire.

METHOD
Connect the straight wire to the battery and pass a vertical current carrying wire
through a horizontal cardboard. Sprinkle iron filings on the cardboard and tap it
gently. As long as current is flowing, you will observe that the filings arrange
themselves in circular pattern around the wire. If you switch of, the circular pattern
formed by the iron filings disappears. This is because the magnetic field around the
wire exists only if current is flowing.

Now place a small compass at various points near the current carrying sire. It will
point in the direction of the lines of force.
80
 CONCLUSION
A magnetic field is produced around the wire when current is flowing through it.

The direction of the lines of force is given by the right hand grip rule as follows: grip the wire
by the right hand in such a way that the thumb points in the direction of the (conventional)
current. The direction of the curled fingers is the same as the direction of the lines of
forces.

FORCES BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CURRENT – CARRYING WIRES

Figure (a) below shows two parallel wires each carrying two parallel wires each
carrying a current in the same direction. The wires are free to move. Each wire
produces its own magnetic field. In between the two wires, the magnetic fields cancel
each other, causing the wires to move closer together.

81
On the other hand, figure (a) shows two parallel wires each carrying a current in the
opposite directions. In between the two wires, the magnetic field push on each other
causing the wires to move apart.

MAGNETIC FIELD OF A SOLENOID

A solenoid is a long coil of insulated wire consisting several turns. If direct current
is passed through it, it produced a magnetic field which is similar to that of a bar
magnet.

The polarity of the current – carrying coil is determined by looking at each end of the
coil. If current flow in the clockwise direction, that end if the coil is a south-pole. If
current flows in the anticlockwise direction, then that end is a north pole. The
strength of the magnetic field around a solenoid can be increased by increasing the
current or increasing the number of turns.

82
 ELECTROMAGNETS
The magnetic field around a current carrying solenoid can be made much strong if an
iron rod is inserted into the solenoid. Solenoids of this type are called
electromagnets. A solenoid is a magnet only when current flows through it. The
magnetic properties disappear as soon as the current is switched off. Iron is used
because it magnetizes only when current passes through the coil. Steel is not used
because it retains some magnetism.

A common form of an electromagnet is a horse-shoe type. This magnet consists of

several layers of insulated wire wound in opposite directions round the two limbs of
a u-shaped bar of soft iron so as to produce opposite poles at each end. It is more
powerful than a single pole acting alone.

APPLICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETS
1. MAGNETIC TAPES
A cassette tape is coated with a specious magnetic powder, such as iron oxide. The
recording head contains a small electromagnet. This produces a magnetic field which
varies in direction and strength according to the sound vibrations being recorded. As the
tape passes over the recording head the field causes the molecules of the magnetic powder to
lie in a certain pattern. The pattern is determined by the nature of the recorded sound.

When the tape is played, the playing head detects the magnetic fields of the
molecules of the magnetic powder. An electric current is thus induced in the coil of
the recording head. This current, which varies according to the variations of the
magnetic field on the tape is amplified and sent to the speakers.

83
 To ‘rub’ a tape is to simply demagnetize it. Magnetic tapes should be stored far from
magnets, such as those found in loudspeakers. These can partially demagnetize the
tape and distort the recorded sound.

2. THE ELECTRIC BELL

When the push-button switch is pressed, a current flows through the complete circuit
and the soft iron core in the coils becomes an electromagnet. The coils are wound in
opposite directions to produce opposite poles.

The electromagnet attracts the soft iron armature. This causes the hammer attached
to the soft iron armature to hit the gong. Simultaneously the circuit is broken at the
contact and the current ceases to flow. The electromagnet loses its magnetism and
no longer attracts the armature. Spring S, now pulls the armature back and re-
establishes the contact. The process repeats itself automatically as long as the switch
remains pressed.

The adjustment screw adjusts he gap between the armature and the electromagnet in
order to vary the rate at which the armature with the hammer vibrates to cause a
ringing sound.

3. THE RELAY
84
 A relay is a simple solenoid switch which can control another switch or switches in a
different circuit.

When current flows through circuit 1, the electromagnet attracts the soft iron
armature, which in turn pushes the two contacts together to complete circuit 2. In a
relay, a low-voltage circuit can be used to control a high voltage circuit, or many pairs
of contact at the same time.

4. MOVING IRON AMMETER: ATTRACTION AND REPULSION

An ammeter is an instrument used to measure the amount of current flowing through
a circuit. In the attraction-type of moving iron ammeter a soft-iron piece is attracted
into a solenoid when a current flows through the solenoid.

Since the size of the magnet is directly proportional to the size of the current, the
deflection of the pointer connected to the moving iron will also be proportional to the
size of the current and the scale can be calibrated accordingly. A spring returns the
pointer to zero when the current goes off.

85
 STATIC ELECTRICITY
Many substances such as glass rod, ebonite rods, plastic rods, resin e.t.c. when
rubbed with silk or any other suitable materials acquire the property of attracting light
bodies like pieces of paper, hair, wool, piece of pitch. The substances in such a state are said
to be electrified or to posses electric charges. In other words, they are said to be charged
bodies. To electrify is to impart an electric charge to a body. Hence we can define
electrification as the process of imparting electric charge to a body. Once, the charged is
established on an object, it confines to it so it becomes an electrostatic charge. This electricity
which is produced by friction (rubbing) does not move from one place to another in a
substance, so it is called static electricity.

ELECTROSTATIC EXPERIENCES
1. If a person touches a door handle after walking on a carpet he might experience an
electric shock.

2. When dry hair is combed with a plastic comb, the comb later will attract pieces of
tissue or dry hair.
3. When a nylon shirt (synthetic shirt) is removed from the body clicking sounds are
produced and sparks are seen if you are undressing in a dark room.

4. A plastic pen vigorously rubbed on hair can attract small pieces of paper.

5. If you use a dry cloth to clean a glass window, ting particles of clothe and dust stick
to the glass and are difficult to wipe off.

86
6. A person getting out of the car may receive a shock from the door handle of the car
when he touches it.

7. When pressing clothes, tiny pecks of clothes and threads stick to the pressing iron.

TYPE OF ELECTRIC CHARGES

They are basically two types of electric charge and these are: Positive and Negative
charges. Each charge has electric field. An electric field is a region surrounding a b
charged body where the second charge experiences a force.

A device used to observe the effects of an electrostatic charge is called the electroscope.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To observe some effects of electrostatic charges.

METHOD
Rub a plastic (polythene) rod with fur. Now hold it near the simple electroscope. The
pith ball gets attracted to the rod. This happens because the plastic rod gets charged when
it is rubbed with against fur. Should the pith ball touch the charges rod, it gets repelled.
In this case, it is reasonable to assume that some charge on the rod is transferred to the ball
and both acquire similar charge.

Now charge a Perspex or glass rod by stroking it with silk. Hold it near the charged
electroscope. You will observe that it is now attracted rather than repelled as before.
This shows that the charges produced on polythene (plastic) and Perspex or glass rods
are opposite in nature. We can therefore say that to produce positive electrification, rub
87
Perspex with silk. To produce negative electrification, rub polythene with fur. The process of
rubbing or friction does not electrify always the glass positively, but the kind of electric
charge or electricity developed in the glass ebonite, plastic e.t.c. depends upon the nature of
the substances used for rubbing. In the following series know as electrostatic series, the
substances are arranged in such a way that if any of them is rubbed with any other, the
substance higher up in the series will be charged positively and the lower one will be charged
negatively.

Electrostatic Series: fur, flannel, sealing wax, glass, paper, silk, human body,
woolen cloth, ebonite, plastic, cotton.

ELECTRIC REPULSION
If an ebonite rod is charged by rubbing with fur and then held just above small pith
balls, the balls will be charged and jump up and down.

88
 The motion of the balls can be explained as follows:
The balls are first of all attracted, become charged by contact and then repelled. On
striking the bench they loose their charge to the earth and action is repeated until the
rod has lost most of its charge.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To demonstrate the first law of electrostatics.

METHOD
Charge two pith balls positively by contact with a charged Perspex rod and bring them
near each other. You will observe that they repel each other. Similarly, two pith balls
charged polythene rod repel each other. Now bring a negatively charged pith ball and a
positively charged one near each other. They attract each other.

Alternatively, suspend charged polythene rod and Perspex rods on a dry string. Bring
a charged polythene rod near the suspended polythene rod. They repel. Two charged
Perspex rods treated in the same manner also repel, but a charged polythene rod and a
charged Perspex rod attract each other without hesitation. These observations are summarized
in what is known as the first law of electrostatics which says; like charges repel and unlike
charges attract each other.

WHERE DOES CHARGE COME FROM?

All materials are made up of tiny particles of matter called atoms. Atoms are
thought to be made up of smaller particles, some of which are electrically charged.

At the center of each atom is a nucleus made up of particles called Protons and
Neutrons. Surrounding this nucleus are very much light particles are electrons.

89
Electrons have a negative charge (-) charge;
Protons have an equal positive (+) charge. Neutrons have no charge.

Normally, atoms have equal numbers of electrons and protons, so the total amounts
of negative and positive charge within a material are the same. The overall or net
charge on the material is zero. However, when two materials are rubbed together,
electrons may be transferred from one to another. This upsets the balance between
the opposite charges within each material, so that each is left with a negative or
positive charge.

When polythene is rubbed with a dry cloth as shown below, the polythene pulls
electrons away from the atoms on the surface of the cloth. This leaves the polythene
with more electrons than normal and the cloth with less.

The polythene therefore ends up with a negative charge while the cloth is left with a
positive charge.

When Perspex rod is rubbed with a dry cloth as shown below, the appositive happens.
In this case, it is the cloth which pulls electrons away from the rod. With fewer electrons
than normal, the Perspex rod is left with a positive charge while the cloth gains an equal
amount of negative charge.

90
 Note that rubbing materials together does not make charge; it simply separates
negative and positive charges which already exist within the materials.

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

When rubbed, some objects lose charge almost as soon as they gain it. This happens
because electrons flow through the object or surrounding material until the balance
of negative and positive charge is restored. Materials which allow electrons to flow
through them are called conductors. Metals are the best conductors of all. The
outermost electrons in each atom are so loosely held that they are able to move freely
between atoms. These free electrons also make meals very good conductors of heat.
Most non-metals conduct charge poorly or not at all, though carbon is an important
exception.

Materials which do not conduct charge are called insulators. Their electrons are all
tightly held to atoms and are not normally free to move though they can of course be
disturbed if a material is rubbed.

Because of this, insulators are relatively easy to charge by rubbing because any
electrons which are transferred tend to stay where they are. Conductors can be
charged by rubbing – but only if held in insulating handles. If you rub a hand-held
metal rod, any electrons transferred are immediately replaced by electrons which flow
through the rod and your body and the rod remains uncharged.

91
 CONDUCTORS INSULATORS
Good Poor Rubber
Metals especially silver, copper, Water Plastics
aluminium, carbon (non-metal) Human body e.g. polythene
Earth Perspex
Silicon Glass
Dry air

ATTRACTION OF UNCHARGED OBJECTS

A charged object will attract any uncharged object close to it. A charge a rubber balloon
by rubbing it against your sleeve and the balloon will cling to a wall. Charge a comb by
pulling it through your hair and the comb will pick up some pieces of paper.
Records become charged when you pull then out of their sleeves and will attract dust as
a result.

You can see why such attractions occur by considering the effect a charged Perspex
rod has on a small aluminium foil placed just underneath as shown below.

92
Free electrons in aluminium foil are pulled towards the positively charged rod, the
top end of the foil becoming negatively charged while the bottom end is left with a
net positive charge. The charged rod therefore attracts the top ends of the foil and
repels the bottom end. As the top end is closer to the rod, the force of attraction is
the stronger of the two forces and the foil is pulled towards the rod as the result.

The charge rod will also attract small pieces of paper. Being an insulate the paper does
not contain free electrons but the charge on the rod distorts the atoms in the paper
pulling electrons a little closer towards the rod and pushing the nuclei a little further
away. The end result is the same; the paper behaves as if it has a negative charge at the
end and a positive charge at the bottom.

In both of these examples, charges appear on the foil and the paper because of the
presence of the nearby charged object. Charges caused in this way are known as
induced charges. Induced charges are charges which appear because of the
presence of the nearby charged object.

THE GOLD-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE

A Gold-leaf electroscope is a very sensitive instrument used for detecting and testing
small electrostatic charges. It consists of a brass cap (disk) attached to a brass rod at
whose end a small, rectangular glass plate is riveted. A strip of thin gold leaf is
attached to the brass plate.

The lid of the metal case is made of Perspex or some other good insulator. The metal
case is earthed simply by placing it on a wooden table because wood conducts
electrostatic charges. Glass windows, on the sides of the metal case make it possible to
see the gold leaf and they protect to see the gold leaf and they protect the leaf from air
currents.

93
EXPERIMENT
AIM
To charge an electroscope by contact.

Touch the brass cap with a charge rod of either sign. The leaf diverges from the brass
plate. The divergence persists for a long time even when the rod is removed.

When positively charged Perspex rod is used, some electrons from the atoms of the
brass cap, rod, plate and the gold leaf are attracted into the charged rod. Since
electrons are negatively charged they leave a net positive charge behind. The brass
plate and the gold-leaf, being similarly charged, repel each other and the leaf
diverges.

94
 If a negatively charged polythene rod touches the cap of the uncharged electroscope,
some of the extra electrons on the rod flow into the cap and down to the plate and the
leaf. The electrons repelled from the cap leave it with a net positive charge but make
the plate and the leaf negatively charged. Again, similar charges repel and the leaf
diverges. Note that when we charge an electroscope by contact (conduction) the sign
of the charge left on the electroscope is the same as that of the charging rod.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To test the sign of the charge on a rod
Charge the electroscope positively as outlined above. Bring a positively charged
Perspex rod near to but not touching the cap. The leaf divergence increases. Repeat
with a negatively charged polythene rod and the leaf divergence decreases.

Discharged the electroscope by touching it with your finger and note that the leaf
collapses. Now charge the electroscope negatively. Repeat the experiment and you
will see that a positively charged rod decreases the divergence of the leaf where as a
negatively charged rod increases it. One can conclude that an increase in divergence
occurs when the charge on the electroscope and the test charge are of the same kind.

Charge on Electroscope Charge Brought Near Cap Effect on Leaf Divergence

  Increases
  Increases
  Decreases
  Decreases
 or  Uncharged body Decreases

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To compare the effects of conductors and insulators on the leaf of A charged
electroscope.

95
Charge an electroscope either positively or negatively. Touch its cap in turn with
various metals, carbon and some insulators. You will discover that with good
conductors the leaf collapses immediately. This happens because the charge on the
electroscope leaks into the uncharged object.

Substances that do not alter the size of the divergence of the electroscope are good
insulators, while those that cause a slow decrease in the divergence fall between good
insulators and good conductors. Wood and dry cotton are examples of the partial
conductors while rubber and nylon are good insulators. In electrostatics, high voltages
are encountered and therefore such usual insulators as wood can conduct charge.

CHARGING BY INDUCTION
EXPERIMENT
AIM
To charge an electroscope by induction Bring a positively charged rod near the cap of an
uncharged electroscope. The leaf diverges as the charged rod attracts the electrons
upwards, leaving similar charge in the plate and the gold leaf.

96
With the rod in position, touch the cap with the finger to earth it. The leaf collapses
as electrons neutralizes the net positive charge on the leaf and plate. Now remove
the finger, and then remove the rod. A large divergence results as the extra negative
charge obtained from the earth distributes itself throughout the electroscope. The
electroscope has therefore been charged negatively by induction using a positively
charged rod. The sign of the charge can be tested as before. Repeat the experiment
using a negatively charged rod. The charge induced on the electroscope should be
positive.

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To charge a body by conduction
Invert a tin on a good insulator and bring a charged polythene rod close to it. Many
of the mobile electrons in the tin are repelled and migrate to the opposite side,
thereby separating the charges as shown in the first diagram below.

Earth the tin to cause some of the free electrons to be repelled to the earth as shown in
the second diagram below. Remove the finger and then remove the rod. Tests with
an electroscope can show that the tin is now left with a positive charge as shown in the
third diagram. Thus a negative charge induces a positive charge.

97
EXPERIMENT
AIM
To induce opposite charges on two tins using the same charged rod.

Invert two similar tins on separate insulators and let the tins touch each other. Bring
a charged polythene rod near A. Electrons are repelled from tin A, leaving it with a
positive charge. The electrons escape to the opposite end of tin B and this end
acquires a net negative charge.

If a positively charged rod is used, tin A acquired a net negative charge and a
positive one on B.

98
ELECTRICITY
Electricity is simply the flow of electrons through a conductor. Electrons flow from the
negative terminal (higher potential) to the positive terminal (lower potential). When
electrons flow, electric current is produced. Electric current flows from the positive
terminal to a negative terminal of the battery. In other words, electric current is the
rate of flow of charge from a high potential to a lower potential.

In order for electric current to flow along a ire, there must be

(i) A source of the current such as a battery, cell or generator.

(ii) A conducting path fro the current to flow from one terminal of the battery to
the other. This path or circuit must be complete, i.e. continuous.

ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS USED IN CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

99
ELECTRIC CURRENT
The current in the circuit is measured in Amperes (A) or (Amps) and it indicates the
rate at which charge is flowing. Electric current is measured by an instrument called
an ammeter. Smaller currents are often expressed using units milliamperes or
microamperes.

1 milliampere (MA) = 10-3A 1⁄

1000𝐴

1 microampere (A) = 10-6A 1⁄1000 000𝐴

UNIT OF QUANTITY OF ELECTRICITY OR UNIT OF CHARGE

The total quantity of electricity (or charges) which passes any point in the circuit will
depend on the strength of the current and the time for which it flows.

The unit of quantity of charge or electricity is called coulomb (C).

A coulomb is the quantity of electricity conveyed in 1 second by a steady current of

1ampere.

It follows that the total quantity of charge or electricity which passes any point in an
electric circuit is given by multiplying the current, 1 ampere, by the time t seconds.

Charge = Current  Time

Q = It where Q is the quantity of electricity, I is the current and is the time in

seconds. Ampere – seconds is another name for a coulomb.

The link between charge and current provides a useful way of thinking of current.

𝑄
I= 𝑡

100
 1 ampere means that charge is flowing at the rate of 1 coulomb every second. 2 amperes
means that charge is flowing at the rate of 2 coulombs every second.

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Find the size of the current flowing through a wire when 0.8C of charge passes a point
in the wire in 2s?

𝑄
I= 𝑡

0.8𝐶
= 2𝑠

= 0.4A

0.4A means charge is flowing at the rate of 0.4C every second.

2. The self-starter of a motor car uses a current of 20A for 10s. What quantity of
electricity flows through the starter?

Q = It

Q = 20A  10s

= 200C

For charge to move work must be done against the electric field and it is moved from
a lower potential level to a higher potential level.

(a) ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F).

This is the total work done by a source of electricity in driving one coulomb of
electricity through a circuit. It is measured in volts (v).

(b) POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (P.D)

This is the work done in moving one coulomb of electricity between two points. P.d
is measured in volts (v).

(c) VOLT
This is the potential difference between two points such that the work done in
driving one coulomb of electricity between them is one joule.

If one joule of work is done in moving one coulomb of charge between two points,
the potential difference between the two points is one volt.

101
 From the definition of a volt, it follows that if 2C charge is moved between the same
two points, 2j work is done. If 3c charge are moved through a potential difference of
2v, 6j work are done.

Joule = coulomb  volt

w=Qv

𝑤
v = 𝑄 , therefore a volt is the energy per unit charge.

P.D ACROSS BATTERY TERMINALS

The p.d or voltage across the terminals of the battery indicates the potential energy
given to each coulomb of charge pushed out.

There is a p.d of 1 volt across a battery if each coulomb of charge is given 1 joule of
potential energy. There is a p.d of 4 volts across the battery if each coulomb is given
4 joules of potential energy.
The p.d across the battery can be measured using a voltmeter. If a voltmeter is
connected across the bulb, its reading will indicate the potential energy lost by a
coulomb of charge as it passes through the bulb. There is a p.d of 1 volt between two
points in a circuit if 1 joule of potential energy is changed into other forms when 1
coulomb of charge passes between the two points.

There is a p.d of 3 volts between two points in a circuit if the loss of potential energy
is 3 joules for each coulomb of charge.

The p.d between the ends of any piece of connecting wire is effectively zero because
there is almost no loss of potential energy over these sections. The sum of the p.ds
around a conducting path from one battery terminal to another is the same as p.d across
the battery.

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. A current of 0.5A is drawn from a 12v battery for 20s.
(a) How much charge is drawn in this time?
(b) How much energy in joules is given to each coulomb of charge?
(c) How much energy would be transferred to the circuit in 20s?

SOLUTIONS
(a) Q = It
= 0.5A  20s

102
 = 10C

(b) 1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb. Since the battery EMF is 12v, then 12j is given
to each coulomb.

(c) Energy transferred = work done.

W = QV

= 10C  12V

= 120J

HOW TO CONNECT AN AMMETER

Always connect an ammeter in series so that all the current flows through it.
Ammeters have got low resistance so they have little effect on the current itself. An
ammeter acts like another piece of connecting wire. Never connect an ammeter
directly to the positive terminal of the battery or cell as this would damage the
instrument since most ammeters are very sensitive to current direction. Connect the
terminal of the ammeter marked () or coloured black to the negative end of the
battery. Then connect the other terminal of the ammeter to one free end of the bulb
or resistor.
Diag.

Switch
Cell

A Ammeter connected
In series with the bulb

103
 HOW TO CONNECT A VOLTMETER
A voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the component across which we want to
measure the voltage. They have high resistance so that they allow very little current to pass
through.

Diag.
V

RESISTANCE
A resistor is a device that opposes the flow of electric current. The property of a
resistor is called resistance. Resistance is measured in ohms. Symbol is . If the
resistors are placed in a simple circuit, they each reduce the current flow.
FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE
1. Length: A long wire has more resistance than a short wire.

2. Diameter (size): A thin wire has more resistance than a thick wire.

3. Type of material: Insulators offer a high resistance, while conductors offer low
resistance.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CURRENT (I) POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (V)

AND RESISTANCE (R).

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To find the relationship between resistance, the current through it and the potential
difference across it.
MATERIALS/APPARATUS
Battery, ammeter, voltmeter, switch, resistor (coil of constantan wire) and a
Rheostat.

METHOD
Connect the apparatus as shown below placing the ammeter in series with the resistor
and the voltmeter across the resistor (in parallel with it)

104
Diag. Rheostat Battery

Ammeter A
Rheostat

V
Voltmeter

Set the Rheostat at maximum resistance. This is important because it helps to

safeguard the ammeter in case the current is more than the full scale deflection
(FSD). Also the rheostat is used to vary the circuit resistance thereby giving
different ammeter and voltmeter readings.

Close the switch and then take the ammeter and voltmeter readings.

Repeat this with the sliding contact in five (5) other positions and each time allowing the
resistor to cool down in order to take all readings at the same temperature (room
temperature). This keeps the resistance constant. Tabulate the results as below in
the table.

p.d (v) Current (A) 𝑝. 𝑑

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

Plot a graph of potential difference against current. The graph should be a straight
line starting from the origin.

105
Diag. P.d (v)

O I (A)

OBSERVATION
From the graph above, we see that current flowing through a wire at a constant
temperature is directly proportional to the potential difference applied between its ends
i.e. I  V. This statement is called ohm’s law in honour of the German Scientist
George Ohm who discovered the relationship in 1826. Diving the potential difference
by the current we get a constant.

𝑉
= constant
𝐼

The constant is the resistance (R) of the wire. Its unit is called ohm (). Thus:

𝑉
= R from this we get V = IR , where V = potential difference in (volts), I = current
𝐼
(in amperes) and R = Resistance (in ohms).
Conductors that obey this law are called Ohmic Conductors and the voltage
against current graph in this case is always a straight slope.

Diag.
V(V)

Ohmic conductor

I (A)

106
 PRECAUTIONS FOR CONDUCTORS TO OBSERVE OHM’S LAW

(i) The resistance wire must not be allowed to become heated as OHM’s LAW
talks about a constant temperature.

(ii) Ammeter and voltmeter must be zeroed.

On the other hand, conductors that do not obey Ohm’s law are called Non-Ohmic
Conductors and they include transistors, diodes and thermostats. The voltage
against current graph always a curve facing upwards or downwards.

Diag.

(a) V (V)

Non-ohmic conductor

I (A)

(b) V (v)

Non-ohmic conductor

I (A)

APPLICATION OF OHM’S LAW IN CALCULATION

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. A current of 2A flows through a conductor. The conductor has a voltage of 12V across
it. Find the resistance.

107
 SOLUTIONS
DATA
I = 2A, V = 12V, R = ?

𝑉
R= 𝐼

12𝑉
= 2𝐴

= 6

2. Calculate the voltage across 1.5 resistor when a current of 4A flows through it.

SOLUTIONS
DATA
R = 1.5
I = 4A
V=?
V = IR
V = 4A  1.5
V = 6.0V

3. Calculate the current flowing through a 5 resistor that has a voltage of 20V across
it.

SOLUTIONS
Data
R = 5, C = 20V, I=?

𝑉
I=𝑅

20𝑉
= 5

= 4A

RESISTORS IN SERIES
If the same current passes through a number of resistors in turn, then the resistors are
connected in series. Which means that there is one conducting path only.

108
Diag.
I RI R2 R3

FACTS ABOUT RESISTORS IN SERIES

(i) Current is the same at every point.
(ii) Total resistance is equal to sum of individual resistance.
(iii) The total voltage (EMF) is equal to the sum of the individual voltage across
each resistor re VT =V1 + V2 + V3

ITRT = I1R1 + 12R2 + 13R3, but IT = I1 = 12 = 13

Therefore, total resistance; RT = R1 + R2 + R3

And VT or (EMF) = IRT

VT = IRT

WORKED EXAMPLE
Resistors of 2, 4 and 6 are connected in series and a voltage of 24V applied across
them.

Find the total resistance, the current and the voltage across each resistor.

Diag.
2Ω 4Ω 6Ω

V1 V2 V3

24V

SOLUTIONS
(a) Total resistance
RT = R1 + R2 + R3

RT = 2 + 4 + 6
109
 = 12

(b) Current
VT = IRT

𝑉
I = 𝑅𝑇
𝑇

24𝑉
= 12

= 2A

(c) Voltage across each resistor

(i) V1 = IR1

V1 = 2A  2

V1 = 4V

(ii) V2 = IR2

V2 = 2A  4

V2 = 8V
(iii) V3 = IR3
V3 = 2A  6
V3 = 12V

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
When resistors are connected in parallel their ends are joined in such a way that they
provide a number of separate paths for the current.

Diag.

R1

I1
I I2 R2 I
.
I3 R3

110
The current flowing from the battery (the total current) is equal to the sum of the
currents in the separate paths. Thus in the parallel circuits above; I = I1 + 12 +13.
This is known as Kirchoff’s Junction Rule. This rule states that at each junction,
the total current flowing into the junction equals the total current leaving the
junction.

FACTS ABOUT RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

(i) The voltage (p.d) across each resistor arranged in parallel is the same. So if
the p.d across R1 in the circuit diagram above is 3V, then p.d across R2 and
R3 is also equal to 3V.

(ii) The total resistance is less than the least individual resistance.

𝑉 𝑉𝑇 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3
Since I = 𝑅, then = + +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

When resistors are in parallel, the p.d (voltage) across each resistor is equal to
the voltage applied (EMF) i.e.

VT =V1 = V2 = V3

Thus, for resistors in parallel, the total effective or combined resistance R T is given
by the formula

𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
= + +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Two resistors in parallel

Diag.
R1

R2

111
 For two resistors in parallel,

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
Total R =
𝑆𝑢𝑚

𝑅1 𝑅2
RT = 𝑅
1  𝑅2

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Two resistors of 6 and 3 are connected in parallel as shown below and EMF of
12V is applied across them by a battery. Find;

(a) The total resistance of the circuit,

(b) The current in the main circuit (total current) and (c) the current through each
resistor.

Diag.
R1
3Ω
I1

12 6Ω
R2
1 total 1 total
12V

V
SOLUTIONS
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
(a) RT = 𝑆𝑢𝑚

3  6
= 3  6

18
= 9

= 2

𝑉
(b) IT = 𝑅
𝑇

112
 12𝑉
= 2

= 6A

𝑉
(c) (i) I1 = 𝑅
1

12𝑉
= 3

= 4A

𝑉
(ii) I2 = 𝑅
2

12𝑉
= 6

= 2A

Or I = I1 = I1 + 12
I – I1 = 12
6A – 4A
= 2A

2. A resistor of 6 is connected in parallel with a resistor of 30. If a current of 2A

flows through the main part of the circuit, find (a) the total resistor and (b) the
voltage applied.

SOLUTIONS
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 1 1 6
(a) = 𝑅 + 𝑅 = 6 + 30 = 30
𝑅𝑇 1 2

Hence RT = 5

(b) VT = IT  RT
=25
= 10V

3. Calculate the current in each of the resistor in the circuit diagram below.

113
Diag.
12 V

I1 R2 = 2Ω I

A B R1 = 4.8Ω
R3 = 3Ω
SOLUTIONS
Let the equivalent resistance across AB be RAB.
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 1 1 5
=𝑅 +𝑅 =2+3=6
𝑅𝐴𝐵 1 2

Hence RAB = 1.2

Total resistance RT = RAB + R1
RT = 1.2 + 4.8
= 6.0

𝑉
I1 = 𝑅
𝑇

12𝑉
= 6

= 2A

If the current through R1 is 2A, then the voltage across R1 = I1R1 = 4.8  2A = 9.6V.

Since the total voltage across all resistors is 12V, then there must be 12 – 9.6 = 2.4
across AB.

Since R2 and R3 are parallel, they have the same voltage across them i.e. 2.4V.
2.4𝑉
I2 = 2

= 1.2A and
2.4𝑉
13 = 3

= 0.8A
114
 Notice that if we add 1.2A and 0.8A we get 2A (the total voltage).

INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF THE CELL

When a current flows through a cell, it encounters some resistance. This is the internal
resistance of the cell. Electromotive force (E.m.f) is always greater than potential difference
(p.d) unless no current flows in the circuit, when Emf = p.d. The difference between Emf
and p.d is the voltage needed to drive current or charge through the cell and to overcome
internal resistance and this should be included when calculating the combined or effective
resistance of the circuit. A dry cell has a high internal resistance and as a result the current it
produces is low. Acid cells have low resistance and produce large currents.

Em.f = TR + Ir where; I is the current flowing, R is the resistance of the conductor and r
is the internal resistance of the cell. IR is the p.d (v) and IR is the lost voltage.

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. A 1.5v cell has an internal resistance of 0.70. it is connected in series with a 0.3
resistor, what current flows?

Emf = IR + Ir
V = I (R + r)

𝑉 𝐼 ( 𝑅+𝑟)
=
(𝑅+𝑟) 𝑅+𝑟

1.5𝑉
=I
0.3 +0.70

1.5𝑉
=I
1.0 

I = 1.5A

2. A 2.4 resistor is connected across the terminals of a dry cell of Emf 1.5V. If the
internal resistance of the cell is 0.6, calculate;
(a) The current flowing in the circuit,
(b) The p.d across the terminals of the cell.

SOLUTIONS
(a) E.m.f = I (R + r)

V = I (R + r)
115
 𝑉
=I
(𝑅+𝑟)

1.5𝑉
=I
2.4 +0.6

1.5𝑉
=I
3.0

0.5A = I

 I = 0.5A
(b) p.d across the terminals is also p.d across 2.4 resistor.

p.d = IR

p.d 0.5A  2.4

= 1.2V

Alternatively, the ‘lost voltage’ across the internal resistance can be calculated using
V = Ir
V = 0.5A  0.6

= 0.3V

Subtracting this figure from the EMF of the cell which is 1.5v gives; 1.5v – 0.3v =
1.2v

By either method, the p.d across the terminals of the cell = 1.2v.

3. A resistor is connected across the terminals of a cell of emf 2.0v. if the p.d across
the cell is 1.,5v and the current flowing is 2A, find
(a) the internal resistance of the cell
(b) the resistance of the resistor.

SOLUTIONS
(a) E.m.f = IR + Ir

E.m.f = V + Ir

𝐸.𝑚.𝑓  𝑉 𝐼𝑟
=
𝐼 𝐼

𝐸.𝑚.𝑓  𝑉
=r
𝐼

116
 2.0𝑉  1.5𝑉
=r
2𝐴

0.5𝑉
=r
2.0𝐴

0.25 = r

 r = 0.25
(b) E.m.f = IR + Ir

𝐸.𝑚.𝑓  𝐼𝑟 𝐼𝑅
=
𝐼 𝐼

𝐸.𝑚.𝑓  𝐼𝑟
=R
𝐼

2.0𝑉 –(2.0𝐴 ×0.25

2.0𝐴

2.0𝑉 – 0.5𝑉
2.0𝐴

1.5𝑉
= 2.0𝐴

= 0.75

CELLS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Group of cells connected together are known as battery in the figure below is made
up of three dry cells joined in series. The arrangement gives an increased E.m.f
because current or charge flowing round a circuit will pass through all three cells and
gain potential energy from each of them. The combined e.m.f in this case is 4.5V, a
figure calculated by adding up the individual e.m.fs.

1.5V 1.5V 1.5V

Cells in cells: combined e.m.f 4.5V

On the other hand, the figure below shows three cells arranged in parallel.

117
Diag.

1.5V

1.5V

1.5V

The combined e.m.f in this case is only 1.5V because charge flowing round the circuit
can pass through one cell, but not all three. The arrangement does have some
advantages however as each cell has to supply only a third of the current in the main
circuit. This means that:

1. The cells will last longer before going flat.

2. The cells are capable of supplying a higher current than a single cell. Put
another way, the internal resistance are in parallel, so the combined internal
resistance is less than that of a single cell. Cells shouldn’t be left connected
in parallel when not in use. If one cell has a slightly greater e.m.f than
another, a small current will continue to flow round the conducting path that
links them.

USES OF RESISTANCE
1. To limit the current in the circuit.
2. To convert electrical energy to heat energy.
3. To provide potential drop.

POWER
Each time current flows in a conductor (resistor), heat is produced. This is
called the heating effect of an electric current. This heating effect is used in
many ways:-
1. Lighting
2. Ironing
3. Cooking
4. Welding
5. Heating water

The appliances used in the processes above convert electrical energy into heat
(thermal energy). Electrical energy can also be converted to mechanical energy.

118
 The rate at which electrical energy is converted to other forms of energy is power.
In other words, it is the rate at which work is done. If the rate at which work is done
is constant and in a time interval t, the total amount of work is W, then;

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑

Power = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑠)

𝑤
So power = 𝑡

𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
Power = ; from this, it can be deducted that power is measured in
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

Joules/Seconds; J/S which is called a Watt (W). Therefore, the SI unit of power is
Watts. Other subunits for power are kilowatts (KW) and megawatts.

1000W = 1KW

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 (𝑄 ×𝑉)

Since power = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑆)

𝑄 ×𝑉
Then P = , and
𝑡

𝑄
=I
𝑡

 P = IV or P = VI

1. P = PI and V = IR, then

P = IRI
P = I2 R

𝑉
2. P = VI, and I = 𝑅 then
𝑉
P=V 𝑅

𝑽𝟐
P= 𝑹

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. An electric pressing iron is rated at 220V, 1100W. calculate the current it takes and
the resistance of its element.

119
SOLUTION
P = VI

𝑃
=I
𝑉

1100𝑤
220𝑉

= 5A

V = IR

𝑉
=R
𝐼

220𝑉
5𝐴

= 44

2. Calculate the power generated by a motor of internal resistance 80 and operated on
110V.

SOLUTION
V = 110V

𝑉2
P= 𝑅

R =80

1102
P= 80
= 151.25W

3. An electric bulb is rated 60W, 250V

(i) Calculate the resistance
(ii) How much current does it draw?

SOLUTIONS

120
 P = 60W V = 250V

𝑉2
(i) P=
𝑅

𝑉2
R= 𝑃

2502
R = 60𝑊

R = 1041.67

(ii) P = VI

𝑃
=I
𝑉

60𝑊
= 250𝑉

= 0.24A

4. An electric bulb is marked 100W, 20V

(ii) What is its internal resistance?
(ii) What power does it consume if the voltage supplied is 15V.

SOLUTIONS
𝑉2
(i) P= 𝑅

𝑉2
R= 𝑃

202
R = 100𝑊
R = 4

𝑉2
(ii) P= 𝑅

152
P= 4

P = 56.25W

5. Find the current used by an electric fire rated at 2000W operating on a 240V supply.
121
SOLUTION
V = 240V, P = 2000W

P = VI

𝑃
I= 𝑉

200𝑊
= 240𝑉

= 8.3A

6. Find the power of an electric lamp operating on a 240 supply using a current of
0.25A.

V = 240V, I = 0.25A

P = VI

P = 240V  0.25A

P = 60W

ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Electrical energy for kettles, lights, fires and other household appliances is supplied
by the local electricity board. Readings on the electricity meter give the total energy
supplied in units. The meter measures electricity in kilowatt – hours. A kilowatt –
hour is the amount of energy used by one kilowatt appliance in one hour. One unit
= 1 kilowatt – hour

In one second, a 1KW (1600W) appliance is supplied with 1000j of electrical energy.
In 1 hour, (3600s) a one kilowatt appliance is supplied with 3600s  1000j of
electrical energy i.e. 3600000j. From the formula;
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑
P= 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑆)

Electrical energy = p  t

E = p  t, and p = VI

122
  E = VIt

The unit for energy then becomes; E in Watt – seconds which is called Joules.
Therefore the SI unit energy is joules.

𝑉
E = VIt, and V = IR and I = 𝑅

Then energy is also equal to

𝑉2𝑡
E = I2Rt and E = 𝑅

However if energy is to be in kwh, power must be in kilowatts (kw) and time in hours
(h).

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the power dissipated in a motor (which has a p.d of 250V applied across it)
when a current of 0.4 passes through it.

SOLUTION

P = VI

P = 250V  0.4A

P = 100W
2. Calculate heat energy which is dissipated in wire of resistance 0.2 connected to a
supply of 250V for 6 hours.

SOLUTION

𝑉2𝑡
E= 𝑅

2502 × 6 ×3600
= 0.2

E = 6.75 x 109J

3. What is the energy consumed by 200w electric bulb in 20hours?

123
SOLUTION
200W = 0.2kw

𝐸
P= 𝑡

E=pt

E = 0.2kw  20h

E = 4kwh

4. How many units (kilowatt hours) are consumed by a 750W hair dryer blowing for 15
minutes?
E=pt
E = 0.75kw  3hours
E = 6kwh

 Total units used = 6kwh

5. How many units of electricity will a 2kw fires uses if it is turned on for 3 hours.
E=pt
E = 2kw  0.25h
E = 0.1875kwh
 Total units used = 0.1875kwh

6. How much heat is produced when a wire of resistance 100 carries a current 0%A
for 30 minutes?

SOLUTION
30 minutes = 30  60s = 1800seconds

E = I2Rt

E = 52  100  1800

E = 4500000j

124
 COSTING ELECTRICITY
1. If electrical energy costs 5p per unit, what is the total cost of leaving 4 light bulbs,
rated 100w each switched on for 8 hours?

Diag. 100W

100W

100W

100W

SOLUTIONS
The total power of the light bulbs is 400w or 0.4kw

E=pt

E = kw  t (h)

E = 0.4kw  8h

= 3.2kwh

Each unit = 5p

 Total cost = (3.2 c5)

P = 16p
2. How much will it cost to run a 2000w fire for 30minutes if electricity costs 6p a unit.
E=pt

E = 2kw  0.25h

E = 1kwh

I unit = 1kwh = 6p

= 6p

3. A television set of power 100w is switched on every day for 5h. what is the monthly
cost of electricity if one unit (1kwh) costs K60.
125
SOLUTION
E=pt

E = 0.1kw  5h / day  30 days

= 15kwh

Cost = 15kwh  k60/kwh

= K900

APPLICATION OF HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT.

1. (a) THE LIGHT BULB

In an electric light bulb, the heating effect is used to produce light. The thin filament of
a wire becomes white hot when an electric current flows through it. Tungsten metal
is used for the filament because it has a high resistance and a high melting point. The
reason being that the higher the temperature of the filament the greater is the
proportional electric energy changing into light. The inside of the glass envelop contains
an inert gas argon or Nitrogen, at low pressure to prevent evaporation of he filament
when it glows white hot. Air is removed to prevent the oxidation and burning of the
filament.

Diag.

The main advantage of this bulb is excessive heat loss. (2% utilized as light and 98%
wasted as heat).
126
 (b) FLUORESCENT BULB LAMP

Diag. Mercury vapour

Electrode Mercury powder Electrode

Fluorescent lamps are three times efficient and may last 3000 hours compared with
the 1600hours life of filament lamps. This cost more to install but running costs are
less. When the lamp is switched on, mercury vapour emits ultraviolet radiation
(invisible) which makes the powder on the inside of the fluorescent tube glow. As it
glows, light (visible) is emitted. Different powders give different colours.

2. ELECTRIC HEATING
Heating elements in domestic appliances such as electric fans, cookers, kettles and
iron are made from nichrome. This is an alloy of nickel and chromium which does
not oxidize when electric current makes it red hot.

Diag.
Pressing Iron
Electric Kettle

Element Element

The elements in radiant electric fires are at red hot (about 900oC) and the radiation
they emit is directed into the room by polished reflectors. In convector’s type the
element is below red hot (about 450oC) and is designed to warm air which is drawn
through the heater by natural or forced convector.

In storage heaters, the elements heat fire clay bricks during the night using off peak
electricity. On the following day, there cooled down giving off stored heat to warm
the room.

127
ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME
Electrical energy available in a household circuit originates from a power station.
The current is known as Alternating Current (AC). This type of current changes
direction 50 times per second (50Hz). An electric current from the battery is known
as Direct Current (DC) because it travels in one direction only.

The electrical cable used in household circuits actually consists of three insulated wires.
Each wire has a specific purpose and colour.

1. The Brown or Red wire is the live wire or Active Wire. This carries alternating current
to the appliance. The potential of the live wire varies between positive and negative,
making the current flow backwards and forwards through the circuit. If you touch a
live wire, you would get a fatal shock as current passes through you to the earth.

2. The light Blue or Black wire is the Neutral Wire. It completes the circuit by
providing the return path to the mains. The electricity board earths the neutral by
connecting to the metal plate burned in the ground.

Although current passes through the neutral wire, it remains at zero (ov) potential.
If, you accidentally touch it, you don’t get a shock. Since it is at the same potential
as the person who stands on the floor.

3. The Green/Yellow or (Green) wire is the earth wire. It protects the user from electric
shock should the body of the appliance become live. This can occur if the insulation on
the live wire is removed where it enters the appliance. This makes the appliance live
when the naked wire makes a contact with it. Whoever touches the appliance
therefore gets a nasty shock. An earth wire is connected to the metal case of an electric
appliance, so that excess current would immediately flow to the earth and people
who touch the case will be safe in case the wire were to work loose. Earth wires in
household are connected to a common point in the ground underneath the house
(Via copper rod or water pipe). Earthed appliances are generally much safer than the
unearthed appliances.

The three wires in an electrical cable (flex) of the household appliances are
connected to the three-pin electrical plug. In such a plug, the ‘Live’ wire from the
cable is connected to the ‘Live’ wire from the ‘Neutral’ pin and the earth wire is
connected to the ‘earth’, pin. When a three-pin plug is inserted into a power point,
each pin on the plug touches a corresponding wire in the power point.

128
 It is extremely important to ensure that wires are connected correctly in both plugs
and sockets.

FUSES AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Sometimes faults (or Short circuits) occur in electrical appliances, resulting in a larger
than usual current flowing through a wire. The wire may overheat and cause a fire.
To protect circuits against such damage, fuses are connected to the Live Wire of
each main circuit at the meter box.

A fuse is a devise that prevents overloading of cables; it blows when there is a short
circuit. The fuse contains a small piece of nichrome wire that melts when the current
exceeds a certain level.

Modern homes have a line of circuit breakers in the electrical meter box rather than
fuses. A circuit breaker is a complicated switch that “Clicks off’ when a fault
occurs. Such devices are more convenient than fuses.

FUSE VALUES
Fuses have ratings in amperes i.e. 3A, 5A, 9A, 13A, 20A, 25A.

The fuse to use must be greater than the current that normally flows through the
appliance but as close as possible to this value so that the fuse will blow before an
overheating cable can cause fire.

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. An electric kettle is rated 2000W, 250V.
(a) Calculate the size of the fuse required (see rates in the notes).
(b) Calculate the resistance of the kettle.

SOLUTION
(a) P = VI

𝑃
I=𝑉
2000𝑊
= 250𝑉

= 8A

129
 The fuse which has to be used is 9A.

2. An air-conditioner operates at 1800W, 240V. What is the most suitable fuse for the
appliance – 2A, 5A, 10A or 15A?

SOLUTIONS

P = VI
𝑃
I=𝑉
18000𝑊
= 240𝑉

= 7.5A

Thus a 10A fuse should be used

N.B FUSES AND ALL SWITCHES

All switches and fuses are placed on the live wire. It would be dangerous to place
them on the neutral wire because the appliances would still remain live even when
the switches are off or the fuses are blown off. A shock would therefore still be
possible even with the current switched off, if for example the cable were broken
accidentally.

TYPES OF CIRCUITS
There are three types of circuits in a house and these are the Lighting Circuit, the
ring circuit and the cooker circuit.

1. THE LIGHTING CIRCUIT

All lamps in the house are connected in parallel so that individual switches can be
used to control them. 5A fuses protect them should a fault cause the current exceed
5A, the fuse blows up. Before a fuse is replaced, the fault should be investigated and
rectified.

2. THE RING MAIN CIRCUIT

When you switch an appliance on or off at home, no other appliance is affected. For
example, switching your electric kettle off does not affect your television. This is
because household sockets are wired in parallel with each other. The wall sockets
are part of a circuit called the Ring Main. The ring main consists of the live wire,
the neutral wire and a earth wire which is earthed at home. Electricity passes
through an appliance via the live wire and the neutral wire. The voltage of the live
wire alternates between 325V and -325V at the frequency of 50Hz. In terms of
power, this is equivalent to a direct voltage of 230V.

130
 Sockets rated 13A each are connected parallel so that power may be tapped from any
of them independent of the others. The ring has a 30A fuse ad if it has ten sockets;
all can be used so long as the total current does not exceed 30A.

3. THE COOKER CIRCUIT

The electric cooker is not run from the ring circuit, but has its own separate circuit.
This circuit supplies power to the cooker and is protected by a 30A fuse because it
carries a very large current.

SAFETY MATTERS
1. EARTHING
Earthing is the most important safety precaution. In any electric appliance, the earthing
wire is always connected to the metal case of the appliance. For example, if the
insulation inside the iron breakdown, or the live wire becomes loose, then the case of the
iron would become live an the user may get a severe shock if the case were not earthed.
The wire which earths the case has a much smaller resistance than a human being and so
the bulk of the charge passes down the wire to the earth.

2. DOUBLE INSULATION
This is an important safety feature of any mains appliance which does not have a metal
case. Double insulation means that the appliance has two separate layers of insulation.
Usually, the double layer is made up of non-conducting materials. Such appliances are
not earthed because any earthing could damage the insulation or change its properties
by setting up electric fields within the case.

3. AVOID DAMP CONDITIONS AND WATER

Since water conducts electricity, it is dangerous to have appliances such as electric
fires in the bathroom unless they are placed high on the wall out of reach of people
and water. There are usually no sockets in the bathroom for this reason.

On a very cold day, it may be tempting to use an extension lead to carry an electric
fire into the bathroom when taking a bath. This is a very foolish procedure and could
lead your electrocution. You should also take care in the kitchen. It is always
advisable to dry your hands before switching on electric appliances. Water dripping
from your hand into the socket could carry current to you from the wire and give you
a serious electric shock.

FIELDS, CURRENTS AND FORCES

When a current is placed through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced. When a
current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force is produced.

131
 Diag.

The experiment above is to demonstrate that force is produced when current is passed
through a conductor in a magnetic field. The conductor in this case is a length of stiff
copper wire and it is at right angle to the field provided by the u-shaped magnet. When
the switch is closed current flows through the wire. The wire moves upwards indicating
that there is an upward force acting on it. The direction of either current or the field is
reversed, the wire moves downwards.

Note in each case that the force on the wire acts at right angles to both the current
direction and the field direction, it is not attracted to either pole of the magnet.

Fleming’s left-hand rule knowing the directions of the current and the field in the above
experiment, the direction of the force can be found using Fleming’s left-hand rule.

If the thumb and first two finger of the left hand are held at right angles to one
another as shown in the figure below.

The thumb gives the direction of the thrust (the force), the First finger points in the
same direction as the field and second figure points in the direction as the current.

When applying the rule remember that;

1. The direction of the field is from the N pole to the S pole.

2. The direction of the current is from the positive (+) terminal of the battery to the
negative (−), i.e. conventional current direction.

3. The rule applies only where the current and fields are at right angles. A force still acts if
the current and field directions are at some other angle, but its direction is more difficult
to predict.

132
 MAGNITUDE OF THE FORCE ON A CURRENT – CARRYING
CONDUCTOR
Experiments with current-carrying conductors placed at right angles to a magnetic
field show that the force acting depends on;
1. The strength of the magnetic field.
2. The size of the current
3. The length of the conductor

ELECTRIC MOTOR
The turning effect can be produced by passing a current through a coil which is in a
magnetic field. This is the principle behind a common type of electric motor, i.e. direct
current motor.

Electric motors in electric fans, refrigerators, air-conditioners and many toys make
use of a force acting on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field. A simple
DC (direct Current) motor contains a rectangular coil of a wire of many turns,
mounted on an axle between two poles of a permanent magnet. Current passes into
the coil via two carbon brushes which are pushed against a split-ring commutator.
The commutator reserves the current flowing in the coil every half-cycle to ensure
the coil continues to rotate in one direction.

Motion
Diag. B

A
S D N

Commutator Coil
Carbon brush

Battery
Switch

133
With the coil in the horizontal position the direction of the current through the coil is
ABCD. By Fleming is left hand rule, side AB experiences an upward motion and side
CD a downward motion. The result is clockwise rotation.

When the coil is vertical the brushes face the gaps between the commutator and the
current is cut off. At that instant the coil does not experience any force, but it
continues rotating because of its momentum. Soon the commutator’s which rotate
with the coil remake their contact with the stationary brushes and current flows once
again. This time however, the commutators are reversed. Side DC is on the left side
and experiences an upward motion while BA experiences a downward motion.
Rotation continues in the clockwise direction although the current through the coil
itself reverses its direction.

HOW TO INCREASE THE STRENGTH OF AN ELECTRIC MOTOR

The single-coil electric motor described above is extremely weak, but we can
increase its strength by:-
(i) Increasing the number of turns of the coil.
(ii) Wind the coil on a soft – iron core
(iii) Increasing the current
(iv) Increasing the area of the coil, lengthening the coil increases the force on
each side, widening the coil increases the turning effect of each force.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
By 1821, scientists had discovered that motion could be produced by passing a
current through a conductor in a magnetic field. Ten years later, Michael Faraday
found that the reverse was possible: a current could be produced by moving a
conductor through a magnetic field.

INDUCED E.M.F AND CURRENT FARADAY’S LAW

When a wire is moved across a magnetic field as shown below, a small e.m.f is
produced in the wire. The effect is called electromagnetic induction an e.m.f has
been induced. If the wire forms part of a circuit, as shown below, the induced e.m.f
causes the current to flow. The current can be detected using a sensitive galvanometer.

134
Diag.

S N

The induced e.m.f is present only while the wire is moving and cutting through
magnetic field lines. There is no induced e.m.f if the wire is held still, nor if it
moved parallel to the field as shown below.

S N

HOW TO INCREASE THE SIZE OF INDUCED E.M.F

The size of the induced e.m.f can be increased by:-
(i) Moving the wire at a higher speed.
(ii) Using a stronger magnet
(iii) Increasing the length of the wire in the magnetic field – for example, by
looping the wire through the field.

The above results are summed by Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which
states that, the e.m.f induced in a conductor is directly proportional to the rate at which
the conductor cuts through the magnetic field lines.

INDUCED E.M.F AND THE COIL

An electromotive force is e.m.f is induced whenever there is a change in the
magnetic flux linked with the coil.
EXPERIMENT

135
AIM
To demonstrate electromagnetic induction.

METHOD
Make a coil of several turns of insulated copper wire on a cardboard tube abd
connect its end to the terminals f a sensitive centre-zero galvanometer.

Push the north pole of a bar magnet rapidly into the coil. Let if rest inside the coil
for a while, then quickly withdraw it. You will notice that the pointer of the
galvanometer is deflected to one side when the magnet is moving in, returns to zero
when the magnet is stationary and deflects to the opposite side when the magnet is
withdrawn. Figure (a) and (b) illustrates this

S N
S N

(a) (b)

Diag.

Repeat the experiment but this time using the South Pole. The deflections are now in
the opposite direction to the ones above as shown in figure 9a) and (b) below:-

Diag.

N S N S
S N

(a) (b)

136
 The deflection of the galvanometer proves that a current has been induced. The
magnitude of the induced current depends on:-
(i) The speed with which the magnet moves
(ii) The strength of the magnet
(iii) The number of turns of the coil

When a pole of the magnet approaches the solenoid or recedes from it, the direction
of the induced current is such that it produces like poles at the near face of the
solenoid on approach and an unlike pole on withdraw. Thus the induced pole
apposes the motion of the magnet. Henry Lenz, a Russian scientist, formulated a law
in 1834 which say: the direction of the induced current is that it sets to stop the
cause producing it. This is called Lenz’s Law.

DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT; FLEMING’S RIGHT-HAND RULE

If a straight wire is moving at right angles to a magnetic field, the direction of the
induced current can be found using Fleming’s right-hand rule

Thumb motion

First finger field

Diag.

Second finger current

If the thumb and first two fingers of the right hand are held at right angles to one
another as in the diagram above: the second finger gives the direction of the
induced current if the first finger points in the same direction as the field and
the thumb points in the direction of the motion.

In applying the rule as in the figure below, remember that the conventional current
direction is used and that the field direction is from the North pole of the magnet to
the South Pole.

Diag.

S N

Induced current

137
 It is important not to confuse Fleming’s right –hand rule with the left-hand rule both
apply to conductors at right angles to a magnetic field. However, the left hand rule
applies when a current causes motion and the right-hand rule applies when motion
causes a current.

GENERATORS
Generators (dynamos) range in size from the smallest dynamos that provide current
for cycle lights to the huge alternators that supply mains electricity to homes and
factories. All make use of electromagnetic induction. Many are based on the simple
principle that a current can be induced in a coil by rotating it in a magnetic field. A
dynamo or generator is similar to an electric motor except that two slip rings have
replaced the splint ring commutator.

D
Diag.
E

Permanent magnet Permanent magnet

S
N C F

Brush
B1
Slip rings A1

Brush
B1
A2

Load

The coil CDEF rotates between the poles of a horse magnet and an electromotive force
is induced. Charge does not flow unless the ends of the coil are connected to an
external circuit (resistor). The current is taken to the external circuit (resistor). The
current is taken to the external circuit by slip rings A1 and A2 which are made of
Copper. A1 is connected to the side CD of the coil and A2 to the side EF. A1 is always
in contact with the brush B1 and A2 with the brush B2. When the side CD moves
upwards Fleming’s Right-hand rule shows that he direction of the current is from C to D

138
and E to F. Thus, the current enters the circuit at B1 and leaves at B2. Half a revolution
later FE will be in the position previously occupied by CD and the current direction is
reversed, i.e. it is from F to E and D to C. The current now enters the circuit at B2 and
leaves at B1. Thus the direction of the induced electromotive force and the current
changes every half revolution.

These vary not only in direction; however, they also vary in magnitude. The graph
of electromotive force against time is shown below and represents three revolutions
of the coil. The maximum value of the electromotive force Eo is known as the peak
value. The time taken for one revolution T is called the period, whilst f, the
frequency, is the number of revolutions per second. Hence:

𝐼
f=𝑇

The domestic electricity supply has a frequency of 50hertz, which means that the
generator makes fifty revolutions each second. The graph of current against time has
the same shape as that of electromotive force against time, but the magnitude of the
current depends upon the resistance of the external circuit.

Diag.
E.m.f(v)
Eo Time (s)

T
One revolution
As the coil rotates, the number of lines of force its side cut varies with the position of
the coil it maximum when the coil is horizontal an reduces to zero when the coil is
vertical.
Diag.

E.m.f (v)
C F C F
C F F C C F F C
O C C C C

139