ZNOTES.

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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER
SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE PRACTICAL SYLLABUS
Prepared for Ahmad Usaid for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Testing
1. Algorithm Design & The completed program or set of programs is executed
multiple times using various test data sets.
Problem-Solving This testing process ensures that all the tasks within the
program work together as specified in the program
1.1. Program Development Life Cycle design.
Running the program with different test data can identify
(PDLC) and address potential issues and errors.
The testing phase aims to verify the overall functionality
Analysis and performance of the program by evaluating its
Design behaviour with various inputs.
Coding
Testing
Maintenance
1.2. Structure Diagrams
Every computer system is made up of sub-systems, which
Analysis
are in turn made up of further sub-systems.
Structure Diagrams – The breaking down of a computer
Before solving a problem, it is essential to define and
document the problem clearly, known as the system into sub-systems, then breaking each sub-system
into smaller sub-systems until each one only performs a
"requirements specification" for the program.
single action. A structure diagram diagrammatically
The analysis stage involves using tools like abstraction
represents a top-down design. Example below.
and decomposition to identify the specific requirements
for the program.
Abstraction focuses on the essential elements needed for
the solution while eliminating unnecessary details and
information.
Decomposition involves breaking down complex problems
into smaller, more manageable parts that can be solved
individually.
Daily tasks can be decomposed into constituent parts for
easier understanding and solving. 1.3. Pseudocode & Flowcharts
Design Pseudocode - Verbal representation of an algorithm (a
process or set of steps) and flowcharts are a
The program specification derived from the analysis diagrammatic representation.
stage is used as a guide for program development. Flowcharts: A flowchart shows diagrammatically the steps
During the design stage, the programmer should clearly required to complete a task and the order that they are to
understand the tasks to be completed, the methods for be performed
performing each task, and how the tasks will work Algorithm: These steps, together with the order, are
together. called an algorithm
Documentation methods such as structure charts,
flowcharts, and pseudocode can be used to document the
program's design formally.

Coding and iterative testing

The program or set of programs is developed based on

the design.
Each module of the program is written using a suitable
programming language.
Testing is conducted to ensure that each module
functions correctly.
Iterative testing is performed, which involves conducting
modular tests, making code amendments if necessary,
and repeating tests until the module meets the required
functionality.

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Char – Single Character e.g. a; Y

String – Multiple Characters (Text) e.g. ZNotes; COOL
Boolean – Only 2 Values e.g. True/False; Yes/No; 0/1
Input & Output (READ & PRINT) – Used to receive and
display data to the user respectively. (It is recommended
to use input and output commands)

INPUT Name
OUTPUT "Hello Mr." , Name

// Alternatively //

READ Name
PRINT "Hello Mr," , Name

Declaration of variable - A variable/constant can be

declared by the following manner

DECLARE [Variable Name] : [DATATYPE OF VARIABLE]

An example of a flowchart is given below from a past paper Array: Array is similar to variable but it can store multiple
question in which all of the functions of a flowchart are values of same datatype under single name
shown:
DECLARE [ARRAYNAME] : ARRAY [Lower Limit : Upper Limit

Assignment - Each variable is assigned using a left arrow.

[VARIABLE NAME] <---- [Value to be assigned]

ArrayName [IndexValue] <---- [Value to be assigned]

Conditional Statements:
IF…THEN…ELSE…ENDIF

This flowchart’s task is to check if a rider’s height is more the

requirement (1.2) in this case. It then counts until the
accepted riders are 8. After they are 8, it outputs the number
of rejected riders and tells the rest that they are ready to go!
CASE…OF…

Pseudocode OTHERWISE…ENDCASE – Multiple conditions and

Declaration & Usage of Variables & Constants

Variable – Store of data which changes during
execution of the program (due to user input)
Constant – Store of data that remains the same during
the execution of the program
Basic Data Types
Integer – Whole Number e.g. 2; 8; 100
Real – Decimal Number e.g. 7.00; 5.64

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corresponding consequences \n

Standard methods used in algorithm:

Totalling :Totalling means keeping a total that values are
added to
Loop Structures:
Total ← 0
FOR…TO…NEXT : Will run for a determined/known amount
FORof Counter
times ← 1 TO LoopLimit
Total ← Total + ValueToBeTotalled
NEXT Counter

Counting: Keeping a count of the number of times an

action is performed is another standard method.

REPEAT… UNTIL – Will run at least once till condition is PassCount ← 0

satisfied; Verification is done after running code FOR Counter ← 1 TO LoopLimit
INPUT Value
IF Value > Range
THEN
WHILE…DO…ENDWHILE – PassCount ← PassCount + 1
May not ever run; Verification is done before running code ENDIF
NEXT Counter

Maximum, minimum and average : Finding the largest

Note: When using and smallest values in a list are two standard methods
conditions in these loop structures and conditional that are frequently found in algorithms
statement, it has to be kept in mind that it can be done in MaxiumumValue <--- Array[1] MinimumValue <--- Array[1]
two ways.
FOR Counter ← 2 TO LoopLimit
1. use of a Boolean variable that can have the value
IF Array[Counter] > MaximumValue
TRUE or FALSE THEN
2. comparisons made by using coparison operators, MaximumValue ← Array[Counter]
where comparisons are made from left to right
ENDIF
IF [BOOLEAN VARIABLE]
THEN IF Array[Counter] < MinimumValue
OUTCOME THEN
ELSE MinimumValue ← Array[Counter]
OUTCOME ENDIF
ENDIF NEXT Counter

// Average//
IF ((CONDITION 1) OR ( CONDITION 2)) AND (CONDITION 3) AND (CONDITION 4)
THEN
OUTCOME Total ← 0
ELSE FOR Counter ← 1 TO NumberOfValues
OUTCOME Total ← Total + StudentMark[Counter]
ENDIF

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NEXT Counter Validation in computer systems involves automated checks to

Average ← Total / NumberOfValues ensure the reasonableness of data before accepting it. If the
data is invalid, the system should provide an explanatory
Linear Search: In a linear search, each item in the list is message for rejection and allow another chance to enter the
inspected sequentially until a match is found or the entire data.
list is traversed. \n There are many types of it.

Range check
INPUT Value
Found ← FALSE A range check verifies that a numerical value falls within
Counter ← 1
specified upper and lower limits.
REPEAT
IF Value = Array[Counter] REPEAT
THEN INPUT Value
Found ← TRUE IF Value < MinimumValue OR Value > MaximumValue
ELSE THEN
Counter ← Counter + 1 OUTPUT "The student's mark should be in the range", Min
ENDIF ENDIF
UNTIL Found OR Counter > NumberOfValues UNTIL Value >= MinimumValue AND Value <= MaximumVa
IF Found
THEN Length check
OUTPUT Value , " found at position " , Counter, " in the list."
ELSE This can either ensure that data consists of a precise number
OUTPUT Value , " not found." of characters.
ENDIF
OUTPUT "Please enter your value of ", Limit , " characters
Bubble Sort: Iteratively compare and swap adjacent REPEAT
elements in a list to sort them. Start from the first element INPUT Value
and continue until the second-to-last element. After each IF LENGTH(Value) <> Limit
pass, the last element is in its correct place. However, THEN
other elements may still be unsorted. Repeat the process, OUTPUT "Your value must be exactly" , Limit ," characters
excluding the last element, until only one element ENDIF
remains or no swaps are needed. UNTIL LENGTH(Value) = Limit

First ← 1 It can also check if the data entered is a reasonable number

Last ← 10 of characters or not
REPEAT
Swap ← FALSE OUTPUT "Please enter your value "
FOR Index ← First TO Last - 1 REPEAT
IF Array[Index] > Array[Index + 1] INPUT Value
IF LENGTH(Value) > UpperLimit OR LENGTH(Value) < Lowe
THEN
Temp ← Array[Index] THEN
Array[Index] ← Array[Index + 1] OUTPUT "Too short or too long, please re-enter "
Array[Index + 1] ← Temp ENDIF
Swap ← TRUE UNTIL LENGTH(Value) <= UpperLimit AND LENGTH(Value)
ENDIF
NEXT Index Type check
Last ← Last - 1
A type check verifies that the entered data corresponds to a
UNTIL (NOT Swap) OR Last = 1
specific data type.

1.4. Validation and Verification OUTPUT "Enter the value "

REPEAT
To ensure the acceptance of reasonable and accurate data INPUT Value
inputs, computer systems must thoroughly examine each IF Value <> DIV(Value, 1)
data item before accepting it, and this is where Validation and THEN
Verification come into play! OUTPUT "This must be a whole number, please re-enter"
ENDIF
Validation UNTIL Value = DIV(Value, 1)

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Presence check It helps identify errors and assess how the program
handles different scenarios
A presence check checks to ensure that some data has been
entered and the value has not been left blank 1.5. Normal Data
OUTPUT "Please enter the value "
Normal data is the test data which accepts values in
REPEAT
acceptible range of values of the program
INPUT Value
Normal data should be used to work through the solution
IF Value = ""
to find the actual result(s) and see if they are the same as
THEN
the expected result(s)
OUTPUT "*=Required "
e.g. in a program where only whole number values
ENDIF
ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, normal
UNTIL Value <> ""
test data will be : 23, 54, 64 , 2 and 100

Format Check
Abnormal Data
A format check checks that the characters entered conform
to a pre-defined pattern. Test data that would be rejected by the solution as not
suitable, if the solution is working properly is called
Check Digit abnormal test data / erroneous test data.
e.g. in a program where only whole number values
A check digit is the final digit included in a code; it is ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, abnormal
calculated from all the other digits. data will be: -1, 151, 200, 67.2, “Sixty-Two” and -520
Check digits are used for barcodes, product codes,
International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN), and Vehicle
Identification Numbers (VIN).
Extreme Data
Extreme data are the largest and smallest values that
Verification
normal data can take
Verification is checking that data has been accurately copied e.g. in a program where only whole number values
ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, extreme
from one source to another
data will be: 0 and 100
There are 2 methods to verify data during entry ( there are
other methods during data transfer, but they are in paper 1)
Boundary Data
1. Double Entry
This is used to establish where the largest and smallest
Data is inputted twice, potentially by different operators. values occur
The computer system compares both entries and if they At each boundary two values are required: one value is
differ, an error message is displayed, prompting the data accepted and the other value is rejected.
to be reentered. e.g. in a program where only whole number values
ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, one
2. Screen/Visual check example of boundary data will be: 100 and 101. 100 will
be accepted and 101 will not be accepted
A screen/visual check involves the user manually
reviewing the entered data.
After data entry, the system displays the data on the Trace Table
screen and prompts the user to confirm its accuracy
before proceeding. A trace table is utilized to document the outcomes of
The user can compare the displayed data against a paper every step in an algorithm. It is employed to record the
document used as an input form or rely on their own variable's value each time it undergoes a change.
knowledge to verify correctness. A dry run refers to the manual process of systematically
executing an algorithm by following each step in
sequence.
Test Data A trace table is set up with a column for each variable and
a column for any output e.g.
Test data refers to input values used to evaluate and
assess the functionality and performance of a computer
program or system.

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Riders Reject Height OUTPUT

8 1.5 Ready to go 4

1.6. Identifying errors:

Test data is employed to execute a dry run of the flowchart Trace tables can be used to trace errors in a program. For
and document the outcomes in a trace table. During the dry example, if the requirement for the previous question
run: would be to accept riders that are of height 1.2 too, rather
than rejecting them, then the error would have been
Whenever a variable's value changes, the new value is caught in the trace table as when 1.2 is entered, it would
recorded in the respective column of the trace table. increment rejected which it shouldn’t in our example
Each time a value is outputted, it is displayed in the output
column.
How to write an algorithm?
An example of trace table is given below using a past paper
question: The ability to write an algorithm is very important for this
Q: The flowchart below inputs the height of children who want syllabus and paper. Some key steps/points to be known in-
to ride on a rollercoaster. Children under 1.2 metres are order to write the perfect algorithm are as follows:
rejected. The ride starts when eight children have been
accepted. 1. Make sure that the problem is clearly understood
which includes knowing the purpose of the algorithm
and the tasks to be completed by the algorithm.
2. Break the problem into smaller problems (e.g. in a
program which outputs average values, divide the
problem into multiple ones i.e. how to count the
number of iterations and how to count the total of all
values)
3. Identify the data that is needed to be saved into
variables/constants/arrays and what datatype it is,
and declare all the variables/constants/arrays
accordingly, with meaningfull names
4. Decide on how you are going to construct your
algorithm, either using a flowchart or pseudocode. If
you are told how to construct your algorithm, then
follow the guidance.
5. Construct your algorithm, making sure that it can be
easily read and understood by someone else. Take
particular care with syntax e.g. when conditions are
used for loops and selection.
6. Use several sets of test data (Normal, Abnormal and
Complete the trace table for the input data: 1.4, 1.3, 1.1, 1.3, Boundary) to dry run your algorithm and check if the
1.0, 1.5, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.3, 0.9, 1.5, 1.6, 1.0 expected results are achieved (a trace table can be
used for this purpose) . If error is found, find the point
Riders Reject Height OUTPUT
of error in the trace table and fix it in the code.
0 0
1 1.4 Note: The algorithms that you have looked at so far in these
2 1.3 notes were not designed with readability in mind because you
needed to work out what the problem being solved was.
1 1.1
3 1.3
2 1.0 2. Programming
4 1.5
3 1.2 2.1. Programming Languages
5 1.3
6 1.4 There are many high-level programming languages to
choose from. We will only be treating Python, Visual Basic, or
7 1.3
Java.
4 0.9

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Python is an open-source, versatile programming screen.

language that encourages quick program development Prompting the user with clear instructions for input is
and emphasises code readability. The integrated necessary for the user to understand what is expected.
development environment (IDE) showcased in this Input data in programming languages must match the
chapter is referred to as IDLE. required data type of the variable where it will be stored.
Visual Basic is a popular programming language that is By default, inputs are treated as strings, but commands
extensively used for Windows development. The can convert input to integer or real number data types.
integrated development environment (IDE) featured in Users should be provided with information about the
this chapter is known as Visual Studio, which is utilised for output/results for a program to be useful.
capturing screenshots. Each output should be accompanied by a message
Java is a widely adopted programming language utilised explaining the result's meaning or significance.
by numerous developers. The integrated development If an output statement has multiple parts, they can be
environment (IDE) employed for capturing screenshots in separated by a separator character.
this chapter is known as BlueJ.
2.3. Basic Concepts
2.2. Programming Concepts
When writing the steps required to solve a problem, the
Constructs of a Program following concepts need to be used and understood:

Data use – variables, constants and arrays Sequence

Sequence – order of steps in a task Selection
Selection – choosing a path through a program Iteration
Iteration – repetition of a sequence of steps in a program Counting and totalling
Operators use arithmetic for calculations and logic and String handling
Boolean for decisions. Use of operators.

Variables and Constants Sequence

A variable within a computer program refers to a named The ordering of the steps in an algorithm is very important.
storage unit with a value that can be modified throughout An incorrect order can lead to incorrect results and/or extra
the program's execution. To enhance comprehension for steps that are not required by the task.
others, it is advisable to assign significant names to
variables. Selection
A constant within a computer program represents a
Selection is a very useful technique, allowing different routes
named storage unit that holds a value which remains
through the steps of a program. The code of this is explained
unchanged throughout the program's execution. Similar
in the notes of previous chapters.
to variables, it is recommended to assign meaningful
names to constants to enhance comprehensibility for
Iteration
others.
As explained in the previous chapter, we already
Data Types
Totalling and Counting
Different data types are assigned to computer systems
for effective processing and storage.
As explained in the previous chapter, we already
Data types allow data, such as numbers or characters, to
be stored appropriately. String Handling
Data types enable effective manipulation using
mathematical operators for numbers and character Strings are used to store text and can contain various
concatenation. characters.
Some data types provide automatic validation. An empty string has no characters, while the
The types of datatypes are told in Chapter 1 already! programming language specifies the maximum number
of characters allowed.
Input and Output Characters in a string can be identified by their position
number, starting from either zero or one, depending on
Programs require input and output statements to handle the programming language.
data. String handling is an important aspect of programming.
In IGCSE Computer Science, algorithms and programs are
In IGCSE Computer Science, you will need to write
designed to take input from a keyboard and output to a
algorithms and programs for the following string

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

methods: all procedures and functions require parameters, some

Length: Determines the number of characters in a utilize them to facilitate their operations.
string, including spaces.
Substring: Extracts a portion of a string. Procedures without parameters:
Upper: Converts all letters in a string to uppercase.
PROCEDURE ProcedureName ()
Lower: Converts all letters in a string to lowercase.
[Commands]
These string manipulation methods are commonly
ENDPROCEDURE
provided in programming languages through library
//Calling/running the procedure
routines.
CALL ProcedureName()
Finding the length of a string:
The procedure with parameters:
LENGTH("Text Here")
PROCEDURE ProcedureName (ParameterName : Parameter
[Commands]
LENGTH(Variable)
ENDPROCEDURE
Extracting a substring from a string: //Calling/running the procedure
CALL ProecdureName (ParameterValue)
SUBSTRING("Computer Science", 10, 7)
// returns the next 7 values starting from the 10th value of theFunction:
string "Computer Science" i.e. "Science"
SUBSTRING(Variable, Position, Length)
FUNCTION FunctionName (ParameterName : ParameterDat
Converting a string to upper case [Commands]
RETURN ValueToBeReturned
UCASE("Text here") ENDFUNCTION

UCASE(Variable) When defining procedures and functions, the header is

the first statement in the definition.
Converting a string to lowercase The header includes:
The name of the procedure or function.
LCASE("Text Here") Parameters passed to the procedure or function,
along with their data types.
LCASE(Variable) The data type of the return value for a function.
Procedure calls are standalone statements.
Arithmetic, Logical and Boolean Operators Function calls are made as part of an expression, typically
on the right-hand side.
As explained in the previous chapter, we already
Local and Global Variable
Use of Nested Statements
Any part of a program can use a global variable – its
Selection and iteration statements can be nested,
scope covers the whole program
meaning one statement can be placed inside another.
A local variable can only be used by the part of the
Nested statements help reduce code duplication and
program it is declared in – its scope is restricted to that
simplify testing of programs.
part of the program.
Different types of constructs can be nested within each
other, such as selection statements within condition- Note: Any variables/arrays made in this procedure and
controlled loops or loops within other loops. functions will be local and cannot be used out of these. To be
made available all over the program, they must be declared
Procedures and Functions globally in the following way.

A procedure refers to a collection of programming DECLARE [VariableName] : DataType AS GLOBAL

statements organized under a single name, invoked at
any given point in a program to execute a specific task. 2.4. Library Routines
A function is a compilation of programming statements
consolidated under a singular name, invoked at any Programming language development systems often
moment within a program to accomplish a particular task. provide library routines that can be readily incorporated
Unlike a procedure, a function also has the capability to into programs.
return a value back to the main program. Library routines are pre-tested and ready for use, making
Parameters refer to variables that store the values of programming tasks easier.
arguments passed to a procedure or function. While not

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Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) typically A two-dimensional array can be referred to as a table with
include a standard library of functions and procedures. rows and columns.
Standard library routines perform various tasks, including
string handling.
MOD – returns the remainder of a division
DIV – returns the quotient (i.e. the whole number part) of a
division
ROUND – returns a value rounded to a given number of
decimal places
RANDOM – returns a random number.

Examples:

Value1 <--- MOD(10,3) returns the remainder of 10

divided by 3
Value2 <---- DIV(10,3) returns the quotient of 10 divided by
3
Value3 <--- ROUND(6.97354, 2) returns the value rounded When a two-dimensional array is declared in pseudocode,
to 2 decimal places the first and last index values for rows and the first and
Value4 <--- RANDOM() returns a random number between last index values for columns alongside the data type are
0 and 1 inclusive included.

Declaring a 2D Array:
2.5. Creating a Maintainable Program
DECLARE Name : ARRAY[RowLower:RowUpper,ColumnLowe
A maintainable program should:
Filling a 2-D array using a loop:
always use meaningful identifier names for variables,
FOR ColumnCounter ← 0 TO 2
constants, arrays, procedures and functions
FOR RowCounter ← 0 TO 9
be divided into modules for each task using procedures
OUTPUT "Enter next value "
and functions
be fully commented using your programming language’s INPUT ArrayName [RowCounter, ColumnCounter]
NEXT RowCounter
commenting feature
NEXT ColumnCounter
Commenting in pseudocode:

// Now the text written is commented and thus ignored File Handling
"" Computer programs store data that will be needed again
This method can also be used to comment in a file.
multiple lines but the singular line method Data stored in RAM is volatile and will be lost when the
is more widely accepted and reccomended too computer is powered off.
"" Data saved to a file is stored permanently, allowing it to
be accessed by the same program at a later date or by
2.6. Arrays other programs.
Stored data in a file can be transferred and used on other
An array is a data structure containing several elements computers.
of the same data type; these elements can be accessed The storage of data in files is a commonly used feature in
using the same identifier name. programming.
The position of each element in an array is identified
Key point: When writing in a file, the program is outputing the
using the array’s index.
data to the file, and when reading a file, the program in
There are two types of arrays
inputing the data from the file
\n There are 3 ways a file can be opened in a program i.e. to
One-Dimensional Array
write, to read and to append
Explained in the previous chapter in detail
2.7. Writing in a file
Two-Dimensional Array
OPENFILE "filename.txt" FOR WRITE

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//When opening a file to write, all the data already existing in the entities that are written later in records e.g. car name, car
file is OVERWRITTEN
manufacturer etc.

WRITEFILE "filename.txt" , Value Note: In this chapter, skills of dealing with a database are also
required so working with Microsoft Access is needed to
understand
// The next command of WRITEFILE would be writen on next line of the filethis chapter better. You have to be able to define
a single-table database from given data storage
CLOSEFILE "filename.txt" requirements, choose a suitable primary key for a database
table and also be able to read, complete and understand SQL
scripts.
Reading a file:
OPENFILE "filename.txt" FOR READ
READFILE "filename.txt" , Variable
// The value in the line (which is identified by the number of times this is being run) is stored in the variable
CLOSEFILE "filename.txt"

Reading a file till EOF:

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science by
OPENFILE "filename.txt" FOR READ Hodder Education
DECLARE DataVariable : STRING
WHILE NOT EOF("filename.txt) DO Validation in databases
READFILE "filename.txt", DataVariable
// here the line can be outputted or stored in an array. This process will repeat
Database until every
management line automatically provides
software
//before the file ends has been read some validation checks, while others need to be set up by
ENDWHILE the developer during construction.
For example; The software automatically validates fields
3. Databases like "DateOfAdmission" in the PATIENT table to ensure
data input is a valid date. \n

A database is a well-organized compilation of data that

enables individuals to retrieve information according to their 3.2. Basic Data Types
specific requirements. The data contained within a database
can encompass various forms such as text, numerical values, Each field will require a data type to be selected. A data type
images, or any other type of digital content that can be stored classifies how the data is stored, displayed and the
on a computer system. operations that can be performed on the stored value.
The datatypes for database are quite similar to original
datatypes, however, there are a few differences.
3.1. Why do we need a database?
To store data about people, things, and events.
Any modifications or additions need to be made only
once, ensuring data consistency.
All users access and utilize the same set of data,
promoting uniformity.
Relational databases store data in a non-repetitive Note: Access datatype refers to the software Microsoft
manner, eliminating duplication. Access which is a DBMS (DataBase Management System).
Here, databases could be worked upon in practical form
What makes a database?
3.3. Primary Key
Data is stored in tables in databases. Each table consists
of a specific type of data e.g. cars. These tables HAVE to Each record in a table represents a unique item, person,
be named according to what they contain e.g. a table or event.
containing patient information will be PATIENT To ensure reliable identification of these items, a field
These tables consist of records (rows). Each record called the primary key is necessary.
consists of data about a single entity (a single item, The primary key is a unique field that distinguishes each
person or event ) e.g. a single car item within the data.
These tables also have columns that are knows an fields. In order to serve as a primary key, a field must have
These consist of specific information regarding the values that are never repeated within the table.

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

An existing field can serve as a primary key if it is unique,

such as the ISBN in the book table.
In cases where all existing fields may contain repeated
data, an additional field, such as "HospitalNumber," can
be added to each record to serve as the primary key.

3.4. Structured Query Language - SQL

Structured Query Language (SQL) is the standard
language for writing scripts to retrieve valuable
information from databases.
By using SQL, we can learn how to retrieve and display
specific information needed from a database.
For instance, someone visiting a patient may only require Operators
the ward number and bed number to locate them in the
hospital, while a consultant may need a list of the names Just like pseudocode, the operators used there can also be
of all the patients under their care. This can be done using used here for conditions, however, a few more are also used
SQL in databases

SQL Scripts

An SQL script is a collection of SQL commands that are

used to perform a specific task, often stored in a file for
reusability.
To comprehend SQL and interpret the output of an SQL
script, practical experience in writing SQL scripts is
necessary.

Select Statements:

SELECT (fieldsname)
FROM (tablesname) 4. Boolean Logic
WHERE (condition)
ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ;
4.1. Logic Gates and their functions
Selecting Sum of values in a table:

SELECT SUM ( fieldsname )

Six types of logic gates
FROM (tablesname)
NOT Gate
WHERE (condition)
AND Gate
ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ;
OR Gate
Counting the number of records where the field matches a NAND Gate
specified condition NOR Gate
XOR Gate
SELECT COUNT ( fieldsname )
FROM (tablesname) NOT gate: an inverter, A
WHERE (condition)
ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ; A Output
0 1
==ORDER BY Field1, Field2, etc. – this specifies a sort in
ascending or alphabetical order starting with the first field.== 1 0
==ORDER BY Field1, Field2 DESC – this specifies a sort in
descending or reverse alphabetical order starting with the
first field.==
Note: ORDER BY is not necessary to add. It has to be only
added if required!
AND gate: A.B

A B Output

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

A B Output
0 0 0
Writing Logic Statements
0 1 0
Logic Statements is a way of showing all the logics that are in
1 0 0 place for a logic circuit.
1 1 1
4.2. Writing from a logic circuit
1. Look at the ciruit and go around the logic gates used in
the circuit
2. Go from the one output that is being given towards the
OR gate: A + B input
3. Write the last gate ( the first gate you walk through ) in
A B Output the middle and then, for each of the value coming into
0 0 0 the gate, leave space at the side
0 1 1 4. If the value coming into the gate is coming from
1 0 1 another gate, use a bracket for the gate’s logic
5. Repeat process 3-4 till you are able to reach the input
1 1 1
values fully

Writing from a truth table

1. Create logic circuit fom the truth table (shown later)
NAND gate: A.B
2. Write the logic statement using the ciruit
A B Output
0 0 1
Writing from a Problem statement
0 1 1
1 0 1 1. See what logics go in place in the statement to take
1 1 0 place
2. Go from the logic of any 2 inputs at the start, and then
keep on going until you are able to reach the final gate
which gives the output
3. When writing the statement, make sure you show the
logic statement where the output is 1
NOR gate: A + B
Example of a LOGIC STATEMENT
A B Output
0 0 1 (B AND C) OR (A NOR (A NAND C)) is the logic statement for
0 1 0 the following Logic Circuit
1 0 0
1 1 0

XOR gate: A ⨁ B​

A B Output
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0 Creating Truth Tables
4.3. From Logic Circuits

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

1. Create a truth table with each input possible, creating 1. Given the truth table above, take the rows where the
every possible combination of inputs . Tip: For the first output (x) is 1 (Rows 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7)
input, write it in the combination of 1,0,1,0 and so on. 2. Create a logic expression from these rows (example,
For the second, go 1,1,0,0 and so on, and for the third row 1 will be (NOT A AND NOT B AND NOT C) = X
one, go 1,1,1,1,0,0,0,0 going by the powers of 2 for 3. Create logic expressions for all the rows with output 1
each input. This would guarantee each possible and connect them with OR gate
combination
2. Run through the circuit with the inputs and get the
output that will be reached and write it accordingly Exam-Style Question
For logic statements, and problem statements,
convert them to logic circuits first and then do the
rest

Example
This is the example of a truth table of a logic circuit

1. The Conditions are given so make logic statements

The circuit:
using the conditions and the table. (NOT S AND T) OR
(S AND W) OR (NOT T AND W)
2. Make the logic circuit from the given equation
3. Make the truth table

Logic Statements from Truth

Tables

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CAIE IGCSE
Computer Science

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