Capacitismo Ambivalente

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Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 0, No. 0, 2019, pp.

1--31
doi: 10.1111/josi.12337

This article is part of the Special Issue “Ableism,” Kathleen R. Bogart and
Dana S. Dunn (Special Issue Editors). For a full listing of Special Issue
papers, see: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/josi.2019.75.issue-3/
issuetoc.

Hostile, Benevolent, and Ambivalent Ableism:


Contemporary Manifestations

Michelle R. Nario-Redmond and Alexia A. Kemerling
Hiram College

Arielle Silverman
Disability Wisdom

Disabled people experience ableism in many forms from the seemingly benevolent
to the blatantly hostile, and more ambivalent or mixed forms (e.g., paternalis-
tic/condescending and jealous/envy). Rooted in historic and contemporary frame-
works, this study explores the experiences of an international sample of disabled
people (N = 185) using six open-ended questions to assess some of the manifes-
tations of ableism documented in the literature. We found that experiences with
paternalistic forms of ableism were among the most pervasive followed by inspira-
tional, hostile, envious, and dehumanizing forms while fears of becoming disabled
or “catching” disability were less commonly reported. Furthermore, some forms
of ableism (e.g., infantilization, unwanted help, and invasions of privacy) were
more common among those with visible impairments whereas invalidation and
accusations of fraud were more common among those with less apparent con-
ditions. Implications for policies related to hate crimes, health care, and media
representations are discussed along with directions for future research.

If I tell someone I don’t like their pitying behavior or point out that their kind intent had a
harmful impact, they become hostile, usually accusing me of being ungrateful or disabled
people like me as “too sensitive” (Person with multiple disabilities, 2015).
People go from pity party, you’re so inspirational to you’re an ungrateful bitch really fast
when I turn down help. (Person with multiple disabilities, 2015).

In many ways, the manifestations of ableism are comparable to other minority


group prejudices expressed as fear, denigration, and dehumanizing actions on the

∗ Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Michelle R. Nario-Redmond,


Department of Psychology, Hiram College, P.O. Box 67, Hiram, OH 44234. Tel: +330-569-5230
[e-mail: nariomr@hiram.edu].
1

C 2019 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
2 Nario-Redmond, Kemerling, and Silverman

basis of group membership. And like other prejudices, ableism is not only about
negative evaluations and emotions; it has a benevolent side that often manifests
as sympathetic pity, protection, or charitable praise.1 Ableism can also be distin-
guished from other prejudices in ways that qualify generalizations from studies
of sexism, racism, and ageism. For example, similar to transgender and sexual
minorities, people with disabilities are often (but not always) the only member of
the family with a disability (Olkin, 1999). This means they may grow up more
isolated from a cultural community of role models who can offer coping strategies
for the ableism they confront. Without exposure to alternative narratives about dis-
ability as a common human condition or a positive cultural identity, people with
disabilities may come to accept that their lives are tragic, and that their bodies
and brains are defective, and in need of cure. Indeed, disabled people may also
hold negative implicit attitudes toward people with disabilities (Harder, Keller,
& Chopik, in press). Such pathologized worldviews have broad implications for
psychological well-being, self-advocacy, and social change for disability rights
(Bogart, 2014; 2015; Dirth & Branscombe, 2017; Nario-Redmond, Noel, & Fern,
2013; Nario-Redmond & Oleson, 2016).
Though many studies have examined disability attitudes and impairment-
specific stigmas (Dunn, 2015; Gervais, 2011; Goffman, 1963; Thomas, 2000),
few are theoretically driven, and fewer ask disabled people about their varied
experiences with ableism situated in different contexts, and subject to multiple
interpretations. Our goal was to examine the prevalence of alternative manifes-
tations of disability prejudice based on narratives from an international sample
of disabled people using an open-ended methodology. Specifically, this article
provides an initial exploration of the disparate forms that ableism can take ranging
from the familiar, fear-based avoidance and active exclusion to the often misun-
derstood, sympathy and well-intentioned, favorability biases. We first describe
historic research and contemporary frameworks used to study negative, positive,
and ambivalent prejudices against disabled people. We then present some original
data describing disabled people’s encounters with hostile, benevolent, and more
ambiguous forms of ableism. We discuss how these results inform current frame-
works articulating why social groups are often the targets of differential forms of
prejudice depending on their perceived status, level of intergroup cooperation, and

1
Due to the variety of ways in which ableism can manifest, we adhere to the broad definition:
“Ableism is stereotyping, prejudice, discrimination, and social oppression toward people with disabil-
ities” (Bogart & Dunn, in press). Our study also employed a more specific definitional prompt which
read: “Disability prejudice can be defined as the disrespectful treatment of disabled people simply
based on their disability status. Sometimes referred to as ableism, disability prejudice promotes the un-
equal treatment of disabled people by others, and includes but is not limited to being excluded, ignored,
misunderstood, rejected, dismissed, avoided, pitied, envied, objectified, dehumanized, manipulated,
shamed, mocked, stereotyped, overprotected, condescended to, and/or provided with unwanted help.”
Experiences of Ableism 3

other disability characteristics. Finally, we contextualize the relevance of these


data with regard to policy implications, social justice, and future research.

Hostile Ableism Research

Negative forms of ableism have been well documented, and include sham-
ing language (Coombs, Chopra, Schenk, & Yutan, 1993), gestures of disgust
(Kouznetsova, Stevenson, Oaten, & Case, 2012), avoidance (Shiloh, Heruti, &
Berkovitz, 2011), and outright aggression that manifests as brutality from care-
givers, and hate crimes that target people because of their disabilities (Sherry,
2016). In fact, degradation, humiliation, and hostile punishments are often justi-
fied as necessary to defend against those whose human status can be questioned
because they fail to walk upright, appear bereft of self-reflection, drool, or leak
urine and feces (Haslam & Loughnan, 2012). When confronted with those who
remind us of our animalistic natures, some people recoil, and work to reaffirm
their superior status by denying the humanity of others: restraining, or otherwise
taming disabled people as if they are subhuman (Sherry, 2016).
Explanations for some of these more hostile forms of ableism have focused on
fears of death and the body’s vulnerability to damage and decline, as disability is
a category that anyone can join. According to the existential accounts of disability
prejudice, one reason people mock and attack disabled people is because they
serve as unwanted reminders of life’s frailties and the body’s vulnerability to
decline, dismemberment, and deterioration (Goldenberg, Pyszczynski, Greenberg,
& Solomon, 2000). Evidence supports that reminders of one’s own death contribute
to the ridicule and condemnation of several outgroups, including disabled people—
whose very presence can provoke death-related thoughts (Hirschberger, Florian,
& Mikulincer, 2005). Thoughts of death also lead people to express more disgust
over bodily fluids, and to prefer stories about how humans are unique from other
animals (Goldenberg et al., 2001).
Other explanations of ableism have invoked an evolutionary perspective
that attributes disability avoidance, ostracism, and segregation to an overgen-
eralized fear of contagion that extends beyond diseases to noninfectious condi-
tions. Evidence of this false-alarm reaction comes from studies of people who
maintain a greater distance from those with noncontagious conditions including
burns, birthmarks, facial disfigurements, amputations, cancer and mental illnesses
(Kouznetsova et al., 2012). People even express disgust and avoid objects touched
by those with chronic conditions and disability (Oaten, Stevenson, & Case 2009).
While disabled people have a long history of being quarantined and shunned
from communal events, avoidance behaviors are not universally distributed across
cultures. In fact, some forms of disability prejudice contradict the fear-based
accounts—particularly the sympathetic reactions that reflect intentions to help,
offer guardianship, and express concern, curiosity, and even amazement.
4 Nario-Redmond, Kemerling, and Silverman

Benevolent Ableism Research

Like other prejudices, ableism also has a benevolent side that can manifest as
pity, paternalistic protection, and unprovoked praise for everyday activities. Re-
search shows that when asked to evaluate others’ achievements, people consistently
exaggerate the favorability of people with disabilities over those without—even
when the credentials of both groups are equivalent (Pruett & Chan, 2006). Nor-
mative pressures seem to dictate the extension of charitable kindness to disabled
people as among society’s legitimate dependents, which also include women,
children, and older adults (Glick & Fiske, 2001). This “positivity” bias does not
necessarily equate to truly positive appraisals. Sometimes, low expectations for
a group drive perceptions of astonishment toward members for simply accom-
plishing routine events like driving, shopping, going to work, or getting a college
education (Lynch & Finkelstein, 2015; Nario-Redmond & Anderson, 2014).
The tendency to admire disabled people perceived to have “overcome” their
limitations by daring to appear in public (or become romantically involved) has
transformed into a modern form of ableism known as inspiration porn (Grue,
2016). Inspiration porn describes the objectification of disabled people portrayed
as specimens of wonder and amazement—perhaps as a way to motivate those with-
out disabilities to self-improve. For example, social media often depicts visibly
disabled people engaged in sporting or recreational events with the caption, “So
what is your excuse?” (Haller & Preston, 2016; Pulrang, 2013). The criticism is
not that disabled people are never deserving of respect and admiration—but when
ordinary activities of daily living are portrayed as heroic, and used to motivate
appreciation among those with more privileged lives, frustration and misunder-
standing can result. Other forms of prejudice relate to the fatherly or paternalistic
tendencies that contribute to the overprotectiveness, patronization, and infantiliza-
tion common to women, older adults and disabled people alike (Cuddy, Fiske, &
Glick, 2008). For example, disabled people are frequently the targets of unwanted
help that can be perceived as condescending, demeaning and dismissive (Wang,
Silverman, Gwinn, & Dovidio, 2015; Wang, Walker, Pietri, & Ashburn-Nardo, in
press).
Pity is a deceptive emotion. When people pity a person or a group of people, it may seem like
they care about them and are interested in improving their lives. But beneath this seeming
benevolence actually lies rejection, fear, discomfort, and a strong sense of the inferiority of
the person who is pitied (Presley, 2008).

Ambivalent Prejudice Research

More often than not, ableism involves a mixture of both positive and nega-
tive sentiments, and can shift from one to the other depending on the situation,
goals, needs, and characteristics of those involved. For example, some people are
Experiences of Ableism 5

enamored by hearing aids that are small and discreet, but feel uncomfortable in-
teracting with those wearing more visibly intrusive and robotic cochlear implants.
Similarly, many have come to expect older adults to use mobility devices, but are
saddened by the sight of a toddler using a walker or a wheelchair—despite the
liberation and exhilaration such equipment can provide.
According to ambivalence amplification theory, people simultaneously hold
conflicting beliefs about disability: they acknowledge that disabled people should
be treated with kindness and compassion, but may feel anxious and uncomfortable
in their presence (Katz, Hass, & Bailey, 1988). Thus, people may unknowingly
display nervousness (e.g., sweat, twitch, and use more vocal fillers like “um”)
while actively trying to present themselves as friendly and helpful. Given these
conflicting feelings, which reaction surfaces may depend, in part, on what people
are expected to do: privately evaluate or publicly interact? Are people motivated
to appear nonprejudiced or to fit in with ableist peers? Positive (e.g., affirming,
empathetic) and negative (e.g., insensitive, cruel) reactions should also depend on
the characteristics of those involved: are impairments more visibly identifiable
or less apparent unless disclosed? Another factor relates to whether the disabled
person appears to be confirming stereotypical expectations or violating them. In a
classic study, Katz, Farber, Glass, Lucido, and Emswiller (1978) found that college
students’ attitudes differed dramatically when interacting with a disabled person
who appeared friendly and achievement-oriented compared to when she acted
aloof and ill-tempered. Ironically, students were three times more willing to help a
woman in a wheelchair when she appeared to be in a bad mood—consistent with
disability stereotypes—than when she acted friendly and outgoing. According to
several early theorists (Goffman, 1963; Katz et al., 1988), nondisabled people may
want disabled people to suffer to convince themselves that their own physical and
mental abilities are essential to well-being. When disabled people appear to be
suffering, others are more likely to feel pity, and to want to help them—particularly
when they are portrayed as stereotypically vulnerable (Dijker, 2001). On the other
hand, when disabled people appear well-adjusted and accomplished, they can
even incite anger among those who expect them to be miserable (Katz et al.,
1978). In fact, other studies have shown that both pity and anger can be jointly
aroused when someone behaves in a way that subverts another person’s need to
assist (Dijker, 2001). For example, when disabled people confront a person who
is offering unwanted help, they are perceived as rude (Wang et al., 2015; Wang
et al., in press).

“Hostility and anger usually arise when I spurn people’s condescending help” (Person with
a sensory disability, 2015).
“Sometimes, when I objected, the other person would act as if I was unreasonably angry
when they were ‘only trying to help’ or ‘doing what was best’ for me” (Person with multiple
disabilities, 2015).
6 Nario-Redmond, Kemerling, and Silverman

According to a recent review of the literature (Nario-Redmond, 2019), prej-


udices against disabled people seem to become more negative when expectations
are unclear, stereotypes are violated, or important needs are thwarted. Yet, these
are precisely the conditions that characterize most social situations, which are
rarely clear cut. Meanwhile, disabled people are increasingly visible in public,
and many disrupt stereotypical expectations of them as helpless, incompetent, and
asexual beings (Nario-Redmond, 2010). Ambivalent reactions to disability may
be more common than previously assumed (see Fiske, 2012, for a review).

The Stereotype Content Model (SCM)

More recent theorizing articulates the circumstances that produce particular


forms of prejudice, especially when reactions are mixed. According to the stereo-
type content model (SCM), emotions are more volatile toward ambivalent groups
like disabled people than for groups stereotyped as uniformly negative (or posi-
tive) (Fiske, Cuddy, Glick & Xu, 2002). The SCM explains that stereotypes can
be predicted on the basis of two dimensions critical to intergroup perception—
the group’s status, and intention to compete instead of cooperate (Glick & Fiske,
2001). People want to know: Is this group generally cooperative (warm) or com-
petitive (cold) and does this group have the power (status) to carry out their goals
and intentions? Specifically, stereotypes about a group’s warmth signal whether
its members are likely to be cooperative: the colder the group, the less coopera-
tive and more competitive they are expected to be. Stereotypes about a group’s
competence signal information about its social status: the more incompetent, the
lower the group’s status in society, and the less likely they are to achieve certain
goals.
Research testing the SCM across multiple studies in several nations, has
found that disabled people are consistently rated low in competence, but high in
warmth—in line with their low status position and perceived cooperative intent
(Cuddy et al., 2008). Specifically, one reason they are considered incompetent
(e.g., unintelligent, incapable) is because they have historically occupied inferior,
nonpowerful positions in society (Cuddy et al., 2008). The SCM also predicts
that disabled people will be stereotyped as warmer (e.g., more likeable and trust-
worthy) than other social groups because in general—they are perceived to be a
cooperative and (inter)dependent outgroup. In fact, some argue “the disabled” are
considered stereotypically “compliant”—like children and the elderly—society’s
other legitimate dependents (Glick & Fiske, 2001). Across several studies testing
the SCM, “disabled,” “blind,” “retarded,” and “elderly” people are all stereotyped
as having lower competence, but higher warmth compared to other social groups
(Fiske et al., 2002). These observations are consistent with research on consensual
beliefs that characterize both disabled men and women as helpless and dependent
(Nario-Redmond, 2010).
Experiences of Ableism 7

Fig. 1. The stereotype content model (SCM). Status and competitiveness dimensions are represented
by the columns and rows, respectively. Within each quadrant, warmth and competence stereotypes
are indicated by the initials ST, emotions by FEEL, and behavioral tendencies by BEH, along with
example target groups, WHO.

Yet, the SCM makes room for the idea that disabled people may not always
be stereotyped as warm and incompetent—especially if they are thought to be
intentionally competing for resources or roles associated with higher status groups.
As the social position of disabled people changes, so should the stereotypes
that come to dominate the cultural imagination. The SCM also makes specific
predictions (see Figure 1) about how people will feel and behave depending on
a target group’s social position and perceived intentions to cooperate or compete
with others (Fiske, Cuddy, & Glick, 2007).

Pity for the incompetent but warm. Consistent with model predictions,
groups ambivalently stereotyped as both incompetent and warm do elicit feelings
of pity, sympathy, and other forms of paternalistic prejudice (Cuddy et al., 2008). In
studies comparing 25 different social groups, pity ratings were consistently highest
for “disabled,” “blind,” “retarded,” and “elderly” people (Cuddy et al., 2008; Fiske
et al., 2002). Pity itself is a mixture of both tenderness and distress—feelings that
are often in conflict, which may undercut inclinations to help (Dijker, 2001). People
who feel sorry for others sometimes try to avoid or distance themselves from their
suffering (Schimel, Pyszczynski, Greenberg, O’Mahen, & Arndt, 2000). However,
at lower levels of suffering, pity may trigger a desire to protect those perceived
as vulnerable to harm—especially those with traits that signal dependency or lack
8 Nario-Redmond, Kemerling, and Silverman

of control; impaired senses and unstable movements are often associated with
toddlers, older adults, and people with disabilities (Dijker, 2001).
When asked to describe times when they have felt pity toward others, people
primarily refer to those with physical disabilities, victims of catastrophes, and those
living in poverty through no fault of their own (Weiner, Graham, & Chandler,
1982). Pity is more likely to be evoked for those with impairments caused by
undeserved circumstances (Weiner et al., 1982). By contrast, those considered
responsible for their fate (e.g., people with psychiatric impairments, HIV/AIDS)
are pitied less (Weiner, 1995). Pity also increases toward those with uncontrollable
or more permanent conditions compared to the more temporary variety (Weiner
et al., 1982). In general, pity and sympathetic concern seem to be reserved for
people who “can’t seem to help it,” who are otherwise submissive, and who would
overcome their condition—if only they could.
Furthermore, pity is associated with patronizing speech, which is often dis-
respectful and condescending like: “Aww. Bless your heart, poor sweet baby, you
are just too pretty to be blind/deaf/paralyzed.” Nonverbal correlates of these pitiful
expressions include head tilting, eye wincing, and lower lip protrusions. Studies of
patronizing speech have shown that students use much higher-pitched voices when
speaking to adults assumed to be disabled compared to adults without disabilities
(Liesener & Mills, 1999). Similar infantilizing, repetitive speech patterns have
been observed on college campuses (Gouvier, Coon, Todd, & Fuller, 1994), and
among medical students when interacting with visibly impaired others (Eddey,
Robey, & McConnell, 1998). Furthermore, people with disabilities consistently
report being the targets of unsolicited, inappropriate, and unwanted assistance
for which they are expected to be grateful (Braithwaite & Eckstein, 2003). Such
patronizing behaviors—a form of paternalistic prejudice—are sometimes difficult
to recognize, perhaps because they so often appear to be expressions of care and
concern. In fact, good intentions may or may not be what motivates patronizing
treatment when it comes to subordinate groups. When help is unsolicited, over-
bearing or imposed, recipients are presumed to be inferior (Steele, 1992) and
incompetent (Becker, Glick, Ilic, & Bohner, 2011).
To explain some of these behavioral manifestations of ambivalent prejudice,
the SCM has been extended to include a behavioral map that incorporates both
intergroup emotions and behavioral intentions to either help or harm (Cuddy
et al., 2008; Fiske, 2011). The “Behavior from Intergroup Affect and Stereotypes”
(BIAS) map, makes the prediction that helping behaviors are more actively im-
posed on groups stereotyped as warm (i.e., those that are cooperative and don’t
compete). Certainly, both disabled people and older adults receive a lot of un-
wanted help, imposed overprotection, patronizing speech, and charitable handouts
(Ryan, Anas & Gruneir, 2006). However, because these groups are simultaneously
stereotyped as incompetent subordinates, they are also more likely to be passively
neglected and ignored. This can translate into friends not inviting them to parties,
Experiences of Ableism 9

employers dismissing the legitimacy of their requests, and student-life staff failing
to plan for accessibility on college campuses. At an institutional level, warehous-
ing people in nursing homes and other segregated facilities combines both active
helping and passive neglect, consistent with BIASM/SCM predictions. Feelings
of pity are also directly linked to active helping behaviors like volunteering time
and donating to charitable causes (Cooper, Corrigan, & Watson, 2003; Cuddy
et al., 2008). This may explain why disabled people are often exploited as objects
of suffering in order to raise charitable funds, and are generally neglected when
organizations fail to plan for their arrival.

Envy for the competent but cold. A second form of ambivalent prejudice
reflects a mixture of begrudging admiration, jealousy, and resentment that charac-
terizes groups stereotyped as competent, but cold because they occupy positions
of relative (or increasing) power (Cuddy et al., 2008; Fiske, 2011). Those who are
targets of envious and resentful prejudices may have previously been among the
lower status minorities whose circumstances have since improved; their upward
mobility may threaten those who currently occupy positions of power. According
to the BIASM/SCM, feelings of envy or jealousy contribute to behaviors that
reflect passive tolerance, or that “go along to get along” when interacting with
outgroups presumed to be competent. However, if groups are considered compet-
itive and, therefore cold, they can become targets of active harm and harassment.
During economic crises, envied groups, stereotyped as competent but cold com-
petitors, are more likely to be treated as scapegoats and blamed for widespread
social problems (Glick, 2005). During the holocaust, disabled people were among
the first rounded up by the Nazis for extermination, and like the Jews, were scape-
goated as responsible for the degeneration of society, attributed to their genetic
inferiority (Burleigh, 1994).
Today, as disabled people are increasingly recognized as the largest minor-
ity group in the United States, their public visibility has substantially improved.
Ableism in the form of backlash against disability-rights protections has resulted.
For example, recent headlines depict disabled people as manipulative scammers
for filing lawsuits against businesses that fail to comply with the ADA, or as im-
posters if they don’t appear disabled enough (Grimoldby, 2016). As a consequence,
disabled people continue to struggle to justify needs for accommodation in school
and work, especially when these are described as “special needs” or “privileges”
instead of civil rights (Gernsbacher, Raimond, Balinghasay, & Boston, 2016). To
date, little research has examined the specific conditions where disabled people
might elicit envy, resentful admiration, and distain. However, recent news reports
document resentment toward students with disabilities who receive extra time on
tests or other “special” privileges (e.g., note takers, larger bathroom stalls, shorter
waiting lines) that nondisabled people would like access to as well (Thompson,
2013).
10 Nario-Redmond, Kemerling, and Silverman

Envious blame toward ambitious, well-educated disability activists may be-


come even more salient if higher taxes and dwindling social security benefits are
attributed to government-sponsored programs earmarked just for them. Backlash
against the progress of successful minority groups often takes the form of restrict-
ing affirmative action-like policies designed to rectify their underrepresentation
(Cook, Gerber, & Murphy, 2000). It can also take the form of violence.

In a culture that dehumanizes disabled people by portraying them as benefit fraudsters, liars
and leeches, it’s little wonder they are targets of abuse . . . . Research shows that disabled
people are more likely to experience “particularly sadistic” treatment: sustained attacks
that involve dehumanising humiliation, torture, and degradation. Listen to disabled people
describing the everyday abuse they face in public and it becomes difficult to tell them it
is not because of their disability: be it a woman who had her crutches pushed from under
her in a supermarket as she was called a “scrounger,” . . . . this focus on alleged fraud and
“overclaiming” of disability benefits was causing an increase in abuse directed at disabled
people (Ryan, 2015).

Contempt for the incompetent and cold. Ableism continues to manifest


as negative prejudice as well, consistent with reactions associated with groups
stereotyped as incompetent, but competitive, and therefore cold. Among the groups
stereotyped as both incompetent and cold are the homeless, drug addicts, and those
receiving government assistance (including those with various impairments)—
characterized as “free-loading” at the expense of others. Similarly, people with
disabilities who are homeless, underemployed, or receive benefit subsidies are
also portrayed as competing for limited resources (Dorfman, forthcoming, 2017).
In nationally representative surveys, 16% of those polled admitted to being angry
when inconvenienced by another’s disability, and 9% said they resented those
assumed to be getting special privileges (Taylor, Wurf, Harris, & Associates,
1991).
Stereotypically contemptuous groups may seem to compete with dominant
worldviews by refusing to conform to the rules of “civilized” society (Schweik,
2009). They may incite feelings of dread and disgust, which are then used to
justify their public banishment, containment, or elimination to keep them from
“contaminating” others. Disgust is not only aroused toward those assumed to be
contagious, but also toward those who violate moral imperatives like cheating
or leeching from the more “deserving.” Whenever a group is assumed to have
goals incompatible with another group, anger is likely to fuel aggression toward
those considered weaker and less capable of goal achievement (Mackie, Devos, &
Smith, 2000). For example, access to the best parking spaces may be a goal that
both nondisabled and disabled people want. The SCM predicts that groups stereo-
typed as incompetent (low status) and cold (competitive) should elicit contempt
in the form of anger and bitterness—emotions that reflect moral outrage toward
exploitive behaviors.
Experiences of Ableism 11

More actively harmful behaviors are predicted toward groups stereotyped


as cold, illegitimate dependents. Interment camps, ethnic cleansings, the 2016
massacre of disabled people in Japan are all extreme examples of contemptuous
prejudice (McCurry, 2016). This form of ableism is evidenced in rising hate crimes,
particularly toward those with more noticeable conditions or behaviors (Sherry,
2016). Much evidence demonstrates that people who are poor, homeless, or on
welfare are more likely to be intimidated, victimized, robbed, and imprisoned
(Ben-Moshe, Carey, & Chapman, 2014). Furthermore, because of their perceived
incompetence, these groups are also the targets of passive forms of harm—neglect,
exclusion, and the withdrawal of social support (Cuddy et al., 2008). At the
institutional level, passive harm is reflected in policies that restrict access to
housing, health care, and educational benefits.

Admiration for the competent and warm. Finally, very few studies have
examined when disabled people are admired—an emotion associated with groups
considered both warm and competent. The BIASM/SCM predicts pride and ad-
miration, deference and respect for groups with high status who are viewed as
cooperative (e.g., ingroups, students). Disabled people are not typically stereo-
typed among these groups. Interestingly however, the vast majority of people
responding to national surveys (92%) said they felt admiration whenever they en-
countered a person with a serious disability whereas 74% said they felt pity (Taylor
et al., 1991). A recent video study found that positive portrayals of disabled peo-
ple achieving success in various contexts were judged to be inspirational—stirring
feelings of both surprise and awe (Nario-Redmond & Anderson, 2014). Specifi-
cally, after viewing a video of young adults with physical and sensory impairments
in school or working, college students reported feeling more interested, ambitious,
and personally inspired compared to baseline levels. Furthermore, after viewing
the “inspiring” disability role models, students most frequently reported setting
future goals related to self-improvement, making a difference in the world, and
helping others. Not only did they report feeling more positive overall, but feel-
ings of fear, frustration, and hostility were all significantly reduced. Following
the video, people with disabilities as a group were considered less scary, tragic,
or complaining. Unfortunately, these spontaneous descriptions of awe, content-
ment, and gratitude did not translate into a greater willingness to volunteer for
a campus accessibility project. We know of no other studies examining genuine
benevolence toward disabled people that have attempted to tease apart feelings
of inspiration from feelings of surprise on the basis of low expectations. Well-
intentioned compliments and the deferential posturing that occurs alongside ner-
vous, nonverbal behaviors may contribute to much of the awkwardness found
in research on “mixed-ability” interactions (Hebl, Tickle, & Heatherton, 2000).
Awkward interactions and biased intergroup perceptions and attributions also
12 Nario-Redmond, Kemerling, and Silverman

depend on the nature of the stigmatizing condition, particularly its relative visibil-
ity to the observer.

Impairment Visibility

The differential forms of prejudice confronting those with concealable stig-


mas (e.g., substance abuse, chronic illnesses, traumatic brain injuries, chemical
sensitivities) are not as well researched as those with more visibly identifiable
stigmas (Pachankis, 2007). While people with both visible and less apparent stig-
mas strive to maintain positive self-impressions, those with hidden stigmas have
more choice over whether and when to disclose their conditions, and more fear
of being discovered should their stigmas be unintentionally revealed. Although
there are many benefits to disability disclosure (see Bogart, Lund, & Rottenstein,
2018), people with less apparent stigmas sometimes intentionally hide their condi-
tions from public scrutiny to protect themselves from prejudice (Cook, Germano,
& Stadler, 2016; Goldberg, Killeen, & O’Day, 2005). For example, passing as
nondisabled is one way to cope with a stigmatized status in order to escape the
negative consequences of stereotyping and discrimination. New research demon-
strates that the mere anticipation of being stigmatized or socially devalued can
increase personal distress and undermine physical and psychological wellness
(Quinn & Chaudoir, 2009)—even when observers remain unaware of the stigma.
Actively hiding a key part of oneself can become a significant source of iso-
lation, and self-esteem threat (Hahn & Belt, 2004; Shakespeare, 1996). Worries
about the implications of deceiving others, fears of being “found out,” and diffi-
culties explaining certain outcomes (e.g., resume gaps, work restrictions, or poor
performance) can plague those who choose not to disclose a disability at work
or school (Fitzgerald & Paterson, 1995; Goldberg et al., 2005). Similarly, inaccu-
rate attributions for unusual behaviors (e.g., exhaustion, clumsiness, forgetfulness,
etc.) may be more common among those with less apparent stigmas for whom an
overarching explanation is not as readily available (e.g., a wheelchair, guide dog,
or personal assistant).
Moreover, some impairment groups are more likely to be accused of faking
disability than others, particularly those with less visible or psychiatric conditions,
whose legitimacy is often questioned if they don’t appear “disabled enough” to
qualify for support (Fitzgerald & Patterson, 1995). Accusations of fraud and fakery
have only recently been investigated among different impairment groups. For
example, people with invisible disabilities frequently report that close others and
even medical professionals invalidate their embodied experiences, assuming that
an impairment which cannot be identified or seen cannot be real (Blanck, 2011).
Without others to validate their experiences, people with less visible impairments
may begin to doubt the legitimacy of their own disability status (Fitzgerald &
Paterson, 1995). Those with concealable stigmas also confront more open hostility,
Experiences of Ableism 13

and derogatory speech by those unaware that they are deriding the very people
with whom they are communicating (Wahl, 1999).
By contrast, as previously reviewed, people with more visible (less conceal-
able) impairments seem to confront other forms of prejudice, including being
the targets of implicit biases and automatic disability stereotypes as well as ob-
jectification and unsolicited forms of helping. Some researchers have even re-
ferred to visible disability markers—such as the presence of a white cane or a
wheelchair—as “implied petitions for aid” (Cahill & Eggleston, 1995). Negoti-
ating these interactions constitutes a perpetual challenge for people with more
visible impairments.

Rationale: The Present Investigation

In an effort to better understand the experiences of disabled people with var-


ious types of ableism both overall, and as a function of impairment visibility,
we conducted a preliminary investigation. This research contributes to our under-
standing of what hostile, benevolent, and ambivalent forms of ableism look like
from the perspective of disabled people themselves who situate these experiences
within distinct contexts. This study also aims to inform those interested in testing
the SCM with rich examples that explain how ableism can move from tolerance
and praise, to open hostility and attack when intergroup circumstances change.
For example, when privileged groups lose status to those previously stereotyped
as inferior, envy may give way to anger and backlash against groups seen as
encroaching on the dominant group (Cuddy et al., 2008). Both the traditionally
negative and the more “positive,” paternalistic forms of ableism continue to re-
flect misunderstandings that what disabled people want is special treatment and
admiration rather than respect and equal rights. While ableism is most noticeably
documented in discrimination in employment, higher education, and healthcare
settings, this study extends our understanding of ableism to reveal how prejudice
both reflects and contributes to ongoing disparities, which may require distinct
interventions for change.

Method

Participants

Participants were disabled adults (N = 185), ranging from 19 to 68 years


of age (M = 36.9, SD = 12.5). Most were female (70.5%) and White (86.2%),
although 7.5% identified as multiracial, and 22.1% considered themselves His-
panic/Latino. The majority of respondents (82.7%) resided in the United States
as indicated by postal codes. However, 3.6% were from Canada, 2.9% were from
Great Britain, and another 10.8% hailed from countries, including China, England,
14 Nario-Redmond, Kemerling, and Silverman

Luxembourg, Switzerland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Australia, Denmark, and


the Netherlands. The most common impairment category was physical disability
(55.8%) followed by chronic health (38.9%), learning (33.7%), sensory (33.9%),
and psychiatric conditions (28.4%); an additional 9.5% also indicated “other dis-
abling conditions.” The majority experienced multiple impairments (71.8%), and
just over half (56.7%) described their impairments as hidden unless disclosed.
Participants reported having lived with their impairments from 1 to 68 years (M =
25.4, SD = 16.6). Among those who indicated sexual orientation, 39.6% identified
as heterosexual, 21.3% identified as homosexual, 15.8% as bisexual, and 17.1%
as none of these options; 6.1% preferred not to answer.

Materials and Procedure

Between 2015 and 2016, as part of an upcoming book project on the causes
and consequences of disability prejudice (Nario-Redmond, 2019), this exploratory
study employed an anonymous web-based data-collection system through a secure
service that hosts professional surveys in compliance with traditional confiden-
tiality standards. Recruitment notices were sent to over 60 disability-based news
blogs, social media feeds, and international advocacy sites referring people to an
accessible survey link to provide their input on how people with disabilities have
experienced prejudice. Respondents had the option of providing an anonymous
e-mail address if they wanted to be entered into a lottery for a chance to win a $20
gift certificate, but this was not required to participate. The open-ended survey
was pilot tested by five individuals who experienced physical, sensory, learning,
and/or psychiatric disabilities, and took approximately 30 minutes to complete.
Following demographic questions, participants were provided with the follow-
ing instructions: “Disability prejudice can be defined as the disrespectful treatment
of disabled people simply based on their disability status. Sometimes referred to
as ableism, disability prejudice promotes the unequal treatment of disabled people
by others, and includes but is not limited to being excluded, ignored, misunder-
stood, rejected, dismissed, avoided, pitied, envied, objectified, dehumanized, ma-
nipulated, shamed, mocked, stereotyped, overprotected, condescended to, and/or
provided with unwanted help. We recognize that people may have had many ex-
periences with disability prejudice over their lifetimes, and these experiences may
depend on interpretation and viewpoint. We ask that you respond to each question
on the basis of those personal experiences that readily come to mind as clear
examples of what you consider to be an instance of disability prejudice against
you.”
Based on Niemann, Jennings, Rozelle, Baxter, and Sullivan’s (1994) free-
response methodology, participants were asked a series of open-ended questions,
each corresponding to a particular form of ableism identified in previous re-
search. Three questions focused on the more “positive” forms of ableism including:
Experiences of Ableism 15

inspirational, paternalistic, and envious prejudice while three questions focused


on negative forms of ableism including: hostile or angry, dehumanizing or objecti-
fying, and disability-based fears of contagion or becoming impaired.2 Participants
were prompted with one question at a time: “If you have ever experienced form
of ableism, describe what happened,” and were given an unlimited comment box
within which to describe their spontaneous responses. If they had not experienced
that form of prejudice, they were instructed to just leave the box blank, and to
move on to the next question.

Data Organization

Data organization began using a team of undergraduates and disability studies


professionals, both with and without disabilities. Using an open-ended, narrative
approach, we queried respondents about six distinct categories of ableism, based on
previous theorizing, to solicit their spontaneous recollections. Consistent with the
Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR), thematic content analyses
were then applied separately to each response set by creating mutually exclu-
sive themes designed to capture the frequency of response types within each of
the six categories of ableism (O’Brien, Harris, Bechman, Reed, & Cook, 2014).
Specifically, following Nario-Redmond (2010) and Niemann et al. (1994), stu-
dent assistants worked independently to develop theme-categories to reduce the
universe of all responses to each ableism prompt separately, without reference to
participant demographics. Students were instructed to generate as many themes as
necessary to represent the data for that prompt, making sure their theme categories
were as mutually exclusive as possible. After extensive review and discussion, the
team agreed on a final set of primary theme categories for each of the six forms
of ableism assessed.
For the question prompting experiences with the benevolent or admiring form
of ableism (sometimes described as inspiration porn), four themes identified the
different contexts in which these experiences occurred: in public venues (e.g., “I
have been told I was ‘brave’ or ‘inspirational,’ usually in unremarkable situations
such as grocery shopping”); at school/work (e.g., “People at work often say I
inspired them because I work a full time job as a supervisor, go to grad school
part time, maintain and raise a family”); in medical settings (e.g., “A woman at
my chemo session said I was her hero. I never did anything out of what I consider
to be ordinary, but she said I always came in cheerful and in a good mood. She
wanted to be like that”); online or in social media (e.g., “I get a lot of people
saying how great it is that I’m ‘still able to do something’ or how my art, which
does primarily focus on my disability and illnesses ‘inspires them’; I’m not sure

2
Additional questions assessing language biases and stereotypical beliefs are not reported here.
16 Nario-Redmond, Kemerling, and Silverman

what it’s inspiring them to do. Is it inspiring them to view disabled people as real
human beings? Maybe. They never quite say.”).
Five themes emerged to reflect responses to the paternalistic or condescending
ableism prompt including: general pity (e.g., “Any time I go to church, multiple
people tell me how they are ‘praying for me to walk again’ or how much they ‘hate
to see me in a wheelchair’”); unwanted help (e.g., “I can’t go out in public long
without unwanted help offers.” “Unwanted help I get when people perceive me as
too slow. Then they grab me or my bag to speed things up”); infantilization (e.g.,
“Strangers bend down to speak to me and address me in saccharine tones. I am often
referred to as ‘sweetie’ or ‘hon’ even by people significantly younger than me”);
family overprotection (e.g., “At age nineteen, my parents and therapist coerced
me into applying for SSI because they considered me incapable of working. I had
never had a chance to try to work, so how would they know”); and invalidation
(e.g., “People frequently think they understand what I need better than I do”).
In terms of the jealous or envious ableism prompt, three primary themes
emerged that related to nondisabled persons’ resentment over material disability
accommodations (e.g., “I have been told on multiple occasions by strangers that
my parking placard is enviable”); perceived disability privileges (e.g., “People
often remark how it must be so nice not to have to go to school or work”); and
accusations of benefit exploitation (e.g., “I have been told I am lazy, exploiting
people, and even stealing from the government”).
For questions prompting experiences with the negative forms of ableism, three
themes emerged in response to the prompt about experiences with hostile or angry
ableism. The hostility themes included: verbal abuse (e.g., “My dad would call
me names like freak, maniac, lunatic, or psycho”); physical/sexual abuse (e.g.,
“I’ve experienced sexual abuse, too. I’m not sure everything I experienced, except
the physical abuse, was really coming from a place of hostility towards me”); and
general harassment (e.g., “On a crowded sidewalk in NYC where everyone was
moving slowly out of necessity, a man behind me yelled loudly ‘you’re blocking
traffic.’ He and the woman he was with followed me down 2 blocks; he was threat-
ening to dump me out of the chair”). To describe responses to the dehumanization
prompt, four themes were identified focusing on: depersonalization (e.g., “I have
at times been described as ‘a wheelchair’ as in a train conductor saying ‘I have
to get a wheelchair off the train’”); abandonment (e.g., “As I was on the ground
struggling for breath and they looked at me and kept going. I was shocked and hurt
that they could see me suffering and just stood there watching me as if I was some
sort of zoo exhibit”); physical invasion (e.g., “I am often touched, patted, grabbed
or pulled by random strangers who seem to have no idea that their behavior is inap-
propriate . . . treating me like an animal or a piece of luggage”); and delegitimized
(e.g., “I’m told on a very regular basis that I can’t have a TBI [traumatic brain
injury] because I appear so normal”). Finally, three themes emerged in response
to the prompt about others’ fears about disability including: the unworthiness of
Experiences of Ableism 17

life with disability (e.g., “I have had people tell [me] that if they ever become as ill
and disabled as I am, they would probably kill themselves and kudos to me for not
killing myself”); contagion and heritability (e.g., “Students didn’t want to sit by
me, they asked to be moved out of my class because they thought they could catch
blindness”); and general avoidance reactions (e.g., “I have had people avoid me
and even have their children avoid my son after learning about a disability”).
Following the generation of themes categories, responses to each of the six
ableism prompts were then coded by student assistants into one of the theme
categories previously defined for that prompt. While some responses incorporated
more than one theme, students were instructed to assign the one theme that best
captured the overall response. Responses to each prompt were then coded indepen-
dently by two separate raters, and interclass correlations were computed to assess
degree of agreement between the two raters. These correlations ranged from .71
to .99. Based on established guidelines (Cicchetti & Sparrow, 1981), five out of
six coefficients were in the excellent range (between .91 and .99), and one was in
the good range (between .60 and .74).

Results

Most participants reported experiences with nearly every form of ableism


assessed. The most frequently reported form of disability prejudice related to pa-
ternalistic ableism (35.5%), followed by benevolent experiences of being described
as “inspirational” for doing everyday activities (31.1%). Hostile forms of ableism
were reported by 27.2% of the sample, followed by dehumanizing/objectifying
experiences (26.6%), and envious/jealous forms of ableism (24.4%). The least
commonly reported experiences with ableism were in response to the query about
others’ disability fears (20.7%). Below are the results of the coded theme analyses
for each of the six categories of ableism, from most prevalent (patronizing forms)
to least (fear-based).

Paternalistic or Condescending Forms of Ableism

Across impairment classifications, patronizing speech and behaviors, classi-


fied as paternalistic ableism, were most commonly experienced as unwanted help
(35.0%), followed by reports of infantilization (30.0%), general pity (25.0%), in-
validation (20.0%), and overprotective families (18.3%). The frequency of some
themes also varied based on whether participant impairments were visible or hid-
den unless disclosed. Specifically, reports of unwanted help were six times more
common among those with visible (85.7%) compared to less apparent disabilities
(14.3%).
18 Nario-Redmond, Kemerling, and Silverman

I have had experiences where someone offers to show me something on a computer. When
I explain I am blind and have difficulty seeing it, they will not allow me to find a solution
but will instead try to change it in a way that they have decided will help me. They usually
do not listen to any specific needs I explain to them and will not let me help myself when I
know exactly how to set up the display for my needs. I feel anxious in these situations and
generally fear that it will escalate to them getting angry at me, usually I just pretend I can
see it after a minute or two (Person with multiple impairments, 2015).

Similarly, experiences of family overprotection were nearly twice as common


among those with visible impairments (63.6%) compared to those described as
hidden unless disclosed (36.4%); those with more visible conditions were also
more likely to report infantilizing experiences as well. By contrast, people with
less visible impairments were more apt to experience invalidation by doctors,
family, and friends who questioned the legitimacy of their conditions (58.3%)
compared to those with more visible impairments (41.7%). Both groups similarly
reported experiences of general pity.

Benevolent or Admiring Forms of Ableism

Among those who described experiences with “inspiration porn,” many noted
the specific contexts in which these reactions occurred. Twenty-five percent of the
sample described being approached by strangers who felt compelled to tell them
how inspiring they were for being out in public. Others (23.2%) recalled incidents
of being told they were inspirational for participating in the workforce or going to
school; fewer (12.5%) reported these experiences in medical contexts, or of being
the target of online stories about the heroic supercrip (5.0%) used to characterize
disabled people more generally (Schalk, 2016).

I have probably been told I am inspirational on at least a weekly basis. In one memorable
instance, a creepy guy at the gym came up and told me that I inspired him to go exercise.
He explained that he has some kind of knee discomfort and often feels unmotivated to go
to the gym, but then when he remembers seeing me at the gym, it gives him the push he
needs to get up and go. Besides being creeped out by his general demeanor, the comment
(and others like it) make me feel, for lack of a better word, small. I feel as if I am being
compared unfavorably to them. People feel inspired by me because they see me as weak and
then they see themselves as stronger when they compare themselves to me. It feels insulting
to be compared to people who are in completely different situations. Also, after receiving
so many of these types of comments, it is difficult for me to recognize and accept genuine
compliments from others (Person with a sensory impairment, 2015).

Similar to experiences of unwanted help, those with visible impairments


(85.7%) were more likely to be approached in public as inspirational role models
than those with less apparent conditions (14.3%); however, those with hidden
disabilities (53.8%) tended to report more experiences of benevolent prejudice at
work/school, and in medical settings (57.1%) than their more readily identifiable
counterparts (46.2%, 42.9%, respectively).
Experiences of Ableism 19

Hostile or Angry Forms of Ableism

Across participants, verbal abuse and ridicule (67.3%) were more commonly
reported than physical or sexual assaults (30.6%), or instances of general harass-
ment (20.4%). While physical hostility did not vary by impairment visibility, those
with more visibly identifiable conditions tended to report more experiences of ha-
rassment (60%) and verbal abuse (57.6%) than those with less apparent conditions
(40% and 42.4%, respectively).

Envious or Jealous Forms of Ableism

Respondent experiences of jealous ableism most frequently took the form of


envy over material accommodations (43.2%), jealousy over perceived disability
privileges (31.3%), and accusations of benefit exploitation (34.1%). Specifically,
envy over material resources often pertained to nondisabled others’ wanting spe-
cific ADA accommodations like extra time on tests, books on tape, and the ever-
coveted disability parking placard. Those with more visible impairments were only
slightly more likely to be the targets of material accommodation jealousy (57.9%)
compared to those whose impairments were hidden (42.1%). By contrast, people
with less apparent disabilities were more likely to be berated for getting time off
work and other “special privileges” (68.8%), or for “exploiting the system” (73%)
compared to their more identifiable counterparts (31.3% and 26.7%, respectively).

Dehumanizing or Objectifying Forms of Ableism

Among the most commonly reported experiences of dehumanization re-


lated to feelings of objectification and depersonalization (44.7%), followed by
physical invasions of privacy (36.2%), abandonment/neglect (34.0%), and de-
legitimization (14.9%). Experiences of physical invasion, which included being
grabbed or touched without consent or having one’s equipment moved, were three
times more common among those with visible impairments (75.0%) compared
to those without (25.0%). However, those with less apparent conditions (71.4%)
were more than twice as likely to report experiences of being delegitimized or
discounted compared to those with more identifiable conditions (28.6%). Expe-
riences with being ignored/abandoned and being objectified/depersonalized were
reported with similar frequencies across those with visible (46.7% and 47.6%),
and less apparent conditions (53.3% and 52.4%), respectively.

Disability Fear-Based Forms of Ableism

Among those who reported incidents of others’ expressed fears about dis-
ability, three consistent themes emerged. The first focused on existential concerns
20 Nario-Redmond, Kemerling, and Silverman

that life would be over, or that they would rather be dead if they became disabled
(42.1%).

I have had people tell that if they ever become as ill and disabled as I am, they would
probably kill themselves and kudos to me for not killing myself. Though thankfully that
doesn’t happen too often. When it does, I just look at them like “what?” because the lack
of common sense always takes me back a bit (Person with multiple impairments, 2015).

Additional themes related to people extolling their fears of catching disability


or passing it on to future generations (29.0%), and fears that manifested as general
avoidance (10.5%). In terms of variations as a function of impairment visibility,
existential fears about becoming disabled and fears of disability contagion were
more commonly reported by those with less apparent conditions (62.5% and
70%) than those with more visible impairments (37.5% and 30%), respectively.
Experiences with general avoidance were reported with equal frequency (50%) by
both groups.

Discussion

While studies of disability prejudice are now emerging that extend beyond
negative attitudes and impairment-specific stigmas, few have documented the per-
sonal experiences of ableism that confront disabled people as a minority group.
This study is among the first to describe the varied ways ableism manifests from
the perspective of people with both visible and less apparent disabilities. Across
our diverse, international sample, people from all impairment groups reported
experiences with hostile, benevolent, and ambivalent forms of prejudice. Among
the most pervasively reported type of ableism related to paternalistic prejudice,
and particularly experiences of imposed or presumptive help. Furthermore, family
overprotection, infantilization, and unwanted help were all more common among
people with visible impairments, who were also more likely to be the targets of
privacy invasions without their consent. Objectification in the form of inspira-
tion porn was also more frequently reported by those with more visible disability
markers—simply for appearing in public. Those with more identifiable impair-
ments were also more frequently confronted by public harassment and verbal abuse
than their less recognizable counterparts. Finally, those with visible impairments
reported more experiences with envious forms of ableism—primarily because
they were receiving material accommodations in order to participate at work or
school.
For those with more concealable disabilities, ableism was more likely to
manifest as discounting the legitimacy of their embodied experiences in ad-
dition to invalidating their status as disabled, which felt dehumanizing. Those
with less apparent conditions were also more likely to be accused of exploit-
ing the welfare system and taking advantage of “special privileges,” including
Experiences of Ableism 21

time off work. Reports of others’ fears, particularly about catching disability or
devaluing the lives of disabled people were also more commonly recalled among
those with less apparent conditions. This result is inconsistent with previous the-
orizing about the presumed importance of visible markers to contagion fears;
however, some research has documented that overgeneralized fears of contamina-
tion extend to those with less visible conditions including cancer and psychiatric
disability (Kouznetsova et al., 2012). While speculative, the lower prevalence of
fear-based forms of ableism found in this study overall may reflect how subtle,
nonverbal avoidance reactions may be encoded more implicitly, making them less
accessible to explicit recollection (Ackerman et al., 2009; Hovdestad & Kris-
tiansen, 1996).
This exploratory study is not without its limitations. First and foremost, our
sample, while diverse was collected by convenience as part of a larger project on
the causes and consequences of disability prejudice (Nario-Redmond, 2019). Our
results therefore, are not representative of the population of people with disabilities
in the United States or abroad and may not generalize. Future research should
examine the prevalence of specific experiences with ableism using more concurrent
methodologies, including diary methods to avoid problems with retrospective
memory. Furthermore, while participants with visible and less apparent conditions
included multiple impairment groups, we did not have sufficient sample sizes to
analyze the data by impairment type or other demographic classifications, nor to
compute nonparametric statistics.
Nevertheless, this work illustrates how the SCM can apply to many forms
of ableism. Consistent with model predictions (Fiske, 2012), disabled people de-
scribed many experiences with paternalistic forms of prejudice often associated
with groups stereotyped as warm and incompetent. This manifested in experiences
of condescension, unwanted help, and invalidation. Patronizing speech and sym-
pathetic gestures are often masked as well-intended. That is, the person expressing
this type of prejudice often does not realize the harmful effects of pity or over-
helping (Fehr & Sassenberg, 2009; Wang et al., 2015). Though well–intended,
unsolicited, or “assumptive help” can be psychologically threatening because it
implies that the recipient lacks the competence or skills to complete tasks in-
dependently (Gilbert & Silvera, 1996). Consistent with early research, some of
our respondents reported instigating anger among those whose imposed help they
rebuffed (Katz et al., 1978). Paternalistic prejudice also works to maintain the
inferior status of its targets because it only appears to be prosocial. Yet, people
fail to recognize its harmfulness to the integrity, autonomy, and authority of dis-
abled subjects, which perpetuates awkward interactions between well–intentioned
others and those who seek to be treated as fully human citizens and reciprocal
friends.
On the individual target level, the negative impacts of overhelping are well-
documented and range from lowered self-esteem to assistive equipment damage
22 Nario-Redmond, Kemerling, and Silverman

(Braithwaite & Eckstein, 2003; Schneider, Major, Luhtanen, & Crocker, 1996).
On a policy level, paternalistic beliefs can be used to justify practices limiting
autonomy, such as the forced medication or the institutionalization of people with
psychiatric disabilities; policies allowing forced guardianship of adults deemed
decisionally incompetent (Sherry, 2016); or cutbacks to programs that protect
independent living (e.g., the Home and Community Based Supports (HCBS)
waiver program). Pitying beliefs also lead to misguided acts of charity, such as
those that search for “cures,” rather than support accommodations. In addition,
the invalidation of invisible disabilities contributes to a culture wherein doctors
and other professionals are expected to act as gatekeepers, controlling access to
disability-related resources, rather than allowing individuals with disabilities to
present as the experts on their own needs.
Our study also extends the SCM by documenting forms of ambivalent ableism
that manifest as jealous envy toward groups increasing in social status. Groups who
are envied are generally viewed as competent but cold—likely to compete unfairly
for scarce resources. When disability-related access needs are misunderstood as
special privileges rather than civil rights, antipathy can result. One of our survey
respondents reported that a boss once denied her a reasonable accommodation
at work on the basis that, “everyone will want it.” On the policy level, practices
favoring the rights of businesses over the rights of disabled customers may also
emerge from a belief that disabled people are trying to scam the system. For
example, the recently proposed ADA Reform and Education Act would make
it substantially more difficult for a disabled person to file an access complaint
against a business. Given the diversity of human needs and capabilities—which
are not always the same (e.g., sometimes a wheelchair user chooses to use their
crutches)—jealous reactions may contribute to ongoing misunderstandings and
perpetuate inequality.
Perhaps the forms of ableism most well documented in previous research are
the clearly negative experiences that include dehumanization, anger, and avoid-
ance. Consistent with the BIASM/SCM, some of the prejudices we documented
reflected both contempt and disgust toward those typically stereotyped as cold and
incompetent—groups at risk of being denied humanity. Contempt toward disabled
people also manifests in the form of disability hate crimes, an underreported, but
significant social problem. According to the FBI, there were 128 disability-related
hate crimes reported in 2017, up from 76 in 2016 (Heasley, 2018; McKinney,
2018). The very fact that many of these crimes go unreported to law enforcement,
and are not covered by the media, reflects society’s indifference. Clearly, perpetra-
tors target those whose conditions are difficult to conceal—although experiences
of abuse by members of the family or service providers are also well-documented
across impairment groups once people become aware of others’ disability status
(Sherry, 2016).
Experiences of Ableism 23

Healthcare policies can also be influenced by the beliefs that a disabled life is
less worthy than a nondisabled life. For example, in some states, disabled people
have been denied organ transplants or placed in line behind nondisabled recipi-
ents (Ne’eman, Kapp, & Narby, 2018). In 2016, one terminally ill woman found
that California’s End of Life Option Act made it easier for her to end her life
than to continue it (insurance covered a suicide drug, but not treatment). In 2018,
the act was overturned, but affording treatment remains a persistent difficulty for
many disabled people. Moreover, several survey respondents reported experienc-
ing dehumanization in medical settings (e.g., being referred to as “an interesting
case,” rather than a real, human patient). These attitudes negatively affect disabled
people’s quality of care and sense of self-worth, and many respondents reported
feeling ashamed of their disability in these situations. Contempt or disgust felt
toward disabled people may also contribute to reduced funding or support of es-
sential disability programs, like inclusive education, rehabilitation, and in home
personal care.
Contemporary forms of eugenics now aim to improve the human species
using genetic technologies to eradicate disability if not before birth then after-
wards through assisted suicide or other “merciful” practices designed to eliminate
those considered defective or causing burdensome, unnecessary suffering. Future
research is needed to disentangle the motivations driving these distinct forms of
hostile ableism. For example, the high incidence of rape and sexual assault of
people with disabilities (Sherry, 2016) may be driven more by fears of becom-
ing disabled and dehumanizing ideologies than by fears of contagion. Believing
that humans are superior to animals is a strong predictor of intergroup anxieties
and avoidance. This begs the question of whether a promising avenue for future
research involves cultivating an appreciation of our essential creatureliness as a
pathway toward humanizing others: recognizing the self as an equal member of
the animal family (Taylor, 2017).
Finally, among the least researched forms of disability prejudice is the type
that seems to reflect genuine interest and benevolent admiration (Fiske et al., 2007).
Survey respondents reported that this form of ableism most often occurs in public
and from strangers. Many nondisabled people remain unaware of the messages
behind their benevolent comments—like the implication that disabled lives are
tragic, so simply living them is admirable. When disabled people are viewed
as inspirational for participating in mundane activities like grocery shopping,
the implication is that society’s disability expectations are discouragingly low.
If others hold lower expectations of disabled compared to nondisabled people,
they may not view them as capable of the same academic or career opportunities.
Furthermore, in the disability context—admiration is often extended only to some
individuals like those actively trying to overcome their disabilities. For example,
some benefit programs reward disabled people for not working and penalize those
who do. Alternatively, admiration may be contingent on certain behaviors (e.g.,
24 Nario-Redmond, Kemerling, and Silverman

admiring those who excel at a sport). An implication is that only some disabled
people are deserving of equal treatment—as if there is a right and wrong way
to be disabled. Furthermore, inspirational comments are often triggered by those
portrayed as having a "positive attitude," which can be dangerous if, as a result,
policymakers assume that disabled people do not need accommodations if they
could just try a little harder and smile more.
At the interpersonal level, Hebl et al. (2000) noted that both disabled and
nondisabled people approach interactions with caution, and misinterpret one an-
other when “admiring” intentions result in intrusive inquiries and overcompensa-
tion that make neither party feel particularly understood. It isn’t surprising that so
much research has been done investigating the awkwardness of “mixed-ability in-
teractions” that communicate confusion, mistrust, and a sense of mistaken identity
(Hebl et al., 2000). More research is needed to tease apart how low perceiver ex-
pectations coupled with the anticipation of stigma from targets (Pachankis, 2007)
combine to perpetuate myths that disabled lives are always tragic and suffering
instead of satisfying and worthwhile.
In fact, those who view disabled people as tragic or deserving of pity usually
harbor feelings of superiority contributing to neglect, exclusion, and exploitation.
Adopting the slogan, “Piss on Pity,” many disability advocates condemn using
people with disabilities as objects of pity to raise money for charitable campaigns
(Cole & Johnson, 1994). Why would employers want to recruit and hire those
they pity? Employers clearly need more information based on research show-
ing that once hired, disabled people are considered highly reliable, valued, and
recommended to other employers (Dixon, Kruse, & Van Horn, 2003; Graffam,
Shinkfield, Smith, & Plozin, 2002).
Alternatively, those who envy disabled people for their success may attribute
their progress to “special privileges” that contribute to feelings of resentment,
and justify retaliatory actions to rectify what appears to be an unfair advantage
(Brown, 1997; Sherry, 2016). When disabled people are viewed with contempt
and disgust, dehumanizing actions can follow, along with justifications for hate,
segregation, and harassment on the basis of their illegitimate or less than human
status (Baynton, 2013). By contrast, when disabled people are viewed as admirable,
are these feelings driven by genuine inspiration that motivate active facilitation
and aspirations for self-improvement? Perhaps feelings of awe simply reflect the
experience of surprise whenever low expectations for the group are exceeded,
which may undermine the recognition of valid achievements and the awareness of
discriminatory barriers. These questions remain unanswered.
Future research is also needed to examine how distinct forms of ableism
impact different target groups, and how these impacts affect target reactions and
their outcomes. This is important both to understand the impacts of different
responses to ableism on disabled people, and to learn how to mitigate and address
ableism on individual and institutional levels.
Experiences of Ableism 25

Our study reveals that individual experiences of prejudice both reflect and con-
tribute to ongoing disparities that likely accrue to institutional forms of ableism
and policies that discriminate. Improving and addressing disability rights through
legislation is certainly one step toward addressing those disparities. For example,
the Disability Integration Act of 2017 seeks to protect the civil rights of disabled
people by providing them with better at-home care, when needed. Many activist
groups are addressing ableism by advocating for increased accessibility. Project
Visitability, which is hosted by the National Council on Independent Living, is
working to ensure that new homes are built with physical accessibility in mind
(visitiability.org). However, if we want to see real progress in addressing housing,
employment, and income disparities, a widespread shift of culture and attitudes
toward disability is necessary. Changing the culture means better and more accu-
rate representation of disability in the media (giving platforms to disabled writers,
actors, and artists), considering disability when discussing diversity, and promot-
ing the inclusion of disability history and culture in academic curriculums (both
higher education and K–12 education). These solutions extend to disability in-
clusion and intercultural competency training in workplaces, and especially for
healthcare professionals and police officers.
Disabled people are often at a disadvantage, not because of their impairments,
but because of the way society views them. We know surprisingly little about how
to most effectively shift the public narrative about the social determinants of
disability. Yet the normative window of change is opening to the reconsideration
of what should qualify as ableism: what insults, what harms, what failures of
policy are now being called into question as ableist that used to be considered
acceptable? Just a few years ago, psychologists were not asking questions about
ableism because we were guided by faulty assumptions about impairment as the
primary cause of disabling conditions. We have also failed to recognize disabled
people as a minority group subject to many of the same (and some distinct)
prejudices as other groups. What is exciting is that we can now bring more social
scientific theory and multimethod approaches to bear to better understand the
complexity of ableist phenomena and to provide more nuanced solutions.

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MICHELLE REYNA NARIO-REDMOND is a professor of psychology and the


biomedical humanities specializing in stereotyping, prejudice, and disability stud-
ies. She graduated from the University of Kansas with a PhD in social psychology,
and her research focuses on group identification and political advocacy; strategies
for coping with prejudice; and the unintended consequences of simulating dis-
ability. Some of her work is published in Basic and Applied Psychology, British
Journal of Social Psychology, Emerging Adulthood, Personality and Social Psy-
chology Bulletin, Perspectives on Psychological Science, Self and Identity, and
Social Cognition. She contributed chapters to the Handbook of Positive Psy-
chological Interventions, Disability: Social Psychological Perspectives, and her
newly released book is called Ableism: The Causes and Consequences of Dis-
ability Prejudice, for the Contemporary Social Issues Series of the Society for
the Psychological Study of Social Issues. She is passionate about social justice,
Universal Design for Learning and increasing access to higher education.

ALEXIA KEMERLING is a fourth-year undergraduate student pursuing a bach-


elor’s degree in Creative Writing. Alexia is passionate about disability studies
Experiences of Ableism 31

and disability rights activism. She works as a research assistant for Dr. Michelle
Nario-Redmond and has presented alongside her at the Society for the Psychologi-
cal Study of Social Issues international conference in Albuquerque, N.M. “Hostile
and Benevolent Forms of Ableism: Fear, Pity, Dehumanization, Jealousy.” Alexia
has published writing about her own disability experiences in The Mighty and Ya-
hoo Lifestyle. She serves on the board for the Hiram Farm, a nonprofit organization
that employs developmentally disabled adults. Alexia is also leading an initiative
to improve the disability services and accessibility of her college campus.

ARIELLE SILVERMAN is an independent consultant specializing in disability


research and inclusion training for nonprofit organizations. She completed a PhD
in social psychology at the University of Colorado Boulder, and a postdoctoral
fellowship in rehabilitation medicine at the University of Washington. She has pub-
lished research on the causes and consequences of ableism; effects of simulating
disability; the importance of disability friendship; resilience after acquired disabil-
ity; and braille literacy for blind people. She has published articles in Personality
and Social Psychology Bulletin, Disability and Rehabilitation, Rehabilitation Psy-
chology, and the Journal of Blindness Innovation and Research. Dr. Silverman also
hosts a weekly disabilities education blog (https://www.disabilitywisdom.com/).
She is passionate about making research findings accessible to lay audiences and
is also involved in disability advocacy.

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