EXAMINATION OF THE PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY MODULE

Examination of the Production Technology 1 module consists of two parts:

• Written exam 80% of the total mark

• Assessed coursework accounts for 20% of the mark
 Programme Code: G19 PA
Course Code:
TZ1 (Office Use Only)

INSTITUTE OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY

PRODUCTION TECHNOLGY 1
Monday, Xth May 201X

2 Hours

This is a closed book examination

1. This paper consists of 6 questions. Attempt any 4 numbered questions from 6.

Each question has equal weighting of 25 marks.

If more questions are attempted than stated above, they will be marked in the order they
appear in the scripts until the requisite number has been marked. All remaining answers
will be disregarded.

2. Answers must be written in this question paper.

3. The coloured book(s) may be used for additional writing, if required. Clearly
indicate in the question paper if part of your answer is in the coloured book(s).

4. Marks for each question are shown in brackets.

5. Attach the examination paper to the coloured book(s) using the tag provided.

6. Put your name and registration number on the front page of the coloured book(s)
in the space provided.

7. All answers must be written in ink, please do not use pencil.

8. State clearly any assumptions used and intermediate calculations made in

numerical questions. When using charts – draw on the chart to show how they
were used. No marks can be given for an answer if the method of calculation is
not presented.

9. Unit Conversion Tables are included.

Question 1

1. The flow characteristics of a hydrocarbon in a vertical tubing string vary as the position
of the fluid in the tubing varies. Describe fully, the main flow regimes that would
be encountered in a well producing fluid from a reservoir containing oil and dissolved gas.
The flowing bottomhole pressure is above the bubble point pressure.
[25]

(1a) Each of the phases, both gaseous and liquid, have individual properties
such as density and viscosity which will be a function of pressure and
temperature and hence of position in the well.

(1) Gas Liquid Mixtures

In the production of a reservoir containing oil and gas in solution, it
is preferable to maintain the flowing bottom hole pressure above the
bubble point so that single phase oil flows through the reservoir pore
space.

Consider such a case where oil flowing from the reservoir enters the
production tubing. The flow of oil up the tubing and the associated
pressure profile is illustrated in the Figure. The oil enters the tubing
at a flowing pressure above the bubble point and hence no separate gas
phase exists. The changing nature of the flow up the tubing can be
considered in various stages from the base of the tubing.

(a) Single phase liquid will occur in tubing whilst PTUB > PBUB. The
pressure gradient is primarily influenced by the density of the liquid
phase and is thus dominated by the hydrostatic head component of
the pressure loss. Liquid expansion may contribute to a very slight
reduction in liquid density and thence the hydrostatic gradient.

(b) At the bubble point, the first gas is evolved which will:
(i) Lower the average density of the fluids in the tubing
(ii) Increase the in-situ velocity

The gas is present in the form of discrete bubbles dispersed within

continuous oil phase. The flow regime is termed “bubble flow” and the
pressure gradient will decline provided the decrease in the hydrostaic
head pressure loss exceeds the increase in the frictional pressure loss.
(c) With continued upwards flow, the pressure on the fluid declines. The
decline in pressure on the fluid will cause:

(i) Expansion of the liquid phase

Annular - Mist Flow

Froth - Flow Transition

Slug - Flow Regime

Bubble Expansion & Coalescence

Bubble - Flow Regime

Bubble Generation

Single Phase Liquid Flow

(ii) Evolution of additional gas components-increasingly heavier

molecules-resulting in an increased mass of hydrocarbon in the gas
phase. A simultaneous reduction of the mass of the liquid phase will
accompany this mass transfer. the concentration of heavier
components in both the gas and liquid phases would increase.

(iii) Expansion of the existing gas phase

This section of the tubing would demonstrate a continuously declining

pressure gradient provided the decrease in the hydrostatic component
exceeded the increasing frictional gradient

The above mechanisms will occur continuously as flow occurs up the

tubing.

(d) As the flow continues higher up the tubing, the number and size of gas
bubbles will increase until such a point that the fraction of the tubing
volume occupied by gas is so large that it leads to bubble coalescence.
The coalescence of bubbles will yield a “slug flow” regime
characterised by the upward rise of slugs of gas segregated by
continuous liquid columns. the upwards movement of the slugs will act as
a major mechanism to lift oil to surface.
 (e) Often, as velocity continues to increase in the slug flow regime, it may
be possible that a froth type transitional flow occurs where both the
oil and gas phases are mutually dispersed, i.e. niether is continuous.

(f) With continued upward movement, further gas expansion and

liberation will occur, resulting in slug expansion and coalescence,
leading to slug enlargement and eventually “annular flow”. In annular
flow, the gas flows up the centre of the tubing with oil flow
occurring as a continuous film on the inside wall of the tubing.

(g) At extremely high velocities of the central gas column, shear at the
gas-oil interface can lead to oil dispersion in the gas in the form of a
“mist”. This “mist flow” pattern will occur at very high flow velocities
in the tubing and for systems with a high gas-oil ratio GOR.

It is possible that, as flow nears the surface, the increase in frictional

pressure gradient exceeds the reduction in the hydrostatic pressure
gradient and in such cases, the total pressure gradient in the tubing
may start to increase.

(h) At very high flow velocities, the movement of liquid may occur
predominantly as a mist of liquid particles compared to being an
annular film.

These flow patterns have been observed by a number of investigators

who have conducted experiments with air-water mixtures in visual flow
columns.

End of question 1
Question 2

1. Explain what is annulus heading and why it is technically detrimental.

[6]

When the tubing annulus is fully or partly open to the production gas-liquid flow it
may start filling with gas. Once it is filled it can start releasing some volumes
of gas (gas slugs) into the tubing, often causing severe pressure and production
phase oscillations. The outcomes of this include unstable production and
transportation; equipment exposed to unfavourable, cyclic conditions; and less
efficient fluid separation.

2. Explain what is slip effect and liquid hold-up and how they are related.
[7]

The slip effect takes place in multiphase flow situations: one phase can move
faster than the other. E.G. slippage occurs in liquid-gas mixtures where the gas flow
velocity is higher than that for the liquid, mainly due to the buoyancy forces
acting on the lighter gas phase.

Liquid hold-up is the volume fraction of pipe (or average fraction of pipe internal
cross-section) occupied by liquids in-situ.

The faster moving gas requires less area to flow, so the slippage causes the
liquid hold-up to increase. This results in the higher volume of pipe occupied by
liquids and, as a result, in higher weight of the fluid column (i.e. hydrostatic head).

3. Plot inflow and outflow curves for an oil producing well on the same Pwf vs. Qoil axes:

3000
bottomhole flowing pressure, Pwf (psi)

0)
C>
(W
PR
2000 O
IPR
IPC

)
(+gas
OPR
1000
IPR (WC>70)

IPR (+gas)
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000

flow rate, q (b/d)

The outflow curve would move up because higher Pwf is needed to produce the heavier
oil-water mixture.
 1000
IPR (WC>70)

bottomh
IPR (+gas)
3.1
Sketch in dashed 0 lines what would happen to the inflow/outflow curves after water
breakthrough. Explain
0 why
2000you expect
4000 this behaviour.
6000 Assume the average reservoir
8000
pressure stays the same.
flow rate, q (b/d)
[7]

The outflow curve would move up because higher Pwf is needed to produce the heavier
oil-water mixture.

The inflow curve would decrease faster since the oil PI would decrease due to the
e.g. relative permeability effect.

3.2
Sketch in dotted lines what would happen to the inflow/outflow curves after gas
breakthrough. Explain why you expect this behaviour. Assume the average reservoir
pressure stays the same.
[5]

The outflow curve would move down because lower Pwf is needed to produce the
lighter oil-gas mixture.

The inflow curve would decrease faster since the oil PI would decrease due to
the e.g. relative permeability effect.

End of question 2

Question 3

A well and reservoir have the following completion and reservoir data. There is zero water cut.

depth of tubing 6000ft

average reservoir pressure, Pr 2700psi g
PI (linear) 2.3b/d/psi
wellhead pressure, Pwh 160psi g
gas liquid ratio 400scf/b
tubing diameter 4in

Determine the bottomhole flowing pressure.

[25]

Figures 1 to 4 are the required Flowing Gradient Curves

 Pressure in 100 PSIG
0 160psi 4 8 12 1280psi 16 20 24 28
0

1
Vertical Flowing
Pressure Gradients
(All Oil)
Tubing Size 4in. I.D.
2 Producing Rate 1000 Bbls/Day
Oil API Gravity 35º API
Gas Specific Gravity 0.65
2600
Average Flowing Temp. 140º F

4
Length in 1000 Feet

7
G
as

0
/L
iq

25
ui

8
d
R
at
io
-S

50
C

8600
F
Pe
rB

9
BL

100

10
800 600 500 400 300 200
1000
3000
1200
Figure 1
2000 1500

Figure 1
 1000psi Pressure in 100 PSIG
0 160psi 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
0

1
Vertical Flowing
Pressure Gradients
(All Oil)
Tubing Size 4in. I.D.
2 Producing Rate 2000 Bbls/Day
2100
Oil API Gravity 35º API
Gas Specific Gravity 0.65
Average Flowing Temp. 140º F

4
Length in 1000 Feet

7
G
as

0
/L
iq

25
u

8
id

8100
R
at
io

50
-S
C
F
Pe
r

9
BB
L

100

10
600 500 400 300 200
800
1500 1000
Figure 2
1200

Figure 2
 Pressure in 100 PSIG
1085
0 160psi 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
0

1
Vertical Flowing
Pressure Gradients
(All Oil)
1800 Tubing Size 4in. I.D.
2 Producing Rate 3000 Bbls/Day
Oil API Gravity 35º API
Gas Specific Gravity 0.65
Average Flowing Temp. 140º F

4
Length in 1000 Feet

7
G
as

0
/L
iq

7800
u

8 25
id
R
at
io
-S

50
C
F
Pe
rB

9
BL

100

10
800 600 500 400 300 200
1000
1200 Figure 3
1500

Figure 3
 Pressure in 100 PSIG
0 160psi 4 8 1160psi12 16 20 24 28
0

1
Vertical Flowing
Pressure Gradients
1500 (All Oil)
Tubing Size 4in. I.D.
2 Producing Rate 4000 Bbls/Day
Oil API Gravity 35º API
Gas Specific Gravity 0.65
Average Flowing Temp. 140º F

4
Length in 1000 Feet

7
Gas
/ Liq

7500
0
uid R

8 25
atio

50
- SC
F Pe

9 100
r BB
L

10
600 500 400 300 200
800
1000
1200 Figure 4

Figure 4
(i) The Productivity Index is described by
q
PI =
Pr Pwf
q
Pwf = Pr
PI
q
Pwf = 2700
2.3

The Inflow Performance Relationship is developed by assuming

several flow rates

flow rate, q flowing bottomhole pressure, Pwf

0 2700
1000 2265
6210 0
ii) For the given tubing and fluid properties, assume various flow rates
and calculate the flowing bottomhole pressure required to flow the
fluid up the tubing at that particular flow rate. Try the following
flow rates:

1 2 3 4
flow rate, b/d 1000 2000 3000 4000
equivalent depth of top 2600 2100 1800 1500
of tubing, ft
equivalent depth of 8600 8100 7800 7500
bottom of tubing, ft
flowing bottomhole 1280 1000 1085 1160
pressure, psi
 The IPR and the IPC are plotted below

3000

bottomhole flowing pressure, Pwf (psi) 2000

IPR
IPC

1000

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000

flow rate, q (b/d)

The operating point is where the two curves intersect: 3602b/d, 1134psi in the plot
Also check:

q
PI =
Pr Pwf
3602
Pwf = 2700
2.3
= 1134psi

End of question 3
Question 4

(a) List up to 5 key features for both Rod Pumps and Gas Lift that form the basis of the
following statement:

“Worldwide, 85% of Artificial Lift equipment installed is rod pumps. This is mainly in stripper wells
while gas lift is the most popular artificial lift technique for higher rate wells”.
[13]

Rod Pump
* Typically low rates and moderate depths
* Relatively cheap to install & run
* Rod pumps are mechanically simple to operate and easy to repair/
maintain/replace. Can be operated by inexperienced personnel
* Sensitive to gas and solids (wax/scale/sand) - Solids can damage
moving parts
* Not suitable for (highly) deviated wells
* Obtrusive in urban locations. Heavy equipment for location offshore
* Pump can be easily changed and performance monitored
* (reasonably) Viscous oil can be handled

Gas Lift
* Capable of high production rates
* Suitable for water drive reservoirs with relatively high bottomhole
pressure gradients
* The above, coupled to high well Productivity Indices and high
formation permeabilities result in a high Flowing Bottom Hole
Pressure, limiting achievable reservoir depletion
* Gas has to be available
* Wireline serviceable up to 65˚ deviation
* Flexible - valve settings can be adjusted for optimum performance
based on actual, well conditions
* Can be used off-shore
* Fully open tubing giving access for logging
* Tubing, and annular surface controlled, subsurface safety valves available
* Limited surface requirements once gas available
* Forgiving of poor design & operation, but difficult to run efficiently
* Can handle (tolerate) produced solids e.g. reasonable formation sand
concentrations
* High GOR => advantage rather than a drawback

N.B. Only 5 items are required from each of the above lists

(b) Most gas lift fields have insufficient gas to lift all the wells at their (technical) maximum
production. Briefly describe the process of optimal allocation of available lift gas;
mentioning the key economic parameters involved.
[12]
 Optimal allocation of Lift Gas
* Allocate each increment of gas to that well with the highest
incremental oil production until all gas allocated.
* Implies slope of (net oil/lift gas rate) should be the same for each well.
* A brief description of the process is as follows:
* Perform a gas lift tubing performance calculation with a range of
injected gas flow rates for each well in the field. Then, plot the
results on a curve of liquid flow rate achieved versus injected gas
rate. Each well has its own characteristics (geometry and flow capacity)
and will show a different rate of oil production increase with
incremental increase on the gas lift injection rate.
* Calculate the incremental oil production rate in each well for each
extra increment of gas injected.
* Allocate each increment of gas to that well with the highest
incremental oil production until all gas allocated.
* Implies slope of (net oil/lift gas rate) should be the same for each well.
* This is a complex process that has many variables such as gas
availability, number of wells, etc, and even becomes even more
complicated by those wells that require kick-off lift gas.
* There is software available to assist with this analysis.

Bonus points
* Check economic limit, when cost of incremental lift gas equals
income from incremental oil not exceeded
* Chosen rates should be sufficiently far from technical maximum
production (where extra gas decreases production rate) to avoid
unstable well operation.

End of question 4
Question 5

Figure 1: Oil field production profile

1. Copy this sketch to the answer book and name the different production stages as the oil field is produced.

2. Describe the events that are occurring during each stage that lead to the above production profile.

[8]

Plateau Well Stimulation;

Recompletion improved oil recovery
Production
Pr
Oil Production Rate

Discovery of Field

od
d-Up
Project sanction

uc

n Field Abandonment
tio

De
n Buil

c lin
First oil

e
uctio
Prod

Operating Expenses (Oil Equivalent)

Appraisal Well and production Production optimisation

Phase system constuction
Time

Build-up – drilling out the field and bringing the wells on production gradually;

plateau – stable production limited by surface capacity;

Decline – oil rate decreases due to pressure depletion and water production
increase

The decline phase can be extended as specified

Field abandonment happens when the field production becomes uneconomic

(B) Describe the application of the Sliding Side Doors and Landing Nipples

[6]

Nipples can be used for pressure testing, plugging, gauge placement, flow tube/
puncher placement;

SSD can be used for zonal isolation or production, well killing/circulation,

gas/chemical injection, production via annulus

(C) A well completion schematic view is shown in Figure 2. It was designed to produce volatile oil at high
rates from a high pressure reservoir. Illustrate this by discussing at least 2 features of this completion.

[11]

9 5/8" Production Casing

Hydraulic Control Line

Surface Controlled Sub Surface

Safety Valve

7" Hydril Production Tubing

Wireline Operated
Sliding Side Door
Extra Long Tubing Seal
Receptacle with Nipple and
Anchor Seals on the Slick Joint

Permanent Packer Wireline Set

Mill-out Extension

4” Hydril Tailpipe

Nipple

Perforated Tube

Landing Nipple

7" Production Liner

Figure 2: Schematic view of a well completion string

 High diameter tubing implies high rates to reduce the friction pressure losses.

Extra long seal can accommodate tubing movement due to hot, high rate fluid
inflow

No provision for artificial lift indicate there might be enough gas dissolved
(i.e. volatile oil) to help lift the liquid to surface as well as the reservoir
pressure will be sufficiently high

Hydril couplings provide extra seal against gas leak

End of question 5

Question 6

(A) Sketch a pressure profile curve (on the plot with well depth as y-axis and pressure as x-axis) in a
well which is unable to flow naturally. Add a drawing to show what will change if gas lift is
installed. Add a drawing to illustrate how a production rate increase can be achieved when the
operating gas lift valve is installed deeper in this well.

[10]

Zero pressure at wellhead

Q=0

Static Liquid Level in

Tubing and Annulus
St
at
ic
Fl
iu
d
Depth

Pr
e ss
ur
e
G
ra
di
en
t

Preservoir
Pressure Preservoir = PR
Production Rate

hi
p

1 (a) The well is unable to start flowing flow ns

la ti o
naturally due to low reservoir pressure Re
ce
ma n
erfor
Inflow P
 To Separator / Storage Tank

Injection Gas
Choke Partially
Open

Pressure (psi)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

1000

True Vertical Depth (Ft. TVD)

2000
Top Valve Open

3000

Second Valve Open

4000

Third Valve Open

5000

Fourth Valve Open 6000

Producing Formation 7000

Drawdown

Tubing Pressure
Flowing Bottom Reservoir pressure
Perforations Casing Pressure Hole Pressure

To Separator / Storage Tank

Injection Gas
Choke Partially
Open

Pressure (psi)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

1000
True Vertical Depth (Ft. TVD)

2000
Top Valve Closed

3000

Second Valve Open

4000

Third Valve Open

5000

Fourth Valve Open 6000

Producing Formation 7000 Drawdown

Tubing Pressure Reservoir pressure

Casing Pressure Flowing Bottom

Perforations
Hole Pressure
(B)
List 4 parameters that can be measured by a downhole sensor package included as part of an
Electric Submersible Pump (ESP) completion. Explain one application of each measured
parameter.

[8]

Any 4 out of:

* Pump suction and discharge pressures and temperatures.

* Fluid intake temperature.

* Electric motor temperature. (Excessive temperatures are indicative of lack

of cooling due to fluid flow past the motor casing. High temperatures will
degrade the motor winding, causing early motor failure.

* Motor and pump Vibration i.e. mechanical condition of the motor and pump bearings.

* Electrical Current leakage to earth i.e. condition of the electrical insulation.

* A downhole flow meter and/or phase cut meter can be added to the above.

(C)
(i) Draw an ideal dynamogram of a rod pump and illustrate how it changes for the case of an
elastic rod string. Explain why it changes this way

(ii) Which design parameters are altered when changing the rod pump’s pump rate?

[7]

(i) The elastic rod string changes length when the load (i.e. force) acting on
it is changing, stretching up and relaxing down.

Polished Rod Up
Maximum Load
"Up" Stroke
Load

"Down" Stroke

Minimum Load Polished Rod Down

Stroke Position

(a) Inelastic Rods

Polished Rod Up
Maximum Load
s

xes

"Up" Stroke
tche

Rela
Stre
Load

Rod
Rod

"Down" Stroke

Minimum Load Polished Rod Down

Stroke Position

(b) Elastic Rods

(II) Barrel area, stroke length, frequency, pump efficiency

End of question 6

SYSTEMS AND CONVERSIONS TABLES

1. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF UNITS

To convert from To Multiply by

2 2
acre meter (m ) 4.046873E+03
atm MPa 1.013250E-01
atmosphere pascal (Pa) 1.013250E+05
bar pascal (Pa) 1.000000E+05
bar MPa 1.000000E-01
3
barrel meter 1.589873E-01
3
bbl/day meter /day 1.589873E-01
centimeter of mercury (0C) pascal (Pa) 1.333220E+03
centimeter of water (4C) pascal (Pa) 9.806380E+01
centipoise pascal second (Pas) 1.000000E-03
2 2
centistokes meter per second (m /s) 1.000000E-06
cp Pas 1.000000E-03
2
cSt mm /s 1.000000E+00
3 3
cu in meter (m ) 1.638706E-05
3 3
cubic yard meter (m ) 7.645549E-01
2
darcy m 9.869233E-13
degree (angle) radian (rad) 1.745329E-02
3
degree API g/cm 141.5/(131.5+˚API)
degree Celsius kelvin (K) Tk = Tc + 273.15
degree Fahrenheit degree Celsius Tc = (TF -32)/1.8
degree Fahrenheit kelvin (K) Tk = (TF + 459.67)/1.8
degree Rankine kelvin (K) Tk = TR /1.8
dyne newton (N) 1.000000E-05
dyne cm newton meter (Nm) 1.000000E-07
2
dyne/cm pascal (Pa) 1.000000E-01
foot in (inch) 1.200000E+01
foot meter 3.048000E-01
foot of water (39.2F) pascal (Pa) 2.988980E+03
ft lbf joule (J) 1.355818E+00
ft lbf/hr watt(W) 3.766161E-04
ft lbf/min watt(W) 2.259697E-02
ft lbf/s watt(W) 1.355818E+00
ft/hr meter per second (m/s) 8.466667E-05
ft/min meter per second (m/s) 5.080000E-03
ft/s meter per second (m/s) 3.048000E-01
2 2 2
ft/s meter per second (m/s ) 3.048000E-01
2 2 2
ft meter (m ) 9.290304E-02
3 3 3
ft meter (m ) 2.831685E-02
3
kilogram per meter
3 3
g/cm (kg/m ) 1.000000E+03
3 3
gallon (U.K.Liquid) meter (m ) 4.546092E-03
3 3
gallon (U.S.Liquid) meter (m ) 3.785412E-03
hour second 3.600000E+03
hydraulic horsepower hhp kW 7.460430E-01
inch meter 2.540000E-02
inch meter (m) 2.540000E-02
inch of mercury (32F) pascal (Pa) 3.386380E+03
inch of mercury (60F) pascal (Pa) 3.376850E+03
inch of water (39.2F) pascal (Pa) 2.490820E+02
inch of water (60F) pascal (Pa) 2.488400E+02
kelvin degree Celsius Tc = Tk - 273.15
kgf m newton meter (Nm) 9.806650E+00
2
kgf s /m (mass) kilogram (kg) 9.806650E+00
2
kgf/cm pascal (Pa) 9.806650E+04
2
kgf/m pascal (Pa) 9.806650E+00
2
kgf/mm pascal (Pa) 9.806650E+06
kilogram force (kgf) newton (N) 9.806650E+00
kilogram mass (kgm) lbm 4.420751E-02
kilowatthour (kW hr) joule(J) 3.600000E+06
km/hr meter per second (m/s) 2.777778E-01
lbf N 4.448222E+00
2
lbf/in GPa 6.894757E-06
lbm kilogram (kg) 4.535924E-01
lbm kg 4.535924E-01
3 3
lbm/ft kg/m 1.601846E+01
3 3
litre meter (m ) 1.000000E-03
micron meter (m) 1.000000E-06
mile meter (m) 1.609300E+03
millibar pascal (Pa) 1.000000E+02
2
millidarcy m 9.869233E-16
µs/ft µs/m 3.280840E+00
ohm centimeter ohm meter ( m) 1.000000E-02
pascal (Pa) psi 1.451000E-04
poise pascal second (Pas) 1.000000E-01
pound force (lbf) newton (N) 4.448222E+00
ppg psi/ft 5.200000E-02
psi MPa 6.894757E-03
psi/ft kPa/m 2.262059E+01
-1 -1
psi Pa 1.450377E-04
3 3
scf/bbl standard m /m 1.801175E-01
2 2
sq in meter (m ) 6.451600E-04
2 2
stokes meter per second (m /s) 1.000000E-04
tonne kilogram (kg) 1.000000E+03
ton (UK) kilogram (kg) 1.016047E+03
-1
watt Js 1.000000E+00
yard foot 3.000000E+00
2. SI UNIT PREFIXES

multiplication factor SI prefix Symbol

18
10 exa E
15
10 peta P
12
10 tera T
9
10 giga G
6
10 mega M
3
10 kilo k
2
10 hecto h
10 deka da
-1
10 deci d
-2
10 centi c
-3
10 milli m
-6
10 micro µ
-9
10 nano n
-12
10 pico p
-15
10 femto f
-18
10 atto a