SEA FREIGHT

In this course we shall concentrate on those cargoes that are transported mostly by sea and how
they are prepared for transportation.

CARGO HANDLING

Cargo is simply All articles, goods, materials, merchandise, or wares carried onboard an aircraft,
ship, train, or truck, and for which an air waybill, or bill of lading, or other receipt is issued by
the carrier. It is simply the goods carried by a ship, aircraft, train or road vehicle

It includes livestock, but usually does not include bunkers (fuel for powering the vessel or
vehicle), accompanying baggage, vessel or vehicle's equipment and spare parts, mail, and stores.
Personnel carried onboard are classified as crew or passengers.

CARGO CAN BE CLASSIFIED IN BULK AND BREAKBULK CARGOES

A) Bulk cargo. This is any cargo that is transported in unpackaged form. They are divided into
dry bulk and liquid bulk cargoes

 Dry (solid) bulk cargo. As the name implies this are cargoes carried in bulk. They include
basic raw commodities such as grains, ores etc. specific example include un-bagged rice,
wheat, cement, etc. We also have neo bulk cargo such as cars and scrap iron.
 Liquid bulk cargo. This include petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, vegetable
oils and fats, liquefied gas products (LPG, LNG), diverse liquid (fruit juice) etc.

B) Break bulk cargoes. These include bagged cargo, bales and bundles, cases, crates, cartons,
drums, barrels, casks, palletized cargo etc. these types of cargoes are carried in general cargo
vessels and may sometimes arrive in container vessels.

THE TYPES OF GOODS CARRIED BY SEA

Which type of cargo is carried by sea?

The answer is simple, all types of cargoes. We know that the purpose of sea transport is to move
cargo from point A to point B. In the past it was easy for cargo carried by sea to be listed but
today nearly all types of cargoes are carried by sea. This is because increase technology had
made it possible for vessels to be constructed to adapt to all types of cargoes. We have container
cargoes, we have dry bulk cargoes, we have liquids bulk cargoes, we have liquefied gases
cargoes, we have project cargoes, wheeled (vehicle cargo), we have heavy lift cargoes, we have
outsize cargoes etc.

The most common type of cargo today is container cargoes, increasingly more and more cargoes
by sea is carried in containers. Most of these cargoes is either consumer or industrial goods,
(mainly finished and semi-finished products or components). To best understand the type of
containerize cargoes it is important we first know the various types of containers that exist.

Today there are about sixteen different types of containers that are design to either carry specific
types of product or simply to facilitate handling at the ports.

1. General purpose containers. These are usually closed containers and are suitable for the
carriage of all types of general cargo. They can easily be modified to carry bulk cargo
both liquid and solid. They are available in 20feet and 40feet.
2. Insolated containers. These are designed to protect against heat lost or gain and are used
in conjunction with a blown air refrigerated system to carry perishables or other cargo
which needs to be carried under temperature control. This is usually suitable for
movement of food stuffs.
3. The fruit containers. These have been developed to carry fresh deciduous and citrus
fruits. They are slightly larger than the standard insolated containers to accommodate the
parking of standard fruit pallets and cases.
4. Refrigerated or reefer containers. These are fitted with their own refrigerated units. They
require electrical power supply for operation. Each container is capable of being set at its
own individual carriage temperature. They are usually designed for the carriage of frozen
food such as meat and fish.
5. Ventilated containers. They are similar to the general purpose containers. The only
difference is that it has a full length ventilator galleries sited along the top and bottom site
 to allow for passive ventilation of the cargo. The ventilation is such that ingress of water
is prevented. They are suitable for the carriage of product such as coffee.
6. Platform flats. These are simply platforms for carrying loads such as machinery, steel,
boats and other indivisible cargoes that will not fit regular ISO containers models. The
use of platform flats help to speed up intermodal operations as well as reducing cost, by
allowing the transfer of the platform and cargoes from road to rail to barge( or any other
combination) without the need to handle or unlash the cargo.
7. Open top containers. These are designed with an open top and are used for the carriage of
awkward shaped cargoes and cargoes whose height is in excess of that which can be
stowed in a standard general purpose container. Tarpaulins tilts are use to cover the top of
the container in other to protect the cargo.
8. Tank containers. These are constructed with stainless steel and use for the carriage of
specific product such as liquid cargoes. They may also be used for the transportation of
dangerous goods or non-hazardous cargo. The shippers usually provide their own tanks.
9. The sea vent. This is a dual-purpose container capable of carrying moisture-sensitive
cargoes in one transit and general cargoes in the next transit. The sea vent container is
suitable for the transportation of coffee, cocoa, vegetables, tobacco, onion, garlic, pulses.

Other types of containers include half-height open containers for the carriage of pipes, steel and
tubes, open sided containers for the carriage of plywood and livestock, open side/open top
containers for the transportation of live products such as potatoes and onion.

Dry (solid) bulk cargo: As the name implies this are cargoes carried in bulk. They include basic
raw commodities such as grains, ores etc. specific example include un-bagged rice, wheat,
cement, etc. We also have neo bulk cargo such as cars and scrap iron.

Liquid bulk cargo and liquefied gases: This include petroleum and petroleum products,
chemicals, vegetable oils and fats, liquefied gas products (LPG, LNG), diverse liquid (fruit juice)
etc.

Outsize cargoes: These are heavy indivisible cargoes which cannot be put into standard
containers; they cannot also be break bulk. Some of these cargoes are either carried in open top
containers or on deck.
Heavy lift cargoes: These are cargoes which are too heavy to carry by normal vessels they
require specialist vessels to transport them. For example we have crane carriers for the
transportation of gantry cranes.

Project cargoes: These are cargoes destines for specific capital project such as offshore oil and
gas power stations, infrastructure projects, real estate’s construction, power generating dams etc.
vessels for these types of cargoes are usually hired on a time chartered bases. Since the cargoes
may be carried on several legs.

Wheeled cargoes: These include vehicles, loads on trailers, containers on trailers, etc. These
types of cargoes are carried in RO/RO vessels. Loading and offloading is via the ramp.

Break bulk cargoes: These include bagged cargo, bales and bundles, cases, crates, cartons,
drums, barrels, casks, palletized cargo etc. these types of cargoes are carried in general cargo
vessels and may sometimes arrive in container vessels.

Other types of cargoes include, refrigerated cargoes carried in reefer ships or refrigerated
containers, live animals carried in animal carriers, deck cargo such as timber, dangerous cargo
etc.

CARGO HANDLING

The form of cargo-handling equipment employed is basically determined by the nature of the
actual cargo and the type of packing used. The subject of handling facilities raises the important
question of mechanization.

Bulk Cargo Handling Equipment

So far as dry bulk cargoes are concerned, handling facilities may be in the form of power
propelled conveyor belts, usually fed at the landward end by a hopper (a very large container on
legs) or grabs, which may be magnetic for handling ores, fixed to a high capacity travel1ing
crane or travel1ing gantries. These gantries move not only parallel to the quay, but also run back
for considerable distances, and so cover a large stacking area, and are able to plumb the ship's
hold. These two types of equipment are suitable for handling coal and ores. In the case of bulk
sugar or when the grab is also used, the sugar would be discharged into a hopper, feeding by
gravity a railway wagon or road vehicle below. Elevators (US) or silos are normally associated
with grain. They may be operated by pneumatic suction which sucks the grain out of the ship's
hold.

Liquid Cargo Handling Equipment

The movement of liquid bulk cargo, crude oil and derivatives, from the tanker is undertaken by
means of pipelines connected to the shore-based storage tanks. Pumping equipment is provided
in the tanker storage plant or refinery ashore, but not on the quayside. In view of the dangerous
nature of such cargo, it is common practice to build the special berths a small distance from the
main dock system on the seaward side. Oil cargo is discharged from the ship’s tanks, via the
cargo piping system to the main ship’s manifold usually situated amidships, on either port or
starboard side. From there by means of shore-based loading arms oil is transferred to the shore
manifold and is then distributed to shore-based storage tanks on the oil terminal. The loading arm
hose must be flanged oil-tight to the ship’s manifold so that oil spills can be avoided.

General Cargo Handling Equipment

With regard to general cargo (goods, merchandise, commodities), also referred to as break bulk
cargo, almost 90 percent of all such cargo in most liner cargo trades today is containerized.
Meanwhile the system of dockers handling cargo will continue, but doubtless every effort will be
made to expand the a1ready extensive use of various types of mechanized cargo-hand1ing
equipment.

General cargo is handled by cranes on the quay, floating cranes or by the ship's own cargo gear
(deck cranes, derricks, etc.). Attached to such lifting gear is a shackle which links the crane or
derrick with the form of cargo-handling equipment being used. For most lifts a hook is used.
There are numerous types of tools or loose gear that can be attached to the shipboard or shore-
based lifting gear. They include the sling or strop, which is probably the most common form of
loose gear. Such equipment, generally made of rope, is ideal for hoisting strong packages, such
as wooden cases or bagged cargo, which is not likely to sag or be damaged when raised.
Similarly, snotters or canvas slings are suitable for bagged cargo. Chain slings, however, are
used for heavy slender cargoes, such as timber or steel rails. Can or barrel hooks are suitable for
hoisting barrels or drums. Cargo nets are suitable for mail bags and similar cargoes that are not
liable to be crushed when hoisted. Heavy lifting beams are suitable for heavy and long articles
such as locomotives, boilers or railway passenger coaches. Cargo trays and pallets, the latter
being wooden or of steel construction, are ideal for cargo of moderate dimensions, which can be
conveniently stacked, such as cartons, bags, or small wooden crates or cases.

SHIPS AND THE CARGOES

BULK CARRIERS

Bulk carriers are seagoing self-propelled ships which are generally constructed with single deck,
double bottom, hopper side tanks and topside tanks and with single or double side skin
construction in the cargo length area, and intended primarily to carry dry cargoes in bulk.

A bulk carrier's design is largely defined by the cargo it will carry. The cargo's density, also
known as its stowage factor, is the key factor. Densities for common bulk cargoes vary from
0.6 tons per cubic meter for light grains to 3 tons per cubic meter for iron ore.

Cargo holds and hatch cover.

The cargo holds are constructed in such a way as to maintain stability during bad weather. The
hold design will depend on the type of bulk cargo carried. Whatever the type of cargo, most
cargo hold has upper tanks to prevent shifting of grain during bad weather and for self-trimming
(cargo will sharp itself without manual labour) during loading.

Even distribution may also avoid uneven stress in the vessels and also permit it to ride on an
even keel. In the past most vessels used to overcome this problem by have some of the grain in
bags and place on top of the cargo to prevent shifting. The charter party during that period allow
for 10% of the grain in bags.
Also since most ships are load with grabs, the grabs will not be able reach right into the angles
between the vertical side of the ship and the bottom of the hold. This problem is over come by
constructing a sloping section at an angle of 45o running fore and aft for the whole length of the
cargo hold. This trims the cargo into the square of the hatch within reach of the grab, thereby
minimizing the amount of hand shoveling to just the last few tones. The slopping section also
contains tanks that are used for ballast when the ship is sailing without cargo.

A hatch or hatchway is the opening at the top of a cargo hold. The mechanical devices which
allow hatches to be opened and closed are called hatch covers. In general, hatch covers are
between 45% and 60% of the ship's breadth, or beam, and 57% to 67% of the length of the holds.
To efficiently load and unload cargo, hatches must be large.

Large hatches have an advantage over smaller holds, with large holds the cargo is evenly
distributed and that provide a maximum utilization of the cargo hold. With small holds the cargo
will adopt a conical shape which is dictated by the natural angle of repose of the material
concern. Angle of repose defer widely from commodity to commodity. In some cases you may
visualize the shape of the cone protruding from the hold even before they are filled.

It should be noted large hatches present structural problems. Hull stress is concentrated around
the edges of the hatches, and these areas must be reinforced. Often, hatch areas are reinforced by
locally increasing the scantlings or by adding structural members called stiffeners. Both of these
options have the undesired effect of adding weight to the ship.

Bulkers are designed to be easy to build and to store cargo efficiently. To facilitate construction,
bulkers are built with a single hull curvature. Also, while a bulbous bow allows a ship to move
more efficiently through the water, designers lean towards simple vertical bows on larger ships.

Full hulls, with large block coefficients, are almost universal, and as a result, bulkers are
inherently slow. This is offset by their efficiency. Comparing a ship's carrying capacity in terms
of deadweight tonnage to its weight when empty is one way to measure its efficiency. A small
Handymax ship can carry five times its weight. In larger designs, this efficiency is even more
pronounced: Capesize vessels can carry more than eight times their weight.

Bulkers have a cross-section typical of most merchant ships. The upper and lower corners of the
hold are used as ballast tanks, as is the double bottom area. The corner tanks are reinforced and
serve another purpose besides controlling the ship's trim. Designers choose the angle of the
corner tanks to be less than that of the angle of repose of the anticipated cargoes. This greatly
reduces side-to-side movement, or "shifting," of cargo which can endanger the ship

Full hulls, with large block coefficients, are almost universal, and as a result, bulkers are
inherently slow. This is offset by their efficiency. Comparing a ship's carrying capacity in terms
of deadweight tonnage to its weight when empty is one way to measure its efficiency. A small
Handymax ship can carry five times its weight. In larger designs, this efficiency is even more
pronounced: Capesize vessels can carry more than eight times their weight.

Bulkers have a cross-section typical of most merchant ships. The upper and lower corners of the
hold are used as ballast tanks, as is the double bottom area. The corner tanks are reinforced and
serve another purpose besides controlling the ship's trim. Designers choose the angle of the
corner tanks to be less than that of the angle of repose of the anticipated cargoes. This greatly
reduces side-to-side movement, or "shifting," of cargo which can endanger the ship

Full hulls, with large block coefficients, are almost universal, and as a result, bulkers are
inherently slow. This is offset by their efficiency. Comparing a ship's carrying capacity in terms
of deadweight tonnage to its weight when empty is one way to measure its efficiency. A small
Handymax ship can carry five times its weight. In larger designs, this efficiency is even more
pronounced: Capesize vessels can carry more than eight times their weight.

Bulkers have a cross-section typical of most merchant ships. The upper and lower corners of the
hold are used as ballast tanks, as is the double bottom area. The corner tanks are reinforced and
serve another purpose besides controlling the ship's trim. Designers choose the angle of the
corner tanks to be less than that of the angle of repose of the anticipated cargoes. This greatly
reduces side-to-side movement, or "shifting," of cargo which can endanger the ship

Full hulls, with large block coefficients, are almost universal, and as a result, bulkers are
inherently slow. This is offset by their efficiency. Comparing a ship's carrying capacity in terms
of deadweight tonnage to its weight when empty is one way to measure its efficiency. A small
Handymax ship can carry five times its weight. In larger designs, this efficiency is even more
pronounced: Capesize vessels can carry more than eight times their weight.

Bulkers have a cross-section typical of most merchant ships. The upper and lower corners of the
hold are used as ballast tanks, as is the double bottom area. The corner tanks are reinforced and
serve another purpose besides controlling the ship's trim. Designers choose the angle of the
corner tanks to be less than that of the angle of repose of the anticipated cargoes. This greatly
reduces side-to-side movement, or "shifting," of cargo which can endanger the ship
Cargo gears

Medium and smaller bulk carriers refer to carriers from about 20,000 dwt to about 40,000dwt,
known as handy size are suitable for the carriage of steel, package lumber, and bagged cargoes.
Some of these vessels have cargo handling gears such as cranes capable of 30-tonnes safe
working load (SWL) to ease loading and offloading. This increases the flexibility of the vessel
by allowing the vessel to trade where shore handling equipment is not available.

Large vessels don’t have their own handling gears and usually depend on the shore handling
equipment for loading and discharging.

In some trade vessels are fitted with integral conveyors systems also called self unloaders
ORE CARRIERS

These are specialized vessels for the transportation of iron ore and bought by those shipowners
who were interested in the transportation of steel and iron ore. These shipowners include
divisions of steel and large conglomerates who needed these vessels for a particular reason.

Most bulk carriers were built with enough cubic capacity to carry cargoes like grain and coal
which require at least 45cubic feet per ton weight of cargo. This space is too much for heavy
cargo like iron ore. Heavy or dense cargo like iron ore which only occupies the bottom half of
the holds make normal bulk carriers very stiff and more space is available than need.

Because of this the shipowners are not ready to purchase a vessel with large space that will not
be used. The design for ore carriers will therefore be different.

Multipurpose Vessels

These are vessels designed to be able to carry bulk cargo, bagged cargo, container, and general
cargo with equal ease and if necessary at the same time. Their sizes range from 5,000 to
25,000dwt.

They usually have two decks known as tween decks with large hatches and with some cargo
gears of sufficient capacity to lift containers and other heavy pieces of cargo of up to 40 tonnes,
in recent times fewer of these ships are built as in most cases they have been replaced by
container or RO-RO vessels.
Container vessels

Container ships are cargo ships that carry their entire load in truck-size intermodal containers, in
a technique called containerization. Container ship capacity is measured in twenty-foot
equivalent units (TEU). Typical loads are a mix of 20-foot and 40-foot (2-TEU) ISO-standard
containers, with the latter predominant.

They range in size from the small coasting container vessels up to the large and fast ocean going
vessels . The size of the vessel is express in terms of the number of twenty foot container it can
carry. Many small and medium sized container vessels have their own cargo handling gears that
make them self sustained.

Cargo holds

Efficiency has always been key in the design of container ships. While containers may be carried
on conventional break-bulk ships, cargo holds for dedicated container ships are specially
constructed to speed loading and unloading, and to efficiently keep containers secure while at
sea.

A key aspect of container ship specialization is the design of the hatches, the openings from the
main deck to the cargo holds. The hatch openings stretch the entire breadth of the cargo holds,
and are surrounded by a raised steel structure known as the hatch coaming. On top of the hatch
coamings are the hatch covers.

Another key component of dedicated container-ship design is the use of cell guides. Cell guides
are strong vertical structures constructed of metal installed into a ship's cargo holds. These
structures guide containers into well-defined rows during the loading process and provide some
support for containers against the ship's rolling at sea.

So fundamental to container ship design are cell guides that organizations such as the United
Nations Conference on Trade and Development use their presence to distinguish dedicated
container ships from general break-bulk cargo ships.

All large container vessels are design to cater for refrigerated containers by supplying electric
powers to which the container’s with integral refrigerating systems can be connected.
Highly specialized container ships for trades in areas where there is high demand for chilled
cargo are equipped with centralized refrigeration machinery which deliver cooled air to insolated
containers through portholes in the unites, though this system is now being phased out.

Cargo cranes.

A major characteristic of a container ship is whether it has cranes installed for handling its cargo.
Those that have cargo cranes are called geared and those that don't are called ungeared or
gearless.

Lashing systems.

Numerous systems are used to secure containers aboard ships, depending on factors such as the
type of ship, the type of container, and the location of the container. Stowage inside the holds of
fully cellular (FC) ships is simplest, typically using simple metal forms called container guides,
locating cones, and anti-rack spacers to lock the containers together.

Above-decks, without the extra support of the cell guides, more complicated equipment is used.
Three types of systems are currently in wide use: lashing systems, locking systems, and buttress
systems. Lashing systems secure containers to the ship using devices made from wire rope, rigid
rods, or chains and devices to tension the lashings, such as turnbuckles.

The effectiveness of lashings is increased by securing containers to each other, either by simple
metal forms (such as stacking cones) or more complicated devices such as twist-lock stackers. A
typical twist-lock is inserted into the casting hole of one container and rotated to hold it in place,
then another container is lowered on top of it. The two containers are locked together by twisting
the device's handle. A typical twist-lock is constructed of forged steel and ductile iron and has a
shear strength of 48 metric tons.

The buttress system, used on some large container ships, uses a system of large towers attached
to the ship at both ends of each cargo hold. As the ship is loaded, a rigid, removable stacking
frame is added, structurally securing each tier of containers together.
Size of container vessels

Modern gearless container vessels carry between 3 000teu and up to about 14,700 and have a
service speed of up to between 22 to 26 knots. Panamax vessels are the larges that can navigate
the Panama Canal and are of about 4500 TEU, less than 295metres LOA, 32.2 metres beam and
12 metres draught on tropical load lines. The largest container vessel is the Triple E which can
carry about 18 000TEU. This ships run at a slower speed of 18.5 knots and have double engines.

Some owners have introduced hatchless vessels. In of some these design the cells guides are
extended above main deck level so that on deck lashing is also necessary. In other designs there
is heightened and stream lined foc’sle with wave breaking device intended to keep water away
from the main deck of the vessel. The intension is to avoid additional labour and delay involved
in removing and replacing hatch covers as the tedious securing of the container carried on deck.
Refrigerated vessel

This type of tonnage is in decline as such shipments are containerized in many trades. The ship is
designed with a multi-deck hull which includes an arrangement of refrigerated holds. The holds
are insolated and they have an extensive compressor system with which they keep the
temperature in the holds down at the requires temperatures for the various cargoes. and ’tween
decks specifically for the carriage of perishable cargoes.

The cargo handling mode is lift on/lift off to and from the holds (and ’tween decks) by way of
weather deck (and ’tween deck) hatches. Various features include (a) additional side loading by
way of side elevators for the specific loading of perishable cargoes on pallets, and (b) the
alternative carriage of other forms of cargo including facilities for the carriage of road vehicles
(by way of special side elevators or side doors).

They are usually very fast and have speed up to 22 or 23 knots, thus reducing the transit time for
the frozen or chilled cargo. They have a small hatches and cargo gear designed to operate
speedily, thus limiting the time the cargo is exposed to the weather elements.

Ro/Ro vessel

These vessels are suitable for cargo which can be driven on and off the ship, A ro/ro type of
vessel was designed for the conveyance of road haulage vehicles such as, private cars lorries and
cargo on trailers which can be either road trailers, or trailers designed solely for the shipborne
use being loaded and offloaded in dockside terminals. These are called Mafi trailers. Pure Ro-
Ro are usually ferries.

In some trades we may find certain vessels that are part RO RO and part Contain. Another
example of such ro/ro (roll on/roll off) – Lo/Lo (lift-on/lift-off) vessel is one of 17,000 dwt, with
an overall length of 140 m. The moulded breadth is 23 m and she has a speed of 16 knots. The
ship has a ro/ro lane capacity of 1,300 m and 600 TEUs container capacity. Hold capacity totals
27,000 m3.

The vessel has a stern ramp, internal fixed ramps, electro-hydraulic cranes, and hydraulically
operated hatch covers. Liquid cargoes (latex or similar) can be conveyed in the foretanks.
Such a vessel offers a high cargo mix versatility. Hence such a cargo combination could include
general break bulk cargo which could be palletized, bulk cargo, containers, trailers, cars and
ro/ro cargo. In this case they are also called multipurpose vessels.

The size of RO-RO is measured in Lane metres which indicate the total length of the marked
parking lanes of 3.5m which are available on board.

Pure car carriers are also part of RO - RO vessels.

LIQUID BULK CARRIERS (AKA TANKERS).

An oil tanker, also known as a petroleum tanker, is a merchant ship designed for the bulk
transport of oil. There are two basic types of oil tankers: the crude tanker and the product
tanker. Crude tankers move large quantities of unrefined crude oil from its point of extraction to
refineries. Product tankers, generally much smaller, are designed to move refined products from
refineries to points near consuming markets.

Oil tankers are often classified by their size as well as their occupation. The size classes range
from inland or coastal tankers of a few thousand metric tons of deadweight (DWT) to the
mammoth ultra large crude carriers (ULCCs) of 550,000 DWT. Tankers move approximately
2,000,000,000 metric tons (2.2×109 short tons) of oil every year. Second only to pipelines in
terms of efficiency, the average cost of oil transport by tanker amounts to only two or three
United States cents per 1 US gallon (3.8 L).

Some specialized types of oil tankers have evolved. One of these is the naval replenishment
oiler, a tanker which can fuel a moving vessel. Combination ore-bulk-oil carriers and
permanently moored floating storage units are two other variations on the standard oil tanker
design. Oil tankers have been involved in a number of damaging and high-profile oil spills. As a
result, they are subject to stringent design and operational regulations.

Structural design of tankers

Oil tankers generally have from 8 to 12 tanks. Each tank is split into two or three independent
compartments by fore-and-aft bulkheads. The tanks are numbered with tank one being the
forwardmost. Individual compartments are referred to by the tank number and the athwartships
position, such as "one port", "three starboard", or "six center."

Another percularity of tankers is the presence of cofferdams. A cofferdam is a small little space
left open between two bulkheads, to give protection from heat, fire, or collision. Tankers
generally have cofferdams forward and aft of the cargo tanks, and sometimes between individual
tanks. A pumpable room houses all the pumps connected to a tanker's cargo lines. Some larger
tankers have two pumprooms. A pumproom generally spans the total breadth of the ship. It is
usually situated just next to the engine room.

HULL DESIGN.

A major component of tanker architecture is the design of the hull or outer structure. A tanker
with a single outer shell between the product and the ocean is said to be "single-hulled". Most
newer tankers are "double hulled", with an extra space between the hull and the storage tanks.
Hybrid designs such as "double-bottom" and "double-sided" combine aspects of single and
double-hull designs.

Double hull has certain advantages, these include ease of ballasting in emergency situations,
reduced practice of saltwater ballasting in cargo tanks decreases corrosion, increased
environmental protection, cargo discharge is quicker, more complete and easier, tank washing is
more efficient, and better protection in low-impact collisions and grounding.

Some disadvantages to the double-hull design, include higher build costs, greater operating
expenses (e.g. higher canal and port tariffs), difficulties in ballast tank ventilation, the fact that
ballast tanks need continuous monitoring and maintenance, increased transverse free surface, the
greater number of surfaces to maintain, the risk of explosions in double-hull spaces if a vapor
detection system not fitted, and that cleaning ballast tanks is more difficult for double hull ships.

Double hull tankers are however safer than a single-hull in a grounding incident, especially when
the shore is not very rocky.
Cargo Hold Structure

All tankers built since 1990 are of double hull construction. Figure bellow shows typical tankage
arrangements for double hull tankers. Wing tank widths range from 2.0 meters for Panamax size
tankers up to 3.0 to 4.0 meters for VLCC’s. Double bottom heights are generally comparable to
wing tank width.

Most Panamax, Aframax, and Suezmax tankers have two-across cargo tank arrangements. Most
VLCC’s have 3-across cargo tanks arrangements. In the early 1990’s, a few Panamax and
Aframax tankers were built with single-tank-across arrangements. It was shown that these
tankers had higher expected oil outflow in the event of a casualty that breached the inner hull,
and could potentially become unstable during loading operations. Since that time, IMO has
adopted intact stability regulations and accidental oil outflow regulations that effectively
preclude construction of such designs.
Tank cleaning

Tanks must be cleaned from time to time for various reasons. One reason is to change the type of
product carried inside a tank. Also, when tanks are to be inspected or maintenance must be
performed within a tank, it must be not only cleaned, but made gas-free.

On most crude-oil tankers, a special crude oil washing (COW) system is part of the cleaning
process. The COW system circulates part of the cargo through the fixed tank-cleaning system to
remove wax and asphaltic deposits.

Tanks that carry less viscous cargoes are washed with water. Fixed and portable automated tank
cleaning machines, which clean tanks with high-pressure water jets, are widely used. Some
systems use rotating high-pressure water jets to spray hot water on all the internal surfaces of the
tank. As the spraying takes place, the liquid is pumped out of the tank.

After a tank is cleaned, provided that it is going to be prepared for entry, it will be purged.
Purging is accomplished by pumping inert gas into the tank until hydrocarbons have been
sufficiently expelled. Next the tank is gas freed which is usually accomplished by blowing fresh
air into the space with portable air powered or water powered air blowers. "Gas freeing" brings
the oxygen content of the tank up to 20.8%.

The inert gas buffer between fuel and oxygen atmospheres ensures they are never capable of
ignition. Specially trained personnel monitor the tank's atmosphere, often using hand-held gas
indicators which measure the percentage of hydrocarbons present.

After a tank is gas-free, it may be further hand-cleaned in a manual process known as mucking.
Mucking requires protocols for entry into confined spaces, protective clothing, designated safety
observers, and possibly the use of airline respirators.

Other equipment which can be found are cargo heating coils, needed when the cargoes become
too viscous to pump or even solidify at ambient temperatures. Other equipment found on tankers
is a crane or derrick for handling the loading and discharging hoses.