CLASS X

HISTORY

CHAPTER 1 : THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

Q 1) Who was Frederic Sorrieu ?

i. Frédéric Sorrieu, was a French artist, who in 1848, prepared a series of four prints visualizing his dream
of a world made up of ‘democratic and social Republics’.
ii. The first print of the series, shows the peoples of Europe and America – men and women of all ages and
social classes – marching in a long train, and offering homage to the statue of Liberty as they pass by it.
iii. In Sorrieu’s utopian vision, the peoples of the world are grouped as distinct nations, identified through
their flags and national costume.

Q 2) What did the print prepared by Fredric Sorrieu conveyed ?

i. Frédéric Sorrieu, was a French artist, who in 1848, prepared a series of four prints visualizing his dream
of a world made up of ‘democratic and social Republics’.
ii. The first print of the series, shows the peoples of Europe and America – men and women of all ages and
social classes – marching in a long train, and offering homage to the statue of Liberty as they pass by it.
iii. Leading the procession, way past the statue of Liberty, are the United States and Switzerland, which by
this time were already nation-states. France identifiable by the revolutionary tricolour, has just reached
the statue.
iv. She is followed by the peoples of Germany, bearing the black, red and gold flag.
v. Following the German peoples are the peoples of Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy,
Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia.
vi. From the heavens above, Christ, saints and angels gaze upon the scene. They have been used by the artist
to symbolise fraternity among the nations of the world.

Q 3) Write a note on the “statue of liberty” .

i. The artists of the time of the French Revolution personified Liberty as a female figure.
ii. In the statue of liberty , you can recognize the torch of Enlightenment she bears in one hand and the
Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.
iii. On the earth in the foreground of the image lie the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist
institutions.

Q 4) What does the German flags signify?

The German flag bearing the black, red, gold colours , is an expression of liberal hopes in 1848 to unify the
numerous German-speaking principalities into a nation-state under a democratic constitution.

Q 5 ) How did the concept of nation state develop in Europe ?

i. During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought about sweeping changes in
the political and mental world of Europe.
ii. The end result of these changes was the emergence of the nation-state in place of the multi-national
dynastic empires of Europe.
iii. The concept and practices of a modern state, in which a centralized power exercised sovereign control
over a clearly defined territory, had been developing over a long period of time in Europe.
iv. But a nation-state was one in which the majority of its citizens, and not only its rulers, came to develop a
sense of common identity and shared history or descent.
v. This commonness did not exist from time immemorial; it was forged through struggles, through the
actions of leaders and the common people.
 1. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE IDEA OF THE NATION
Q 6) How was the concept of nationalism introduce by the French revolution ?

i. France was a full-fledged territorial state in 1789 under the rule of an absolute monarch.
ii. The political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French Revolution led to the
transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens.
iii. The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape
its destiny.

Q 7 ) What are the various measures and practices of French revolution by created a scence of collective identity
among French people ?

i. The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united
community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
ii. A new French flag, the tricolor, was chosen to replace the former royal standard. The Estates General
was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
iii. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.
iv. A centralized administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within
its territory. Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and
measures was adopted.
v. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the
common language of the nation.

Q 8 )Discuss the impact of the French Revolution on the French citizens ?

i. The French revolution led to the setting of up Jacobin Clubs in the different cities of Europe by students
and other members of educated middle classes. it further paved wave for the French armies to moved
into Holland, Belgium and Switzerland and some part of Italy in 1790s. it idea of nationalism began to be
carried by French army.
ii. Another impact of the revolution was the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. He took several steps to reform
the economy of Europe. The most important among them was the CIVIL COURT of 1804 which did away
with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the rights to property.
iii. The main aim of the Frenchh Revolutionaries as declired themselves was to liberate the peoples of
Europe from despotism, in other words to help other peoples of Europe to become nations.

Q 9 )Who was Napoleon Bonaparte ?

i. Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political pioneer who rose to eminence during the French
Revolutinns. In 1804, Napoleon Bonaprte crown himself as the emperor of France and reintroduce
monarchy in France.
ii. He was called as modernizer and liberator of Europe who introduce laws and revolutionaries principles of
uniformity, equality before the law and secure the right to property which made the whole system
rational and efficient. The CIVIL CODE of 1804 is also called as the Nepolion Code.
iii. He controlled his neighbouring countries and build kingdoms, per soon his army was viewed as an
invading force. So he was finally defeated in 1815, in the famous battle of waterloo.

Q 10 ) Describe briefly about the Civil Code of 1804 ?

Or

What do you understand from the term the Napoleonic Code ?

 i. Napoleon Bonaparte in the administrative field had incorporated revolutionary principles in order to
make the whole system more rational and efficient. The most famous being Civil Code of 1804, usually
known as the Napoleonic Code.
ii. The nepolionic code did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and
secured the right to property. This Code was exported to the regions under French control.
iii. In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions,
abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
iv. In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems were improved.
Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new-found freedom.
v. Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods, in particular, began to realise that uniform laws,
standardised weights and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and
exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.

Q 11) Explain by giving four reasons why the people who earlier had welcome the Napoleon opposed him later?

Or,

Why did the Napoleon rule grew unpopular over other regions of the Europe ?

Or,

Why was the reaction of the local population of the Europe to French rule was mixed ?

i. Initially, in many places such as Holland and Switzerland, as well as in certain cities like Brussels, Mainz,
Milan and Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as harbingers of liberty.
ii. But the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility, as it became clear that the new administrative
arrangements did not go hand in hand with political freedom.
iii. The reasons of unpopularity of Napoleon rule in other sections of Europe are : Increased taxation,
censorship, forced conscription into the French armies to conquer the rest of Europe, restrictions on
freedom.

2. THE MAKING OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

2.1 The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class

Q 12) Explain the dominance of landed aristocracy in Europe ?

i. Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. The members of
this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions.
ii. They owned estates in the countryside and also town-houses. They spoke French for purposes of
diplomacy and in high society.
iii. Their families were often connected by ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy was, however,
numerically a small group.

Q 13) Explain about the condition of peasants in Europe ?

The majority of the population was made up of the peasantry. To the west, the bulk of the land was farmed by
tenants and small owners, while in Eastern and Central Europe the pattern of landholding was characterized by
vast estates which were cultivated by serfs.
Q 14) What conditions led to the development of the new middle class in Europe ?

i. In Western and parts of Central Europe the growth of industrial production and trade meant the growth
of towns and the emergence of commercial classes whose existence was based on production for the
market.
ii. Industrialization began in England in the second half of the eighteenth century, but in France and parts of
the German states it occurred only during the nineteenth century.
iii. In its wake, new social groups came into being: a working-class population, and middle classes made up
of industrialists, businessmen, professionals.
iv. In Central and Eastern Europe these groups were smaller in number till late nineteenth century.
v. It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that ideas of national unity following the abolition of
aristocratic privileges gained popularity.

2.2 What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for

Q 15 ) “Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely allied to the ideology of
liberalism”. Justify .

Or,

What did liberalism stood for while making of the Nationalism in Europe ?

The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free.

i. Social liberalism
a. For the new middle classes liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of
all before the law. Politically, it emphasized the concept of government by consent.
b. Since the French Revolution, liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clerical
privileges, a constitution and representative government through parliament.
c. Nineteenth-century liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property.
ii. Political liberalism :
a. Equality before the law did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage. Because in
revolutionary France, which marked the first political experiment in liberal democracy
gave the right to vote and to get elected was granted exclusively to property-owning
men. Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights.
b. Under the Jacobins did all adult males enjoy suffrage but the Napoleonic Code went back
to limited suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor, subject to the authority
of fathers and husbands. (c) Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth century’s
women and non-propertied men organized opposition movements demanding equal
political rights.
iii. Economic liberalism :
a. In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of
state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital. So, zollverein was
formed.
b. The German confederation of 39 states had been setup by Nepolion and Each of these
possessed its own currency, and weights and measures. A merchant travelling through
these states had to pass through custom barriers and pay custom duties which were
often lieved according to the weight and measurement of the goods. As each region had
its own system of weights and measures, this involved time-consuming calculation.
c. Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic exchange and growth by the new
commercial classes, who argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing
the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital.
Q 16 ) writes a note on zollverein .

i. In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the
German states.
ii. The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two. The
creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic interests to national
unification.
iii. A wave of economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments growing at the time.

2.3 A New Conservatism after 1815

Q 17 ) “Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of
conservatism”. Justify .

Or,

Explain about the new form of conservatism after 1815 ?

i. Conservatives believed that established, traditional institutions of state and society – like the monarchy,
the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family – should be preserved.
ii. Most conservatives, however, did not propose a return to the society of pre-revolutionary days.
iii. Conservative realized, from the changes initiated by Napoleon, that modernisation could in fact
strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy. It could make state power more effective and
strong.
iv. A modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of feudalism and serfdom
could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.
v. Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic. They did not tolerate criticism and dissent, and
sought to curb activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments. And imposed
censorship.

Q 18 ) Explain briefly about the treaty of Vienna of 1815 .

i. In 1815, representatives of the European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria – who had
collectively defeated Napoleon, met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe. The Congress was
hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.
ii. The delegates drew up the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 with the object of undoing most of the changes that
had come about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars.
iii. The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was restored to power, and
France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
iv. A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future. Thus
the kingdom of the Netherlands, which included Belgium, was set up in the north and Genoa was added
to Piedmont in the south. Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while
Austria was given control of northern Italy. But the German confederation of 39 states that had been set
up by Napoleon was left untouched. In the east, Russia was given part of Poland while Prussia was given a
portion of Saxony.
v. The main intention was to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon, and create a
new conservative order in Europe.

Q 19 ) Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic. Justify.

Or,

Mention the characteristic of the conservative regime setup in 1815?

 i. Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic. They did not tolerate criticism and dissent, and
sought to curb activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments.
ii. Most of them imposed censorship laws to control what was said in newspapers, books, plays and songs
and reflected the ideas of liberty and freedom associated with the French Revolution.
iii. The memory of the French Revolution nonetheless continued to inspire liberals. One of the major issues
taken up by the liberal-nationalists, who criticized the new conservative order, was freedom of the press.

2.4 The Revolutionaries

Q 20 ) write a brief character sketch of Giuseppe Mazzini.

i. Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian revolutionary, Born in Genoa in 1807, he became a member of the secret
society of the Carbonari. As a young man of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution
in Liguria.
ii. He subsequently founded two more underground societies, first, Young Italy in Marseilles, and then,
Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and the
German states.
iii. Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So Italy could not
continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms.
iv. It had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations. This unification alone
could be the basis of Italian liberty.
v. Following his model, secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. Mazzini’s
relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives.
Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.

3. The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

Q 21 ) Which groups of people in Europe associated liberalism and nationalism with revolution in society ?

The group of people in Europe associated liberalism and nationalism with revolution in society were educated
middle-class elite, among whom were professors, schoolteachers, clerks and members of the commercial middle
classes.

Q 22 ) What did Metternich mean to say, “when France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold.”

i. The revolutionaries spirit all over the Europe only after of French revolution of 1789. The idea of liberty,
equality, fraternity get popularity among people all over Europe.
ii. The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon kings who had been restored to power
during the conservative reaction after 1815, were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries who
installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head.
iii. The July Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United
Kingdom of the Netherlands.

Q 23 ) Which was the first country where the nationalist tried to uproot the conservative regime of 1815 ?

i. The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830 to remove / uproot the conservative regime of 1815.
ii. The Bourbon kings who had been restored to power during the conservative reaction after 1815, were
now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries who installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at
its head.
iii. Metternich once remarked, ‘When France sneezes the rest of Europe catches cold’, following this uprising
started the rest of Europe .
Q 24 ) Describe about the Greek war of independent ?

i. Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. The growth of revolutionary
nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821.
ii. Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans
who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.
iii. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to
support its struggle against a Muslim empire.
iv. The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of fever in
1824.
v. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.

3.1 The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

Q 25 ) write a note on Romanticism .

i. Romanticism, an European cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist
sentiment.
ii. Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science and focused instead
on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.
iii. Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a
nation.

Q 26 ) Write the views of German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder .

i. the German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German culture was to be discovered
among the common people – das volk.
ii. It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation (volksgeist) was
popularised.
iii. So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to the project of nation-building.

Q 27 ) Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories and music
helped express and shape nationalist feelings. Justify .

Or,

How did culture play an important role in developing nationalism in Europe between 1830 to 1848 ?

Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories and music helped
express and shape nationalist feelings.

i. Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment.
ii. Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science and focused instead
on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective
heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.
iii. German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder popularized true spirit of nation through folk songs, folk
poetry and folk dance. He claimed that claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the
common people – das volk.
Q 28 ) The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was not just to recover an ancient
national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were mostly illiterate.
Justify ?

Or,

Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. Justify ?

Or,

Explain the role of language in developing the nationalist sentiments in Poland ?

i. Poland, had been partitioned at the end of the eighteenth century by the Great Powers – Russia, Prussia
and Austria. Even though Poland no longer existed as an independent territory, national feelings were
kept alive through music and language.
ii. Karol Kurpinski, for example, celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk
dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
iii. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was
imposed everywhere. In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place which was ultimately
crushed.
iv. Following this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national
resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instruction.
v. As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by the Russian
authorities as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian. The use of Polish came to be seen as a
symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

3.2 Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt

Q 29 ) “The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe.” Support the statement .

Or,

What was the economic condition of Europe during the period of 1830 ?

i. The first half of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe. In most
countries there were more seekers of jobs than employment.
ii. Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums. Small producers in towns
were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-made goods from England, where
industrialisation was more advanced than on the continent.
iii. This was especially so in textile production, which was carried out mainly in homes or small workshops
and was only partly mechanised.
iv. In those regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the
burden of feudal dues and obligations.
v. The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country.

Q 30 ) What was the economic condition of France in 1848 ?

i. The year 1848 France faced, Food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the population of
Paris out on the roads.
ii. Barricades were erected and Louis Philippe was forced to flee.
iii. A National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21, and guaranteed
the right to work. National workshops to provide employment were set up.
3.3 1848: The Revolution of the Liberals

Q 31 ) Write a brief note on the Frankfurt parliament ?

i. In 1848, In the German regions a large number of political associations whose members were middle-
class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and
decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly.
ii. On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places in the
Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul. They drafted a constitution for a German nation
to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.
iii. When the deputies offered the crown on these terms to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, he rejected
it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly. While the opposition of the aristocracy and
military became stronger, the social basis of parliament eroded.
iv. The parliament was dominated by the middle classes who resisted the demands of workers and artisans
and consequently lost their support.
v. In the end troops were called in and the assembly was forced to disband.

Q 32 ) How did the European women struggle for equal political rights during the liberalism movement in Europe?

i. The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in
which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years.
ii. Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in political
meetings and demonstrations.
iii. Despite this they were denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly. When the Frankfurt
parliament convened in the Church of St Paul, women were admitted only as observers to stand in the
visitors’ gallery.

Q 33 ) Though conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements in 1848, they could not restore the
old order. Justify the statement .

i. Monarchs were beginning to realise that the cycles of revolution and repression could only be ended by
granting concessions to the liberal-nationalist revolutionaries.
ii. Hence, in the years after 1848, the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to
introduce the changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815.
iii. Thus serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia. The
Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.

4. The Making of Germany and Italy

4.1 Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?

Q 34 ) Briefly prached the process of German unification ?

Or,

Describe the process of unification of Germany ?

 i. In mid 19th century, Germany was a collation of smaller state that were inextricably intertwined as a
German confederation. Austria dominated this confederation. In the 1860s, the dominate position of
Austria was challenged by Prussia and the process of unification and codification of German law started.
ii. In 1840s, nationalist feeling were rampant in the hearts of middle class German. In 1848, the bourgeois
intelligentsia united to form a nation- state out of several German states.
iii. However, the monarchy and the military combined to subdue them and they also achieved independents
from the land owners of Prussia (the Junkers) .Subsequently, Prussia became the leader of the German
unification movements.
iv. Its chief minister Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of unification movement, supported by the
Prussian army and Prussian buearocracy . Unification process was accomplished after Prussia triumphed
over Austria, Denmark and France over seven years time.
v. 18 January 1871, the Prussian king, Kaiser William I was proclaimed the German emperor in a ceremony
held at the hall of the mirrors in the palace of Versailles, where representatives of the army, important
Prussian minister, chief minister Otto von Bismarck had gathered.

Q 35 ) Write about the nation building process of Germany after its unification ?

i. The nation-building process in Germany had demonstrated the dominance of Prussian state power.
ii. The new state placed a strong emphasis on modernising the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems
in Germany.
iii. Prussian measures and practices often became a model for the rest of Germany.

4.2 Italy Unified

Q 36 ) Italy had a long history of political fragmentation. Support the statement .

Or,

Mention about the scattered state of Italy before unification ?

i. During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one,
Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house.
ii. The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope and the southern regions
were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain.
iii. Even the Italian language had not acquired one common form and still had many regional and local
variations.

Q 37 ) Describe the process of unification of Italy ?

i. During the mid 19th century, Italy was dismembered into seven state. Italians were scattered over several
dynastic states as well as the multi-national Habsburg Empire. In 1830, Giuseppe Mazzini aimed to unify
Italy. As a matter of fact, he had formed a secret society, ‘young Italy’ for the purpose of achieving his
goal.
ii. After failures in 1831 and 1838, King Victor Emmanuel II intended to unify the Italian states through
continues wars. Through a pragmatic diplomatic collation with France by its chief minister Cavour,
Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in crossing the Austrian forces in 1859.
iii. Under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi, armed volunteers proceeded to south Italy in 1860, which is
famously regarded as expedition of thousands to south Italy.
iv. They also marched into the kingdom of the two Sicilies and succeeded in gaining the support of the local
peasants on order to rule out the Spanish monarchs.
v. These steps completed the process of unification of the Italy in 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed
the king of united Italy. However, much of the Italian population, among whom rates of illiteracy were
very high, remained blissfully unaware of liberalnationalist ideology.
4.3 The Strange Case of Britain

Q 38 ) Describe the process of unification of Britain ?

i. There was no British nation prior to the 18th century . The primary identity of the people who inhabited
the British is isles where ethnic wanes like English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. As the English steadily grew in
wealth, importance and power, it was able to extant its influence over the other nation of the world.
ii. The English parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of a protracted
conflict, was the instrument through which a nation-state, with England at its centre, came to be forged.
iii. The act of union of 1707 between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of United Kingdom and
England was able to impose its effect on Scotland. Scotland political and cultural institution were
suppressed and the catholic clans inhabited in Scottish highland were repressed whenever they try to
assert their independence.
iv. Ireland consisted of both catholic and protestant. England has the protestant of Ireland to establish
dominance over the large catholic community. Catholic revolts against British dominance were
suppressed. After a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798), Ireland was forcibly
incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
v. A new ‘British nation’ was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture. The symbols of
the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the English
language – were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this
union.

Q 39 ) How was Scotland merge into Britain to form united kingdom ?

i. The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of the ‘United
Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland.
ii. The British parliament was dominated by its English members. The growth of a British identity meant
that Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions were systematically suppressed. The Catholic
clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression whenever they attempted to
assert their independence.
iii. The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and
large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.

Q 40 ) Explain how did the British dominance led to the incorporation of Ireland into the united kingdom ?

Or,

How was Ireland forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom ?

i. Ireland was a country deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants. The English helped the
Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely Catholic country.
ii. Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed. The revolts led by Wolfe Tone and his United
Irishmen (1798), failed.
iii. Following it, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.

Q 41) Mention the symbols of the new ‘British nation’ ?

i. A new ‘British nation’ was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture.
ii. The symbols of the new Britain
(a) the British flag (Union Jack),
(b) the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King),
(c) the English language these symbols were actively promoted and the older nations survived
only as subordinate partners in this union.
 Visualising the Nation
Q 42 ) How did Artist of 18th and 19th centuries personifies the nation ?

Or,

While it is easy enough to represent a ruler through a portrait or a statue, how does one go about giving a face
to a nation? Justify .

Or,

How did female figure become an Allegory of nations around 18th and 19th century ?

i. Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries represented a country as if it were a person.
ii. Nations were then portrayed as female figures. The female form that was chosen to personify the nation
did not stand for any particular woman in real life.
iii. Whereas it sought to give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form, the female figure became an
allegory of the nation.

Q 43 ) How did the French people portrayed ideas of liberty, justice and republic using Allegory ?

i. The French Revolution artists used the female allegory to portray ideas such as Liberty, Justice and the
Republic.
ii. These ideals were represented through specific objects or symbols.
iii. The attributes of Liberty are the red cap, or the broken chain, while Justice is generally a blindfolded
woman carrying a pair of weighing scales.

Q 44 ) Write a note on ‘Christened Marianne’ ?

i. In France, christened Marianne, is the female allegory for the nation. Marianne , A popular Christian
name, which underlined the idea of a people’s nation.
ii. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the tricolour, the
cockade.
iii. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity
and to persuade them to identify with it. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.

Q 45 ) Write a note on Germania ?

i. 1848, Philip Veit, painted Germania which became the allegory of the German nation.
ii. In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.
iii. Germania was painted on a cotton banner, as it was meant to hang from the ceiling of the Church of St
Paul where the Frankfurt parliament was convened in March 1848.
 Nationalism and Imperialism
Q 46 ) Describe the explosive condition prevailed in the Balkans after 1871 in Europe ?

i. The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria,
Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose
inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs.
ii. A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The spread of the ideas of
romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this
region very explosive.
iii. All through the nineteenth century the Ottoman Empire had sought to strengthen itself through
modernisation and internal reforms but with very little success. One by one, its European subject
nationalities broke away from its control and declared independence.
iv. The Balkan peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality and used history
to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers.
v. Hence the rebellious nationalities in the Balkans thought of their struggles as attempts to win back their
long-lost independence.

Q 47 ) Why did nationalist tension emerge in the Balkans ?

One of the main reasons for the tension to emerge in Balkan was because of the people aspired to nationalism.
During the 19th century , major portion of the Balkans was under the Ottoman empire. They tried to adopt
modern techniques to make changes in the internal backwardness in of the state but did not succeed.

i. Jealousy : There was a jealousy among the Balkan state and each hoped to e expand their boundaries at
the expenses of others . During this period the ideology of Europe was changed, the liberal feeling were
narrow downed with limited ends. Intolerance followed among the groups and they were ready to fight
wars.
ii. Power struggle : Russia, Germany, Austro-Hungary and Britain, these European powers were interested to
expand their own imperialism. Trade, Colonies, Naval and military powers were some of the major factors
which all the European power were struggling for. They were all very keen on controlling the holds of the
other power and extending their own.
iii. Ethnic Variation : The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day
Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and
Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs.
iv. Disintegration of Ottoman empire : A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman
Empire. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of
the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.
v. Subjugation : Soon many foreign powers attempted to subjugate the newly independent state. The
Balkans people tries to claim independence or political rights on nationality and used history to prove
that they had once been independent.
Q 48 ) How did the Balkans area of intense conflict leds to the first world war ?

Or,

As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area became
an area of intense conflict. Justify .

Or,

“Nationalism, aligned with imperialism, led Europe to disaster in 1914.” Support this statement .

i. The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the
expense of the others.
ii. Matters were further complicated because the Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry.
iii. During this period, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies as well
as naval and military might.
iv. These rivalries were very evident in the way the Balkan problem unfolded. Each power – Russia,
Germany, England, Austro-Hungary – was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans,
and extending its own control over the area.
v. This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.

Q 49 ) Write a note on the anti- imperial movements which led to the formation of new independence nation
states around the world ?

Or,

But the idea that societies should be organised into ‘nation-states’ came to be accepted as natural and universal.
Support the statements .

i. Nationalism, aligned with imperialism, led Europe to disaster in 1914. Whereas, many countries in the
world which had been colonised by the European powers in the nineteenth century began to oppose
imperial domination.
ii. The anti-imperial movements that developed everywhere were nationalist, in the sense that they all
struggled to form independent nation-states, and were inspired by a sense of collective national unity,
forged in confrontation with imperialism.
iii. European ideas of nationalism were nowhere replicated, for people everywhere developed their own
specific variety of nationalism. But the idea that societies should be organised into ‘nation-states’ came to
be accepted as natural and universal.