29/5/2024

Electrical Power System

Part II

Associate Prof Ts Dr Yufridin bin Wahab

CONTENTS
• Overview of Part II
• Chapter Recent Development
• Chapter Transformer
• Chapter AC Machine
• Chapter DCMachine

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Part II : Overview
COs: Contents/Activities:
• CO2-> 1. Assignment 2: 5%
Ability to analyze the
(Group,Conventional)
fundamental concepts of
electrical transformer, AC
2. PBL: 10% (Report
machines and DC with min 25 pages,
machines
Group)
• CO3-> 3. Final Exam: 30%
Ability to analyze the need for
environmental and sustainable
(Section A: Q3.
development in electrical power Section B: Q4,Q5)
system

Recent Development
• Sustainability Development Goals
• Climate Change
• Limited Resources
• Renewable Energy

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Sustainability

The term sustainability was defined by Bruntland as:

"Development that meets the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs."
• Our Common Future know as the ‘Bruntland Report’, from the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) (1987)

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The World currently relies heavily on Fossil fuel

(coal, oil and Natural gas)

Fossil fuel is:

- Non-renewable (finite resources).
- Becoming too expensive.
- Have a high impact on environment.

Renewable energies resources are:

- Clean.
- Non-depleted.
- Have very small impact on environment

Characteristics and Benefits of RE Resources

 RE resources are sustainable sources of energy. Renewable technologies are

designed to run on a virtually inexhaustible or replenish able supply of natural fuels. The
primary long term benefits of renewable technologies is that once a renewable energy project
has been constructed and fully operated, it become a permanent and low cost component of
the national energy system.

 RE resources promote energy diversification. Development of a diverse portfolio of

generation assess reduces a country dependence on any one particular form of technology
or fuel.

 RE resources have the lowest environmental impact? Renewable energy

technologies have a very small impact on environment compared to fossil fuel. The discharge
of unwanted or unhealthy substance in air, ground and water commonly associated with other
forms of energy use can be reduced significantly by using renewable energies.

 RE resources have values beyond they generate. Renewable energy systems are
modular, flexible and can be installed anywhere and in any size. Investment in locally
available renewable energy generates more jobs, greater earnings and higher output. The
renewable energy industry provides a wide range of employment opportunities, from high
technology manufacturing of PV components to maintenance jobs at solar thermal or wind
systems.

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Types of Renewable Energy resources

 Solar Energy
 Wind Energy
 Biomass Energy
 Hydrogen Energy & Fuel Cell
 Hydropower Energy
 Ocean Energy
 Geothermal Energy

Solar Energy

 Intensity of solar radiation along the earth orbit is 1.368 kW/ m2.
The average earth radius ≈ 6366 Km.
Therefore the Amount of insolation intercepted by the earth
≈ 174000 x 1012 Watt
≈ 174000 tera Watt
≈ 17000 times the world installed power generation capacity.

 The sun's heat and light provide an abundant source of energy that can
be harnessed in many ways. There are a variety of technologies that
have been developed to take advantage of solar energy. These include:

 Solar hot water heating systems.

 Solar process heat and space heating & cooling.
 Photovoltaic systems.
 Concentrating solar power systems.

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Solar Water Heating

 Solar water heating is a very cost
effective way to produce hot water in
any climate, and the fuel they use is
free (sun shine).

 Solar water heating systems include

solar collectors and storage tanks,
and they are two types:
 Active systems (have a
circulating pump and control).
 Passive systems which works on
natural convection.

Active solar heating systems

They are two types;

 Pump circulates household water
through the collectors and into the
home (open loop),
 Pump circulates the heat transfer fluid
through the collectors and a heat
exchanger (closed loop). This heats
the water that flows into the home.

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Thermosyphon systems

 Water flows through

the system when
warm water rises as
cooler water sinks.
 The collector must be
installed below the
storage tank so that
warm water will rise
into the tank.

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Solar water heater

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Solar Space Heating Systems

 There are two basic types of active solar heating systems based
on the type of fluid that is heated in the solar energy collectors.
 Liquid-based systems which heat water in a liquid collector.
 Air-based systems which heat air in an air collector.

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Solar space cooling

A solar thermal cooling system
consists of:

-Solar collectors.
-Storage tank.
-Control unit, pipes and pumps.
-Thermally driven chiller.

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Solar power production

Photovoltaic systems
 Photovoltaic (PV) (photo=light,
voltaic=electricity) is a semiconductor-
based technology which converts light
energy directly into an electric current
that can either be used immediately or
stored, such as in a battery, for later
use.
Solar cell
 PV cell consist of two or more thin
layers of semi conducting material most
commonly silicon. A silicon cell is a
wafer of P-type silicon doped with a
small amount of impurity (usually boron)
and a thin layer of N-type silicon dopes
with a small amount of impurity (usually
phosphorous).
 When the cell exposed to the light,
electrical charges are generated and this
can be connected a way by metal
contacts as direct current.

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Solar panel (Module)

 Consist of solar cells connected in series and parallel.
Solar Array
 Consist of different solar panels connected in series and
parallel.
Types of Solar Cells
The performance of a solar or photovoltaic (PV) cell is
measured in terms of its efficiency at converting sunlight
into electricity. There are a variety of solar cell materials
available, which vary in conversion efficiency.
Mono crystalline silicon
 Manufactured by saw- cut from a single cylindrical crystal of
silicon.
 Most efficient (around 15%) and most expensive.

Poly crystalline silicon

 Manufactured by cut from an ingot of melted and re-
crystallized silicon.
 Less efficient and cheaper than mono-crystalline.

Amorphous silicon
 Manufactured as a thin film of deposit silicon on substrates.
 less efficient than crystalline silicon and cheaper.

Other Thin Films

They have higher efficiency than amorphous silicon cell and
can be produced cheaper.

 Cadmium telluride (CdTe).

 Copper Indian Deselenide (CIS)
 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs).

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Complete battery backup system configuration with options

1 - Solar array

2 - Fused array combiner and/or ground fault

protection.

3 - Solar regulator

4 - System storage battery

5 - DC load equipment

6 - DC/AC inverter

7 - AC load equipment load panel

8 - AC load equipment operating from solar

system

9 - AC load equipment operating from utility

10 - AC utility panel

11 - Utility meter

12 - Utility power

13 - Backup generator
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Solar thermal power

Technology works by converting sun energy to heat, which is usually used to produce steam for driving a
turbine and a generator. This technology is more efficient (15%) than PV (around 10%) and less expensive
when the system is very large in MW.

Three types of systems

Parabolic trough
 The system works by concentrating
the sun rays through long
rectangular, curved (U-shaped)
mirrors, focusing the sunlight on a
pipe that runs down the center of
the trough.
 The temperature of the fluid flow
inside the pipe (usually oil) could
reach 400°C

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Central receiver system

 It uses a large number of

mirrors and heliostats that track
the sun and reflect sunlight to
the top of a tower, where the
receiver sits.
 The system operates at
temperatures between 500°C
and 1500°.

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Parabolic Dish System

 Mirror dish that reflects and
concentrate sunlight to a
receiver which absorbs the heat
and transfer it to fluid within the
engine.
 Engines types are: Rankine
engine, Brigton engine and
stirling engine.
 Striling engine is the most
efficient one (30%).

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Wind Energy
 Wind turbines capture the kinetic
energy in the wind using propeller-
like blades mounted on a shaft.
When the wind makes the blades
turn, the shaft spins a generator to
produce electricity.
 Small wind turbines can be used
to pump water or provide power to
a home, for example.
 Larger turbines can be used to a
power an entire community or to
provide power to the electricity
grid.
 Wind-generated electricity is the
least expensive form of renewable
power, and is becoming one of the
cheapest forms of electricity —
from any source. In some
locations, the cost of electricity
from wind is comparable to that
from conventional fossil-fueled
power plants.
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Biomass Energy
 Biomass is any organic material derived from
plants or animals — essentially all energy
originally captured by photosynthesis.
 Domestic biomass resources include
agricultural and forestry residues, municipal
solid wastes, industrial wastes, and terrestrial
and aquatic "energy crops" grown solely for
energy purposes.

Biomass power
 Biomass power is electricity produced from
plant materials and animal products.
 Biomass power technologies convert
renewable biomass fuels into electricity (and
heat) using modern boilers, gasifiers,
turbines, generators, and fuel cells.
 Biomass fuels include residues from the
wood and paper products industries, residues
from food production and processing, trees
and grasses grown specifically as energy
crops, and gaseous fuels produced from solid Wood chips made from energy crops, such as hybrid
biomass, animal wastes, and landfills. willows (upper), provide raw material for a new gasifier at
the McNeil Generating Station (lower). 50-MW wood-
fired power plant located in Vermont.

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Direct Combustion and Co-firing

Diagram : In a direct combustion system, processed biomass is the boiler

fuel that produces steam to operate a steam turbine and generator to make
electricity.

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Gasification
 Solid biomass can be converted
into a fuel gas in a gasifier such
as the one shown in Diagram .
 In this method, sand (at about
1,500°F) surrounds the biomass
and creates a very hot, oxygen-
starved environment.
 These conditions break apart
wood or other biomass and
create an energy-rich, flammable
gas.
 The biogas can be cofired with
wood (or other fuel) in a steam
boiler or used to operate a Diagram: one method of transforming
standard gas turbine. biomass particles into biogas fuel.

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Anaerobic Digestion

 Biogas can also be produced by

digesting food or animal wastes
in the absence of oxygen, as
shown below.

Diagram: Anaerobic digestion, which takes place in

three stages inside an airtight container, produces
biogas. Different kinds of micro-organisms are
responsible for the processes that characterize each
stage.

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Landfill gas

Landfills also produce a methane-rich biogas from the decay

of wastes containing biomass. However, landfill gas must be
cleaned to remove harmful and corrosive chemicals before it
can be used to generate electricity.

Using Biomass Fuel Gases

 Fuel gases made from biomass can

be used to generate electricity in a
gas turbine, as shown.
Diagram: In a simple-cycle gas turbine, both
pressurized fuel gas and hot combustion product
gases operate a gas turbine and generator, producing
electricity.

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Biomass Energy - Biofuels

 "Biofuel" is liquid fuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel used for transportation
and electricity production.
 Unlike gasoline and diesel, biofuels contain oxygen. Adding biofuels to
petroleum products allows the fuel to combust more completely, reducing air
pollution.
 The market for biofuels is growing. Existing production methods typically use
relatively high-priced common crops — oil-rich seeds such as soybeans;
sugarcane, corn, and other cereals — as feedstocks. All of these crops have
other uses, driving up their cost.

Ethanol
 Ethanol is the most widely used biofuel today.
In 2003, more than 2.8 billion gallons were
added to gasoline in the United States to
improve vehicle performance and reduce air
pollution.
starch crops are converted into sugars, the
sugars are fermented into ethanol, and then
the ethanol is distilled into its final form.
Ethanol is used to increase octane ratings
and improve the emissions quality of
gasoline.
Ethanol production plant in Nebraska.

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Renewable Diesel Fuels

 There are a variety of fuels that
can be used in diesel engines
and that are made from
renewable resources such as
vegetable oils, animal fats, or
other types of biomass such as
grasses and trees.
 These renewable diesel fuels
can be used in place of, or
blended with, petroleum diesel.

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UCSD Physics 12

Biomass
• Biomass is any living organism, plant, animal, etc.
• 401012 W out of the 174,0001012 W incident on
the earth from the sun goes into photosynthesis
– 0.023%
– this is the fuel for virtually all biological activity
– half occurs in oceans
• Compare this to global human power generation
of 121012 W, or to 0.61012 W of human
biological activity
• Fossil fuels represent stored biomass energy

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UCSD Physics 12

Photosynthesis
• Typical carbohydrate (sugar) has molecular structure like:
[CH2O]x, where x is some integer
– refer to this as “unit block”: C6H12O6 (glucose) has x=6
• Photosynthetic net reaction:
xCO2 + xH2O + light  [CH2O]x + xO2
1.47 g 0.6 g 16 kJ 1g 1.07 g
• Carbohydrate reaction (food consumption) is essentially
photosynthesis run backwards
– 16 kJ per gram is about 4 kilocalories per gram
• Basically a “battery” for storing solar energy
– usage just runs reaction backward (but energy instead of light)

Spring 2013 Q2 33

UCSD Physics 12

Photosynthetic efficiency
• Only 25% of the solar spectrum is useful to the
photosynthetic process
– uses both red and blue light (reflects green), doesn’t use
IR or UV
• 70% of this light is actually absorbed by leaf
• Only 35% of the absorbed light energy (in the
useful wavelength bands) is stored as chemical
energy
– the rest is heat
– incomplete usage of photon energy just like in solar PV
• Net result is about 6%

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UCSD Physics 12

Realistic photosynthetic efficiency

Location Plant Production Solar Energy
(g/m2 per day) Conversion Efficiency
Potential Maximum 71 5%
Polluted stream (?!) 55 4%
Iowa cornfield 20 1.5%
Pine Forest 6 0.5%
Wyoming Prairie 0.3 0.02%
Nevada Desert 0.2 0.015%

Spring 2013 Q 35

UCSD Physics 12

Analysis: How much biomass is available?

• Two estimates of plant production in book come up
with comparable answers:
– 1017 grams per year
– 320 grams per m2 averaged over earth’s surface
– consistent with 401012 W photosynthesis
• U.S. annual harvested mass corresponds to 80 QBtu
– comparable to 100 QBtu total consumption
• U.S. actually has wood-fired power plants: 6,650
MW-worth
– burn wood equivalent of 1,000,000 barrels of oil per day
– about a fifth of this for electricity production

Spring 2013 Q 36

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UCSD Physics 12

Ethanol from Corn

• One can make ethanol (C2H5OH: a common

alcohol) from corn
– chop; mix with water
– cook to convert starches to sugars
– ferment into alcohol
– distill to separate alcohol from the rest

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UCSD Physics 12

Why are we even talking about Ethanol?!

• We put more energy into agriculture than we get
out (in terms of Caloric content) by about a factor
of 2–10
– at least in our modern, petrol-based mechano-farming
– sure, we can do better by improving efficiencies
• Estimates on energy return from corn ethanol
– controversial: some say you get out 0.7 times the
energy out that you put in (a net loss); others claim it’s
1.4 times; often see numbers like 1.2
– 1.2 means a net gain, but 83% of your total budget goes
into production; only 17% of crop is exported as energy

Spring 2013 Q 38

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UCSD Physics 12

Ethanol, continued
• Right now, using tons of fossil fuels to get ethanol
– and not clear we’re operating at a net gain
• Why on earth are we trying?
– corn has worked its way into many of our foods
• high fructose corn syrup
• cow feed
• corn oil for cooking
– powerful presence in the Halls of Power
• the corn lobby is responsible for pervasiveness of corn in our
diet (soft drinks)
• are they then implicated in U.S. health/diet problems?

Spring 2013 39

UCSD Physics 12

Ethanol problems, analysis continued

• Energy is a high-payoff business, especially when the
government helps out with subsidies
– thus the attraction for corn ethanol (which does get subsidies)
• Can supplant actual food production, driving up price of food
– there have been tortilla shortages in Mexico because corn ethanol is
squeezing the market
– after all, we only have a finite agricultural capacity
– both land, and water are limited, especially water
• Ethanol from sugar cane can be 8:1 favorable
– Brazil doing very well this way: but corn is the wrong answer!
– but lookout rain forests: can actually increase CO2 by removing CO2-
absorbing jungle

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UCSD Physics 12

Quantitative Analysis Ethanol

• Let’s calculate how much land we need to replace oil
– an Iowa cornfield is 1.5% efficient at turning incident sunlight into
stored chemical energy
– the conversion to ethanol is 17% efficient
• assuming 1.2:1 ratio, and using corn ethanol to power farm equipment
and ethanol production itself
– growing season is only part of year (say 50%)
– net is 0.13% efficient (1.5%  17%  50%)
– need 40% of 1020 J per year = 41019 J/yr to replace petroleum
– this is 1.31012 W: thus need 1015 W input (at 0.13%)
– at 200 W/m2 insolation, need 51012 m2, or (2,200 km)2 of land
– that’s a square 2,200 km on a side

Spring 2013 41

UCSD Physics 12

What does this amount of land look like?

We don’t have this much arable land!

And where do we grow our food?

Spring 2013 42

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Hydrogen Energy & Fuel Cell

Hydrogen can be found in many organic compounds, as well as water. It's the most
abundant element on the Earth. But it doesn't occur naturally as a gas. It's always
combined with other elements, such as with oxygen to make water. Once separated
from another element, hydrogen can be burned as a fuel or converted into electricity.

Hydrogen can be produced from:

Solar Thermal Water Splitting

 Concentrated solar energy can also be used to generate temperatures of several
hundred to over 2,000 degrees at which thermo chemical reaction cycles can be used
to produce hydrogen. Such high-temperature, high-flux solar driven thermo chemical
processes offer a novel approach for the environmentally benign production of
hydrogen.
Renewable Electrolysis
 Renewable energy sources such as photovoltaic, wind, biomass, hydro, and
geothermal can provide clean and sustainable electricity to produce hydrogen
through the electrolysis—splitting with an electric current—of water and to use that
hydrogen in a fuel cell to produce electricity during times of low power production or
peak demand, or to use the hydrogen in fuel cell vehicles.

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Fuel Cell
 fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device. It produces electricity from
external supplies of fuel (on the anode side) and oxidant (on the side). These react in
the presence of an electrolyte. Generally, the reactants flow in and reaction products
flow out while the electrolyte remains in the cell. Fuel cells cacathode n operate
virtually continuously as long as the necessary flows are maintained.
 Fuel cells differ from batteries in that they consume reactants, which must be
replenished, while batteries store electrical energy chemically in a closed system.
Additionally, while the electrodes within a battery react and change as a battery is
charged or discharged, a fuel cell's electrodes are catalytic and relatively stable.

Two electrodes; one positively charged and one negatively

charged & a substance that conduct electricity (electrolyte)
sandwiched between them. 44

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Hydropower Energy

 Water constantly moves through

a vast global cycle, evaporating
from lakes and oceans, forming
clouds, precipitating as rain or
snow, then flowing back down to
the ocean. The energy of this
water cycle, which is driven by
the sun, can be tapped to
produce electricity.

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There are three types of hydropower facilities:

 Impoundment( usually large).
 Diversion( usually small).
 Pumped storage.
 Some hydropower plants use dams and
some do not.
 Hydropower plants range in size from
small systems for a home or a village to
large plants producing electricity for
utilities.

Impoundment (Large) power plant

 It is typically a large hydropower system,
uses a dam to store river water in a
reservoir. Water released from the An impoundment hydropower plant dams
reservoir flows through a turbine, water in a reservoir.
spinning it, which in turn activates a
generator to produce electricity. The
water may be released either to meet
changing electricity needs or to maintain
a constant reservoir level.

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Small power plants

 A diversion (small), sometimes
called run-of-river, facility
channels a portion of a river
through a canal or penstock. It
may not require the use of a
dam.

The Tazimina project in Alaska is a diversion

hydropower plant. No dam was required.

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Micro Hydropower

 A micro hydropower plant has a

capacity of up to 100 kilowatts.
A small or micro-hydroelectric
power system can produce
enough electricity for a home,
farm, ranch, or village

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Geothermal Energy Systems

 Geothermal ("Earth-heat")
energy comes from the residual
heat left over from the Earth's
formation and from the
radioactive decay of atoms
deep inside the earth.

 This heat is brought up to the

earth's crust by molten rock
(magma) and by conduction
through solid rock. There it
raises the temperature of the
earth's surface and of Geothermal water cycle.
groundwater trapped in the
fissures and pores of
underground rock, forming
zones called hydrothermal (hot
water) reservoirs.

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Electricity Production

 Geothermal power can be generated by modular units ranging in size

from a few hundred kilowatts to more than 100 MW in size. The cost of
producing geothermal electricity ranges from roughly 5 cents/kWh to 8
cents/kWh.

 Three technologies can be used to convert hydrothermal fluids to

electricity. The type of conversion used depends on the state of the fluid
resource (whether steam or water) and its temperature. These are:
- Steam power plant
- High water temperature power plant
- Moderate water temperature power plant

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 Steam power plant

With a 750-MW output, The Geysers in California is

the largest producer of geothermal electricity in the
world. (Photo: David Parsons)

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High-Temperature Water Moderate-Temperature

power plant Water power plant

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The Mammoth geothermal plant, located in the eastern Sierra Nevada mountain range in
California, showcases the environmentally friendly nature of geothermal power. Three air-cooled
binary units generate a total of 28 MW of electricity, and release essentially no emissions into the
atmosphere or land surface. 54

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Direct Use of Hydrothermal Resources

 Hot water from geothermal

resources can be used directly
to provide water and space
heating.

 Direct use applications include

crop drying, industrial
processes, resorts and spas;
and heating buildings,
greenhouses, and fish farms.

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Example of Energy Analysis/Calc

b) Assume a 50m radius turbine, air density of 1.23 kg/m3 and a wind speed of
12m/s. What is the total energy available every second? Round your answer to 3
s.f. then write it in scientific notation

1
𝐾𝐸/ = 𝜋𝑟 𝜌𝑣
2
1
𝐾𝐸/ = 3.14 × (50 )(1.23) (12 )
2
𝐾𝐸/ ≈ 8,340,000
𝐾𝐸/ ≈ 8.34 × 10

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Other renewables
 We won’t spend time talking about every
conceivable option for renewable energy
(consult text and other books for more on
these)
 Lots of imagination, few likely major players
 As a way of listing renewable alternatives, we
will proceed by most abundant
 for each, I’ll put the approximate value of QBtu
available annually
 compare to our consumption of 100 QBtu per
year
Spring 2013 59

Renewables list
 Solar (photovoltaic, solar thermal)
 get 100 QBtu/yr with < 2% coverage of U.S. land area
 Wind
 maybe 180 QBtu/yr worldwide, maybe 25 QBtu in U.S.
 but some estimates are far less optimistic
 Biomass
 if we divert 10% of the 40 TW global budget into energy,
would net 4 TW, or 120 QBtu worldwide; maybe 7 QBtu in
U.S., given about 6% of land area
 Hydroelectric
 70 QBtu/yr feasible worldwide: twice current development
 5 QBtu/yr max potential in U.S.
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Renewables, continued
 Geothermal: run heat engines off earth’s
internal heat
 could be as much as 1.5 QBtu/yr worldwide in
50 years
 limited to a few rare sites
 Tidal: oscillating hydroelectric “dams”
 a few rare sites are conducive to this (Bay of
Fundy, for example)
 up to 1 QBtu/yr practical worldwide
 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
 use thermal gradient to drive heat engine
 complex, at sea, small power outputs
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