Review Article

Published: 2024-05-02
https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadMatSci6184

Role of polymers in encapsulation and shape-

stabilization of phase change materials (PCMs) for
thermal energy storage applications: an overview
Surya Tanwar1, Raminder Kaur1,*

Academic Editor(s): Islam Md Rizwanul Fattah, Raul D.S.G. Campilho

Abstract
Phase change materials (PCMs) are suitable for thermal energy storage (TES) owing to their increased heat storage ability, narrow
temperature difference between storage and retrieval of latent heat energy, and readiness in a variety of phase change transition
temperatures. Numerous research attempts have been made to develop a broad array of PCMs based on inorganic, organic, and
polymeric compounds for a diverse area of applications. To improve the performance efficiency and proper handling of PCMs, they are
often encapsulated or confined within a shape-stabilized supporting material of an inorganic or organic origin. This review emphasizes
the current research status of the polymer-based PCMs developed using the various PCMs–polymer combinations available, material
characteristics, encapsulation, and shape-stabilization methods and provides detailed information on the contribution of polymers
toward the enhancement of PCM end-product properties, in an avant-garde technology related to TES.

Keywords: phase change materials, microencapsulation, shape-stabilized, thermal energy storage

Citation: Tanwar S, Kaur R. Role of polymers in encapsulation and shape-stabilization of phase change materials (PCMs) for thermal
energy storage applications: an overview. Academia Materials Science 2024;1. https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadMatSci6184

1. Introduction
The transition in the manufacturing practices, advancements in matrix or supporting material of inorganic or organic nature. Based
technology, and the population boom have led to an enormous on a thorough survey made, it has been explored that polymers play
increase in energy demand in the past few centuries. Over the last a vital role as matrix materials in producing PCM products for TES
half-century, researchers around the world are seeking for new applications owing to their improved physical and thermal proper-
fuel alternatives due to less availability of fossil fuels in the earth’s ties, good volume and leakage control, along with a remarkable
reservoirs and a sudden surge in fuel prices. Moreover, aware- dimensional stability, especially required for solid–liquid PCMs.
ness among the people toward the environmental and climatic This inclusive review presents state-of-the-art PCMs for TES appli-
changes has also inspired researchers and investigators to cations, different polymer shells, or polymer supporting matrices,
explore different renewable energy sources. Proposed theories which are used for their preparation. It gives evidence about their
that advocate solar radiation as most appreciably a viable energy enhanced performance and safety, and provides information about
source become unrealistic, as solar energy is extremely intermit- the efforts of different researchers in this area.
tent in nature leading to discrepancy between the availability and
utilization time. The solution to all these energy problems is to
stock the energy in the form that can be converted as and when 2. Thermal energy storage (TES)
required. The energy storage ensures the performance and TES is a temporary storage of high- or low-temperature energy
steadfastness of energy systems and reduces the discrepancy for later use and can be retrieved by heating (melting), cooling
between the supply and demand. (solidifying), or vaporizing a material with energy, which is
Thermal energy storage (TES) systems based on phase change reflected in the form of heat, when the process is reversed. TES
materials (PCMs) have gained much attention in the research methods (Figure 1) can be classified into three broad categories,
community over the last few decades. PCMs have latent heat namely (1) sensible heat storage, i.e., due to temperature change
storage properties in which the latent heat energy transfer takes or change in internal energy of the material; (2) latent heat
place when a material transforms from the solid to a liquid state storage, based on the heat capture or release during the phase
or vice versa. Most of the available literature related to PCMs for change of the storage material; and (3) thermo-chemical heat
TES applications reveals the various PCMs contained inside a storage, relying on the heat energy derived from the chemical
reactions of materials, which are used for storage purposes [2].

1Department of Applied Chemistry, Delhi Technological University, Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, 11042, India.
*email: [email protected]

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2.3. Latent heat thermal energy storage (LHTES)

systems
In latent heat thermal energy storage (LHTES) systems, the
energy storage process takes place by absorbing and retrieving
the thermal energy in the form of latent heat, when the storage
material undergoes a change in physical state or phase, i.e.,
from solid to liquid, liquid to gas, or vice versa. The energy
storage of LHTES systems can be described by equation 3:
Tm Tm
Q=

Ti
mC pdT = mam H m +

Ti
mC pdT (3)

Figure 1• Different types of thermal energy storage (TES) where am is the fraction of the material melted, ΔHm is the heat of
methods. SHTES, sensible heat thermal energy storage; LHTES, melting per unit mass (J/kg), and m is the mass of the heat
latent heat thermal energy storage, and CHTES, chemical storage medium (kg). The PCMs constitute a significant category
reaction heat thermal energy storage. of the LHTES system.

2.1. Sensible heat thermal energy storage (SHTES)

systems 3. Phase change materials (PCMs)
Sensible heat thermal energy storage (SHTES) encompasses the Latent heat storage with the aid of PCMs is the highly effective
storage of thermal energy by elevating or diminishing the tem- way of thermal energy management owing to their higher energy
perature of the storage medium, i.e., solid or liquid. The energy storage density, with a narrower and almost constant tempera-
loading potential is corresponding to the amount of the storage ture ranges [1]. PCMs work upon the basic principle of phase
material, its specific heat, density, thermal conductivity, and transformation, when they encounter a temperature swing. The
temperature variations during the initial and final stages [3]. The TES occurs in the form of latent heat when the storage material
sensible heat stored in any material can be calculated using shows phase alteration, typically, among solid–liquid, solid–
equation 1: solid, liquid–gas, or solid–gas, etc. For example, when a solid–
Tf liquid PCM is exposed to the heating process, its temperature
Q=

Ti
mC pdT = mC ap (Tf − Ti ) (1) rises constantly. As soon as the temperature of the storage
material approaches the melting point, it begins to melt com-
where Q is the quantity of heat stored (J), Ti is the initial pletely and uniformly. As the melting process is endothermic, it
temperature (°C), Tf is the final temperature (°C), m is the mass absorbs and stores the thermal energy available in its surround-
of the heat storage medium (kg), Cp is the specific heat (J/kg K), ings in the form of latent heat, in a liquid state. Furthermore,
and Cap is the average specific heat between Ti and Tf (J/kg K). when the cycle is reversed, during the cooling process, with the
SHTES has less energy density and entails a huge capacity for the progressive fall in temperature, the PCM liberates an equal
storage that leads to a relatively bigger unit size. These are ideal amount of stored energy in the surroundings and transforms
for small applications, where economics is a leading concern. The back into a solidified state. During the entire heat–cool cycle, the
conventionally used SHTES materials, since olden times, are temperature remains constant during the phase change [4].
sand, rocks, concrete, bricks, water, oils, metals, molten salts, etc. Figure 2 represents a schematic outline of the mechanism of the
Among these, water is the best SHTES material, as it is cost-free, phase change process in a solid–liquid PCM.
abundant, and has high specific heat capacity.

2.2. Chemical reaction heat thermal energy storage

(CHTES) systems
Chemical reaction heat thermal energy storage (CHTES) works
on the principle of the energy absorbed and released in a
reversible chemical reaction, by the breaking and re-forming of
molecular bonds. These are more beneficial as compared to
SHTES due to their high energy densities, ambient temperature
storage, and the possibility of heat pumping and long-distance
transport. The amount of energy stored is in correspondence with
the amount of reacting materials, the extent of conversion, and
the endothermic heat of reaction [2]. The amount of energy
stored in a thermo-chemical energy storage system can be
calculated using equation 2:
Q = armhr (2)

where Q is the quantity of the heat stored (J), m is the mass of the
heat storage medium (kg), Δhr is the heat of reaction, and 𝑎r is Figure 2 • A schematic outline of the mechanism of the phase
the fraction reacted. change process in a solid–liquid PCM.

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The energy storage based on PCMs possesses certain merits such ✔ Experience only a small volume change during the phase
as (1) storing a large quantity of latent heat per unit volume, i.e., transitions to maintain the geometry of the container in-
high energy storage densities; (2) phase change at a constant housing them.

✔ Low vapor pressure to overcome the risk of rupture of

temperature, i.e., uniform latent heat transfer; and (3) a broad
spectrum of PCMs is available with a wide range of operating
encapsulating the material due to high-pressure build-up
temperatures, which enable to develop products with tunable
situations.
temperatures as per the required application [5]. With the infor-
mation compiled from different studies, the main characteristic ✔ High density, which facilitates higher energy storage
requirements for an ideal PCM for TES applications are as capacity.

✔ Chemical stability to ensure long life and non-reactivity

follows:

✔ Phase change temperature in the domain of functioning with the encapsulating matrix to avoid the formation of
temperature of the heating or cooling of the product to undesirable products and leakage from containers.

✔ Non-corrosive to avoid the deterioration of containers.

attain optimum performance.

✔ High latent heat energy per unit volume to store more

✔ Non-flammable to avoid the risk to building materials and
thermal energy.
textiles in which it is encapsulated.
✔ High thermal conductivity to support higher heat transfer
✔ Non-hazardous and non-poisonous to prevent poisonous
rates and facilitate rapid charging and discharging.
emissions during a fire or in case of rupture of the
✔ Uniform melting at a constant temperature. encapsulation.

✔ Endure repeatable phase transformation cycles for a long ✔ Easy availability and economical.
period.
The different requisite characteristic properties of PCMs for TES
✔ Negligible or low supercooling. applications have been summarized in Table 1.

✔ High nucleation rate to promote a faster solidification

process and the occurrence of reversible cycles at nearly the
same temperature.

Table 1 • Basic requirements of PCMs for TES applications [6]

Thermal properties Kinetic Physical Chemical properties Socio-economical
properties properties aspect
Suitable phase-transition temperature Low supercooling Favorable phase Chemical stability during phase Abundant
(melting point) in desired operating equilibrium—no phase transformations
temperatures segregation

High latent heat of phase change High nucleation Small volume change Complete reversible Economic
rate melting/freezing cycles

Good thermal conductivity in both Low vapor pressure Compatible with host
solid and liquid phases matrix/encapsulating shell

Congruent melting pattern Reproducible phase Non-corrosive

change cycles

High density Non-flammable

Non-toxic

4. Classification of PCMs phase change temperatures beyond 90°C, applied in the fields of
aerospace applications, absorptive refrigeration, and various
PCMs can be classified broadly into three categories based on (1) industrial operations [1, 6].
temperature, (2) phase change, and (3) chemical nature, as
shown in Figure 3. 4.2. Based on phase transitions

4.1. Based on temperature Phase transition takes place among solid–liquid, solid–solid,
liquid–gas, or solid–gas, etc., and the PCMs can be classified
The temperature range governing the phase transformation of accordingly. The characteristics of each transition have been
PCMs falls within the three temperature zones: (1) low- summarized in Table 2.
temperature PCMs, with phase change temperatures below 15°C,
applied in the fields of air conditioning, cold storage, and food 4.3. Based on chemical nature
industry; (2) mid-temperature PCMs, with phase change
temperatures from 15°C to 90°C, applied in the fields of solar Based on chemical nature, PCMs can be categorized as inorganic
power, electronics, smart textiles, biomedical applications, and or organic—each category comprising a broad spectrum of com-
energy-efficient buildings; (3) high-temperature PCMs, with mercial and nascent PCMs. The phase change temperatures and
the latent heat of fusions of different inorganic (salt hydrates),

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organic (paraffins, fatty acid, PEGs, polyalcohols) eutectics, organic PCMs, as included in Table 6, along with their phase
metals, as reported earlier, are given in Tables 3–10. In addition change temperatures and the latent heat of fusion.
to paraffins and fatty acids, a few more hydrocarbons serve as

Figure 3 • Classification of PCMs.

Table 2 • Classification of PCMs based on their physical phase transformations

Solid–solid PCMs Solid–liquid PCMs Liquid–gas PCMs Solid–gas PCMs
Involve transformation from Involve transformation from solid Involve transformation from liquid Involve transformation from solid
crystalline state to amorphous state state to liquid state state to gaseous state state to gaseous state

Low latent heat energy compared to High latent heat energy compared Higher latent heat energies Higher latent heat energies
solid–liquid PCMs to solid–solid PCMs

Small volume change during Higher volume change during Higher volume change during Higher volume change during
transitions compared to solid–liquid transitions compared to solid–solid transitions compared to solid–solid transitions compared to solid–
PCMs PCMs PCMs and solid–liquid PCMs solid PCMs and solid–liquid PCMs

Need no or lesser encapsulation; Require encapsulation; leak-prone Require large and bulky Require large and bulky
leak-proof containment; leak-prone containment; leak-prone

Give better flexibility in design Practical and economically Impractical and complex system Impractical and complex system
attractive

Table 3 • Phase change temperatures and latent heat of fusions of salt hydrates
Salt Melting Latent References Zn(NO3)2·6H2O 36 136 [14]
hydrates point (C) heat
KF·2H2O 42 162 [15]
(kJ/kg)
Na2SiO3·5H2O 48 168 [16]
K2HPO4·6H2O 14 109 [7]
Na2S2O3·5H2O 48 210 [17]
Mn(NO3)2·6H2O 25 148 [8]
Ca(NO3)2·4H2O 42 132 [18]
CaCl2·6H2O 28.4 185.6 [9]
Co(NO3)2·6H2O 47 140 [18]
LiNO3·3H2O 30 296 [10]
MnCl2·4H2O 58 151 [19]
Na2CO3·10H2O 32 267 [11]
CH3COONa·3H2O 58 270 [20]
Na2SO4·10H2O 32.4 241 [12]

CaBr2·6H2O 34 138 [13]

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Table 4 • Phase change temperatures and latent heat of fusions of paraffins

Alkanes Formula Melting point (C) Latent heat (kJ/kg) References
n-Dodecane C12H26 −10 216 [21]

n-Tetradecane C14H30 5–6 226 [22]

n-Pentadecane C15H32 10 207 [23]

n-Hexadecane C16H34 18 236 [24]

n-Heptadecane C17H36 22 215 [25]

n-Octadecane C18H38 28 245 [26]

n-Nonadecane C19H40 32 222 [27]

n-Eicosane C20H42 36–37 247 [28]

n-Heneicosane C21H44 41 215 [29]

n-Tricosane C23H48 47 234 [30]

n-Tetracosane C24H50 51 255 [31]

Table 5 • Phase change temperatures and latent heat of fusions of fatty acids and fatty acid derivatives
Fatty acids and their Formula Melting point Latent heat References
derivatives (C) (kJ/kg)
Caprylic acid CH3(CH2)6COOH 16 148 [32]

Undecylenic acid CH3(CH2)6COOH 23 141 [33]

Capric acid CH3(CH2)8COOH 32 153 [32]

Lauric acid CH3(CH2)10COOH 44 178 [34]

Myristic acid CH3(CH2)12COOH 54 205 [35]

Palmitic acid CH3(CH2)14COOH 64 212 [36]

Stearic acid CH3(CH2)16COOH 70 203 [36]

Propyl palmitate 16–19 186 [37]

Isopropyl palmitate 11 95–100 [38]

Butyl stearate 19 140–200 [39]

Methyl palmitate 29 205 [40]

Methyl stearate 29 169 [41]

Methyl myristate 18 188 [42]

Cetyl alcohol 49 141 [43]

Cetyl palmitate 51 214–220 [44]

Table 6 • Phase change temperatures and latent heat of fusions of some organic PCMs
Organic PCM Melting point (C) Latent heat (kJ/kg) References
Formic acid 7.8–8.4 247 [45]

Glycerol 18 199 [46]

Caprylone 40 259 [47]

Beeswax 61.8 177 [48]

Acetamide 81 241 [49]

Acetanilide 115 211 [50]

Benzoic acid 124 194 [50]

Hydroquinone 172.4 258 [51]

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Table 7 • Phase change temperatures and latent heat of fusions of inorganic and fatty acid eutectics
Inorganic and fatty acid eutectic mixtures Melting point (C) Latent heat (kJ/kg) References
31% Na2SO4 +13% NaCl + 16% KCl + 40% H2O 4 234 [52]

45% Ca(NO3)2.6H2O + 55% Zn(NO3)2.6H2O 25 130 [53]

45–52% LiNO3.3H2O + 48–55% Zn (NO3)2.6H2O 17.2 220 [54]

47% Ca (NO3)2.4H2O + 53% Mg (NO3).6H2O 30 136 [55]

66.6% CaCl2.6H2O + 33.3% MgCl2.6H2O 25 127 [53]

50% CaCl2 + 50% MgCl2 + 6H2O 25 95 [53]

45% capric acid + 55% lauric acid 17–21 143 [56]

76.5% capric acid+ 23.5% palmitic acid 21.8 171.2 [57]

66% lauric acid + 34% myristic acid 34.2 166.8 [58]

69% lauric acid + 31% palmitic acid 35.2 166.3 [59]

75.5% lauric acid + 24.5% stearic acid 37 182.7 [60]

58% myristic acid + 42% palmitic acid 42.6 169.2 [61]

64% myristic acid + 36% stearic acid 44.1 182.4 [62]

64.2% palmitic acid + 35.8% stearic acid 52.3 181.7 [63]

Table 8 • Phase change temperatures and latent heat of fusions of different molecular weights of PEGs
PEGs Melting point (C) Latent heat (kJ/kg) References
PEG 400 4.2–5.0 117.6 [64]

PEG 600 12.5 129.1 [65]

PEG 1000 40 168.8 [66]

PEG 1500 46.5 176.3 [67]

PEG 2000 51 181.4 [68]

PEG 4000 59.7 189.7 [69]

PEG 6000 64.8 189 [70]

PEG 10000 66 189.6 [71]

PEG 20000 68.7 187.8 [72]

Table 9 • Phase change temperatures and latent heat of fusions of polyalcohols

Polyalcohol Melting point (C) Latent heat References
(kJ/kg)
Neopentylglycol (NPG) 129 110–120 [73]

2-Amino-2-methyl-1,3-propanediol (AMPL) 100–110 239 [74]

Pentaglycerine (PG) 82 172.5 [75]

Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane 132.4–134.5 285.3–295.6 [76]

(TRIS)

Pentaerythritol (PERT) 185–191 289–339.5 [77]

Table 10 • Phase change temperatures and latent heat of fusions of metallic PCMs [7]
Metals Melting point (C) Latent heat (kJ/kg) References
Gallium 30 80.3 [78]

Bi-Cd-In eutectic 61 25 [6]

Bi-Pd-In eutectic 70 29 [6]

Bi-In eutectic 72 25 [6]

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4.4. Encapsulation method 5. Tools for the characterization of PCMs

Encapsulation refers to the housing of the material in a container/ The selection of a suitable PCM for a particular TES application is
shell of fixed volume to reach certain objectives [5], such as: very crucial. The potential PCM should have a suitable melting
● Prevents undesirable exposure of working with PCMs in an temperature, desirable heat of fusion, and thermal conductivity
outdoor environment. specified for that practical application. Numerous techniques are
available for the characterization and measurement of thermal and
● Controls PCM leakage during phase change. chemical properties of PCMs. Differential scanning calorimetry
● Increases heat transfer. (DSC) is used for analyzing the thermal properties of PCMs. In DSC
test, the sample and the reference (with known thermal properties)
● Accommodates volume change during the transition. are maintained at the same temperature throughout the meas-
The encapsulation method is sub-categorized into (1) macroen- urement process, and by measuring the difference of heat added
capsulation, (2) microencapsulation, and (3) nanoencapsulation. between the sample and the reference material, thermal properties
of the sample can be obtained, such as heat of fusion, heat capacity
Macroencapsulation deals with the enclosure of PCMs in a and melting/solidification temperature, and the effect of multiple
container of any geometry such as pockets, pouches, spheres, thermal cycling on thermal properties of PCMs. The thermal sta-
shells, thin plates, tubes, and so on. This enables easy installa- bility of the prepared PCMs can be evaluated using the thermo-
tion of PCMs in buildings or act as heat exchangers. The size of gravimetric analysis (TGA) technique. PCMs are heated over a
macroencapsulated PCMs can reach beyond a few centimeter- temperature range from ambient temperature to high elevated
level ranges. The features of macroencapsulated PCMs include temperature profiles (800–900°C) at a prescribed heating rate.
good leakage prevention and volume control, weathering pro- Some researchers analyzed the limitations of conventional meth-
tection, poor heat transfer, the tendency of solidification at the ods, including conventional calorimetry and DSC, and then put
edges, poor thermal conductivity, etc. [79]. Microencapsulation forward a new method called T-history method to determine the
is a process of embedding solid or liquid PCM materials as core melting temperature, degree of supercooling, heat of fusion,
inside a thin layer of polymer or inorganic material as a shell specific heat, and thermal conductivity of PCMs. The morphology
[80], to form a capsule, having a diameter range of 1–1,000 µm of the prepared PCM samples can be investigated using a scanning
[78]. Microencapsulation helps in controlling the leakage of electron microscope (SEM) and particle size distribution (PSD).
PCMs, volume change during heat cycles, improving heat SEM produces images of a sample by focusing an electron beam on
transfer surface area, adding physical support to the product, it, and PSD lists the values that define the relative amount of a
easy handling, mitigation of odor or taste, prevention against substance into mixture. PSD sometimes is also called as grain size
degradation, and evaporation, among others. Nanoencapsula- distribution. Chemical compatibility of the mixture is tested using
tion is a method of encapsulating PCMs inside a nano-sized Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) technique in
entity. Nanoencapsulated PCMs have gained much attention as which infrared (IR) radiation is passed through the sample. Some
TES materials in the last two decades due to their high surface of the IR radiation is transmitted through the sample and some
area to volume ratio and are much better than microencapsu- absorbed into it. Therefore, to ensure accurate measurement and
lated PCMs [81]. minimize the uncertainties in the measured values, it is necessary
to calibrate the equipment in order to obtain the correct data.
4.5. Shape-stabilized PCMs
These are another class of TES materials, in which the PCM is
dispersed in a supporting matrix to produce dimensionally form- 6. Polymer-based PCMs
stable composites. These materials possess certain attractive Polymers are being widely used both for the preparation of
features such as large heat densities, good thermal conductivity, encapsulated and shape-stabilized PCMs. The advantages of
providing shape stability, and leak proofing during phase change, using polymers for PCM storage are listed in Figure 4.
thus eliminating the need for any container for encapsulation and
improving the durability over long thermal cycling [80].

Figure 4 • Benefits of using polymer for PCM storage.

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6.1. Polyolefin polymer-based PCMs fins when compared to LDPE capsule without fins at −6°C and
−9°C bath temperatures.
Mu et al. [82] produced two different sets of high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) shape-stabilized phase change materials A shape-stabilized PCM composite composed of HDPE as a
(SSPCMs) using twin-screw extruder having low (L-PW, Tm: 18– packaging material holding paraffin within its macromolecular
23°C) and high (H-PW, Tm:56–58°C) melting point paraffin domain structure containing EG with enhanced thermal con-
waxes as the TES component. DSC indicated the latent heat ductivity and leakage-proof was prepared. Among all the studied
enthalpy of SSPCMs with H-PW decreases with increasing H-PW samples in the experiment, the sample made up of HDPE (10
concentration to a higher range due to co-crystallization between wt.%) and EG (5 wt.%) exhibited the best performance, and its
H-PW and HDPE. Guo et al. [83] incorporated microencapsu- thermal conductivity reached 0.641 W/(mK), which is 2.7 times
lated PCMs (Core: Dodecanol; Shell: MF resin) made by in-situ higher than that of the paraffin. Moreover, the latent heat and
polymerization into wood–plastic composites (WPCs) based on thermal cycling test of this sample showed that it can maintain
HDPE matrix to obtain value-added heat storage property. 95% latent heat post 120 thermal cycles, indicating its high
HDPE WPCs containing PCM microcapsules exhibited excellent thermal storage stability [88].
thermal stability where it undergoes 5% weight loss at 256.9°C.
Huang et al. [84] inspected the thermal and structural charac- 6.2. Vinyl polymer-based PCMs
teristics of the shape-stabilized composites having organic PCMs Jin et al. [89] fabricated form-stable phase change composite
such as cetyl alcohol in weight ratio 70–90 wt.% dispersed in materials (FSPCMs) by compression molding, constituting
HDPE supporting matrix, reinforced by carbon fibers (CF) in varying dosage of microencapsulated PCMs (5–25 wt.%) inside
varying weight ratio. High dose as much as 5 wt.% CF filled polyvinyl chloride (PVC)/wood flour matrix. The mechanical
composites showed phase change properties of melting and properties were found to be inversely proportional to the PCM
solidification temperatures at 48.55°C and 41.51°C with accom- microcapsules content, while gradually increasing the weight
panied latent heat values of 171.04 and 96.44 kJ/kg, respectively, fraction of microcapsules from 0 to 25 wt.%. The concentration
along with improved leakage control, thermal stability, and of 10 wt.% of microencapsulated PCMs in PVC/wood flour
thermal conductivity. The addition of expanded graphite (EG) in composites was found to be optimum with good mechanical
HDPE containing stearyl alcohol (SAL) as the active PCM, as properties for practical applications. Zhang et al. [90] studied the
reported by Tang et al. [85], improved the shape stability of the combined phenomena of the addition of both microencapsulated
composites by ensuring good leakage control and an increase in PCMs as temperature-regulating and TiO2 nanoparticles as a UV
the thermal conductivity from 0.1966 W/(m K) (without EG) to blocking additive to a thin PVC film for solar energy storage
0.6698 W/(m K) (with 3% EG). The reinforced HDPE composites applications. The spherical PCM microcapsules of 2–15 μm size
with SAL mass ratio ~85% had an onset melting temperature of range were composed of octadecane as core, well encapsulated
around 57°C with a corresponding latent heat value of 200 kJ/kg. inside melamine-formaldehyde resin as a protective shell, syn-
Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) were infused with PEG400 and thesized by in-situ polymerization technique. The amount for
PEG600 to yield form-stable HNT/PCM nano-hybrids mixture, both PCM microcapsules and TiO2 nanoparticles in the PVC
which was melt blended with low-density polyethylene (LDPE) matrix film was varied according to a weight fraction of 3%, 6%,
using twin-screw extruder followed by blown film extrusion to and 9 wt.%. DSC analysis suggested that PVC films with 6 wt.%
finally obtain flexible nanocomposite films with thermal octadecane microcapsules showed good heat energy storage
buffering characteristics at low-temperature cold-chain storage density of 8.77 J/g. Further, the incorporation of 6 wt.% TiO2
and transportation applications. The produced nanocomposite nanoparticles to this particular composition of PCM containing
films bestowed reasonable mechanical properties with phase films experienced enhanced phase change temperatures and heat
change transition from −17°C to 26°C with associated latent storage energy to 9.22 J/g, as compared to other samples.
heat of 2.3 J/g. Moreover, nanocomposite films delayed the Outcomes of the addition of nano-TiO2 on the phase change
warming of frozen and chilled samples for 18 and 20 minutes, enthalpies and thermal conductivity of the films are shown in
respectively, relative to neat LDPE films [86]. Premnath et al. Figure 5. Temperature-regulating films 6 wt.% micro-PCMs and
[87] used deionized water as the PCM and examined the 6 wt.% TiO2 nanoparticles displayed excellent thermal reliability
freezing features of the PCM in LDPE spherical capsule fitted where they withstand 100 thermal cycles, with very minute
with and without fins. They observed that 50% of the PCM mass variation phase change temperature and enthalpies as shown in
has frozen in 21% and 16% of the freezing time with the help of Figure 6.

Figure 5 • Influence of nano-TiO2 addition on enthalpy values and thermal conductivity of the fabricated thermal-regulating films. Data
from [90].

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base fluid. Tet/PS-SiO2 nanocapsules with an average size of

151.3 nm had a melting enthalpy of 83.38 KJ/kg. The
incorporation of SiO2 to nanocapsules by grafting SiO2 on PS
shells led to an increment in the thermal conductivity of Tet/PS-
SiO2 slurry by 8.4%.

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles decorated (poly-(4-

methylstyrene-co-divinylbenzene)) PCM microcapsules contain-
ing hexadecane were prepared following a one-pot non-Pickering
emulsion templated suspension polymerization. Energy-disper-
sive X-ray (EDX) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirmed
the presence of TiO2 over the polymeric shell. Metal oxide
decorated PCM microcapsules with 2.6 wt.% TiO2 potentially
exhibited maximum latent heat enthalpy of 174 J/g with an
encapsulation efficiency of 76.6%. Additionally, these microcap-
sules also showed excellent photo-catalytic activity by synergistic
photo-thermal effect and can be utilized as solar energy storage
and depollution materials [95]. A flexible composite material
Figure 6 • The thermal cycling stability of the fabricated film based on styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) as a supporting
incorporated with 6 wt.% micro-PCMs and 6 wt.% nano-TiO2. material, paraffin as a PCM, and EG as a thermal conductivity
Data from [90]. enhancer was fabricated by dissolving in an organic solvent and
utilized in battery thermal management system. It was observed
6.3. Styrenic polymer-based PCMs that during the 5°C discharge process, the maximum temper-
ature of the battery module can be maintained below 46°C and
Giro-Paloma et al. [91] used an emulsion copolymerization the temperature difference can be controlled within 4°C. Also,
technique to obtain a microencapsulated PCM shell made up of after heating at 55°C for 5 hours, the quality of the composite
poly-(styrene-co-ethyl acrylate) (PScEA) for the encapsulation of remained above 99%. As a supporting elastic network material,
paraffins (Capsule A) and palmitic acid (Capsule B) as TES SBS can effectively improve the flexibility and elastic properties
materials. Mean particle sizes of both paraffin and fatty acid of the PCM. The presence of EG significantly improves the
encapsulated in copolymer shells were found to be 166 and 265 thermal conductivity of the composite PCM, with the thermal
nm, respectively. AFM data at low and above phase change conductivity of SBS/paraffin/EG (4%) reaching 0.88 W/(Km);
temperatures represented that Capsule A showed an almost however, the same PCM does not continue to increase when the
similar force required to collapse the capsules at different weight fraction of EG exceeds 4% [96].
temperatures (25°C and 50°C), whereas for fatty acid-loaded
Capsule B, the force required to break the capsule at 70°C was ten 6.4. Acrylic polymer-based PCMs
times than with the amount required at 25°C. Fang et al. [92]
worked upon cold TES applications, such as air conditioning, and Wang et al. [97] developed microencapsulated PCMs with the
developed a latent functionally thermal fluid (LFTF) comprising value-added function of thermo-chromic property by the
nanoencapsulated PCM capsules with n-Tetradecane as core and introduction of thermo-chromic pigments to the acrylic polymer
polystyrene (PS) made by ultrasonic-assisted miniemulsion shells. The thermo-chromic pigments were first treated with a
polymerization with the n-Tetradecane core content of 89 wt.%. silane coupling agent to improve the affinity toward organic
PS/n-Tetradecane nanocapsules with an average diameter of 132 phases and then incorporated on the interface of n-octadecane
nm were well distributed in the prepared slurry and formed the droplets present in oil/water emulsion leading to thermochromic
main energy storage components that possessed the melting and pigment/PMMA shell formation via suspension polymerization
freezing temperatures of 4.04°C and −3.43°C along with their technique, as shown in Figure 7. Carreira et al. [98] studied the
corresponding latent heat enthalpies values of 98.71 J/g and role of thermal initiators such as Benzoyl Peroxide (BPO),
91.27 J/g, respectively. Azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN), and Trigonox 23 (TRIG) and
different reaction temperatures on the rate of polymerization and
Fang et al. [93] synthesized polystyrene (PS)/n-dotriacontane PCM microcapsule properties for the synthesis of octadecane
(Dot) nanoencapsulated phase change material (NEPCM) by encapsulated acrylic microcapsules, using suspension technique,
miniemulsion polymerization technique initiated ultrasonically for thermo-responsive textiles. The obtained microcapsules
and studied the influence of parameters such as time and possessed both energy storage enthalpy, about 175 J/g, and good
temperature, ultrasonic power output, the ratio of co-emulsifiers thermal stability. Huang et al. [99] synthesized and prepared a
used (sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and poly-(ethylene glycol) series of microencapsulated PCMs for thermo-regulated fabrics
monooctylphenyl ether (OP-10)), Styrene/Dot ratio, etc., on by selecting poly (allyl methacrylate) (PALMA) as the shell
average diameter, rate of polymer conversion, encapsulation material for encapsulation of organic binary PCM cores
efficiency, and latent heat capacities of prepared NEPCM. The including butyl stearate (BS) and tetradecanol (TD). PALMA
results suggested that the applied ultrasonic method produced microencapsulated binary PCMs with an encapsulation content
nanocapsules of a mean diameter of 168.2 nm with high of 76.4 wt.% exhibited phase-transition temperatures and
conversion rates (95.02%) and good encapsulation efficiency latent energy values of 20.1–32.6°C and 73.3 J/g, respectively.
(61.23%) and high latent heat enthalpy of 174.8 J/g. Fu et al. [94] Zhao et al. [100] used a suspension polymerization technique to
produced a nanoencapsulated PCM slurry for cold energy storage synthesize microencapsulated PCMs with dual functions of UV-
consisting of n-Tetradecane (Tet) core-based nanocapsules with shielding and TES. The developed microcapsules comprised
hybrid shell wall (polystyrene-silica, PS-SiO2), dispersed in a

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octadecane as the core PCM confined in polymethylmethacrylate microcapsules were 48.26 J/g, 153.82 J/g, and 73.2%, respec-
(PMMA) shell embedded with modified TiO2 nanoparticles, as tively. The thermal cycling stability of the synthesized PCM is
the UV absorber. DSC analysis showed that the melting and shown in Figure 8.
crystallization enthalpy and encapsulation efficiency of doped

Figure 7 • Schematic fabrication process of thermo-chromatic microencapsulated phase change materials. (a) The modification
process of thermo-chromic pigments. (b) The formation process of the TC-micro PCMs based on n-octadecane core and thermo-
chromic pigments/PMMA shell through suspension-like polymerization. Adapted with permission from [97].

Figure 8 • Thermal cycling stability of synthesized microencapsulated PCMs with varying dosage of titanium nanoparticles (a) 1st
cycle and (b) 500th cycle. Data from [100].

Wang et al. [101] obtained nanoencapsulated PCMs by encap- ultrasonically initiated in-situ polymerization method. DSC data
sulating stearic acid inside PMMA nanocapsules by using an suggested that the thermal storage ability and encapsulation

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efficiency of fabricated PMMA/stearic acid nanocapsules were nanofibers become more uniform and straight upon EG addition;
155.6 J/g and 83.0%, respectively. Su et al. [102] produced mi- also, the average diameter of Nylon-6/EG was lower than pure
croencapsulated PCMs following the free-radical polymerization Nylon-6. Casado et al. [106] worked on the design optimization
route where they opted for n-octadecane as a core latent heat and improvement of fatigue resistance of injection-molded short-
storage material and PMMA as a shell component, which fiber glass-reinforced polyamide structural parts used in high-
exhibited a phase change at 22.68°C and energy storage density speed rail fastenings. The addition of an inorganic hydrated salt
of 170 kJ/kg with thermal stability behavior above 160°C. Şahan PCM (Na2S2O3.5H2O) provided a cooling effect to the reinforced
et al. [103] used acrylic copolymer shells to successfully encapsu- polyamide component and controlled the increase in polymer
late behenic acid (BeA) via emulsion polymerization technique to temperature, as a viscoelastic response under the dynamic cyclic
obtain microcapsules with uniform spherical geometry, with fatigue loads. Fatigue resistance of these structural components
particle size ranging below 500 nm. They showed a phase change filled with PCMs increased by 400% against the polyamide parts
temperature ranging between 65°C and 85°C with maximum without PCMs.
latent heat capacity of 58 J/g. The resulted product was reported
suitable for potential applications such as industrial waste heat, 6.6. Polyester polymer-based PCMs
electronics, solar residential heating, lithium-ion batteries, auto- Cai et al. [107] investigated the outcome of the silica nanoparti-
motive applications, and so on. cles (nano-SiO2) addition on morphological, thermal stability,
heat storage, and combustion characteristics of electrospun LA
6.5. Polyamide polymer-based PCMs containing polyethylene terephthalate (PET) composite fibers.
Cai et al. [104] determined the structural morphologies and TES DSC analysis indicated that the heat storage enthalpy values
properties of electrospun polyamide 6 nanofibers-based phase initially increase with increasing nano-SiO2 and then decrease
change composites containing fatty acid eutectics, mainly capric with further nanoparticles loading. Golestaneh et al. [108] fabri-
acid (CA). The fabricated composite nanofibers had phase change cated phase change composite fibers by an innovative co-
temperatures and corresponding enthalpies lower than that of electrospinning method utilizing eutectics mixtures of binary
pure CA. Cai et al. [105] studied the impact of 10 wt.% of EG on fatty acids: capric-lauric acid (CA-LA) and capric-palmitic acid
structural and thermal properties of Nylon-6 electrospun nano- (CA-PA) as the energy storage component and PET as the sup-
fibrous mats consisting of fatty acid eutectic mixtures of CA. porting matrix fibers (Figure 9). Morphological results indi-
These polyamide nanofibers composites were made as PCMs by cated that the fatty acids were fairly dispersed in the PET
soaking them for ten hours until saturated absorption into an filaments and the mean diameter of composite fibers improved
ultrasonically melt-blended solutions of capric acid (CA)-lauric by raising the PCM concentration in the PET matrix. The fabri-
acid (LA), capric acid (CA)-palmitic acid (PA), and capric acid cated fibers possessed a wider range of phase change temper-
(CA)-stearic acid (SA) to allow their absorption by the fabricated atures (−9 to 34°C).
nanofibrous mats. SEM images indicated that Nylon-6/EG

Figure 9 • The schematic view of the co-electrospinning setup. Adapted with permission from [108].

Nejman et al. [109] studied the effects of heating/cooling cycle to an increase in endothermic phase transitions and a decrease in
rates (1, 5, 10, 15°C/min) on TES and retrieval properties of crystallization temperatures. The variations of latent heat
polyester-based knitted and woven fabrics impregnated with energies of fabrics with different heating rates are illustrated in
polymer pastes, containing 40 wt.% of two microencapsulated Figure 10.
PCMs. It was evident that an increase in heating/cooling rates led

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Figure 10 • Phase change temperatures and variation of latent heat energies of fabrics with different heating rates. (a) Latent heat of
melting and (b) latent heat of crystallization. Data from [109].

6.7. Aminoplastic-based PCMs resin for encapsulation of CA, by coacervation method for TES
Yoo et al. [110] investigated the effect of incorporation of purposes. It was clear that UF resin was a more suitable capsule
eicosane-filled melamine-formaldehyde microcapsules into glass material among all other used shell materials which offered
fibers (GF) reinforced epoxy resin on thermo-physical properties latent heat enthalpies of 93.9 and 106.1 J/g during the heating
of fiber-reinforced plastics composites. Thermal conductivities of and cooling process, respectively. Liu et al. [114] developed a
produced composites showed decreasing trends with increasing LFTF to be employed as direct absorption solar collectors
microencapsulated PCMs, owing to the low thermal conductivity (DASCs) by dispersing the paraffin encapsulated graphite
of capsule shell layer. Thermal stabilities of the prepared com- nanoparticles modified MF microcapsules in an ionic liquid, 1-
posite were decreased due to lack of interfacial adhesion between butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([BMIM]BF4).
fibrous filler and the matrix. Hu et al. [111] used an in-situ The microencapsulated slurries with encapsulated paraffin
polymerization technique to achieve carboxymethylcellulose content of 51.1 wt.% exhibited phase change temperature and
(CMC)-modified melamine-formaldehyde (MF) spherical nano- latent heat enthalpy of 50.5°C and 90.8 J/g, respectively, while
capsules of an average diameter of around 50 nm. The DSC test the incorporation of graphite nanoparticles to the MF shell
reported that the heat energy enthalpies were improved by CMC enhanced the thermal conductivity of produced LFTF as
addition to a certain concentration and reached an optimum illustrated in Figure 12. Upon irradiation, the temperature of
latent heat enthalpy value of 83.46 J/g, with an encapsulation LFTF increased from 30°C to 113°C proving the high photo-
ratio of confined paraffin of 63.1%. Zhang et al. [112] incor- thermal performance and thermal storage potential of these
porated graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets as an extra protective developed slurries, which was about twice that of the pure ionic
layer at the junction between core and shell materials made by liquid.
in-situ polymerization composed of paraffin and melamine-
formaldehyde resin (MF) to develop a new type of microen-
capsulated PCMs as represented in Figure 11. The average
diameters of the capsules gradually enlarged with an upsurge in
GO content from 6.32 to 15.89 μm against a diameter of 5.63 μm
in the absence of GO nanosheets. An additional GO layer enabled
the prepared microcapsules to efficiently control and minimized
the paraffin leakage rate from the MF shell by 93.1% during 50
hours of thermal exposure.

Figure 12 • Thermal conductivity of [BMIM]BF4 and the slurries

containing different microencapsulated PCMs. Data from [114].

Microencapsulated PCMs composed of graphene oxide sup-

Figure 11 • Schematic view for possible permeation through the ported urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin capsules, filled with
shells with GO. Adapted with permission from [112]. paraffin wax with a phase change temperature of 30.83°C and an
associated heat of fusion equal to 90.23 J/g were developed via
Konuklu et al. [113] used various aminoplastic-based shell in-situ polymerization technique. This solution was further
materials including urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin, melamine- mixed with cement to form a cement slurry to control the heat
formaldehyde (MF) resin, and urea-melamine-formaldehyde evolution and prevent or delay the undesirable speed of the

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hydration reaction in the cement, in addition to reducing the and 10 µm and possessed high latent heat storage density of
contents of C–S–H and Ca(OH)2. The thermal conductivity 145.5 J/g. Moreover, highly thermally conductive BN effec-
values were found to be varied linearly with increasing order of tively enhances the thermal conductivity of the microcapsules
graphene oxide concentrations where at 0.30% graphene oxide and supplies them with a fast thermal-responsive rate [120].
content, a hike of 53.84% in the thermal conductivity value was Naikwadi et al. [121] put efforts to develop solar TES coating
observed. This evaluated cement slurry can be resourceful in using melamine-formaldehyde (MF) shell microcapsules with
meeting the requirements of marine sector [115]. Gao et al. [116] an n-Tetracosane as core PCM, which were subjected to an
focused on the synthesis of PCM slurry for direct absorption solar epoxy primer-polyurethane (EP-PU) topcoat system in differ-
collector with optimal heat storage properties and photo-thermal ent loading concentrations (0–25 wt.%). The microcapsules
conversion, by dispersing the spherical PCM microcapsules of 4 tend to melt at 53.07°C with latent heat of melting of 134.74
µm in diameter made up of melamine-formaldehyde (MF) resin J/g and crystallize at 48.81 with latent heat crystallization of
and octadecane containing oleic acid-coated magnetic nanoparti- 133.32 J/g. The phase change properties of the coated
cles (OA-MNs) as the shell and core, respectively, into MWCNTs- material were found to increase with the increase in the
H2O nano-fluids. The prepared super-paramagnetic micro- microcapsule loading. Coating properties (pencil hardness,
encapsulated PCM particles had encapsulation efficiency of flexibility, and scratch resistance) deteriorate with increased
63.51% corresponding to phase change enthalpy of 145 J/g. The microcapsule loading.
oleic acid-modified magnetic nanoparticles were found to have
boosted the thermal conductivity of the PCM microcapsules. 6.8. Polyurea and polyurethane polymers-based PCMs
Therefore, the resultant slurry consisting of 0.01 wt.% MWCNTs Lu et al. [122] carried out the microencapsulation of BS inside a
and 15 wt.% PCMs had the optimal photo-thermal conversion three-dimensional polyurethane (PU) shell network using
properties and thermal storage capacity. pentaerythritol as a cross-linking agent, via interfacial polymer-
Srinivasaraonaik et al. [117] used an in-situ polymerization ization. The resultant cross-linked microcapsules possessed
technique to obtain the microencapsulated PCM consisting of smooth and compact surface morphology with good thermal sta-
fatty acid eutectic mixture—75% stearic acid (SA) + 25% CA as bility and heat storage characteristics. Zhan et al. [123]
the core and MF resin as the shell material. They found out that synthesized polyurea microcapsules encompassing paraffin as a
a balanced pH (3.2) and stirring rates (1,500 rpm) controlled the core for TES applications by interfacial polycondensation tech-
microstructures of the obtained microencapsulated PCM, nique. The resultant polyurea microcapsules showed heat of
having spherical configurations with the smooth surface phase change about 92.5 J/g with successful encapsulation of
morphology and a particle size of 10.41 μm. The melting point 44.5 wt.% of paraffin PCM. Sundararajan et al. [124] synthesized
and latent heat of fusion of the produced microcapsules were hyperbranched polyurethanes by reacting an adduct of PEG-IPDI
found to be 34.5°C and 103.9 kJ/kg, respectively. The ob- capped isocyanate with a trifunctional monomer, trimethylolpro-
tained microencapsulated PCM also showed improved thermal pane (TMP) in varying molar concentrations, as a polymeric
stability, because of the outer MF resin protective layer as solid–solid PCM. The prepared polymeric solid–solid PCM
compared to the raw PCM with high encapsulation efficiency possessed maximum fusion enthalpy of 145 J/g, which was found
of 85.3%. Zhang et al. [118] prepared zirconium carbide (ZrC) to increase with increasing PEG mass ratio and undergoes a
nanoparticles decorated with the microencapsulated PCM phase transition at 55°C. Zhou et al. [125] incorporated HNTs as
containing melamine-urea-formaldehyde (MUF) shells filled a reinforcing agent to the prepared solid–solid PCM made by
with paraffin and studied the effect of ZrC nanoparticles on reacting polyethylene glycol (PEG, M.W. 4000) and hexameth-
microstructure, thermal storage, thermal stability, thermal ylene diisocyanate biuret (HDIB), leading to cross-linked polyu-
conductivity, and photo-thermal conversion behavior. They rethane (PU) structures. HNTs offered excellent thermal stabil-
observed that the thermal properties of microcapsules ity. However, with an increase in HDIB concentrations, the phase
consisting of 4% ZrC nanoparticles were better than the change temperature decreased from 32.9°C to 24.2°C and the
unfilled microencapsulated PCM and concluded that the latent enthalpies reduced from 123.7 to 85.8 J/g owing to
enthalpy was slightly increased by 14.92% and the thermal excessive cross-linking.
conductivity was increased by 225.16%, owing to the presence Wang et al. [126] utilized Pickering emulsion polymerization to
of metal nanoparticles. In addition, they showed remarkable synthesize polyurethane shells filled with methyl laurate-based
optical absorption capability of 70.23%. Nanoencapsulated PCMs. The obtained microcapsules exhibited core–shell arrange-
PCMs comprising of paraffin wax as latent heat storage core ment and a smooth surface with shell thickness of 8∼10 μm and
component and melamine-formaldehyde (MF) as shell were the particle size ranging between 150 and 350 μm. The melting
synthesized by the in-situ polymerization technique. The and crystallization enthalpies of microcapsules were as high as
spherical nanocapsules were present in average diameter of 147.71 and 143.36 J/g, respectively, accompanied with 83.34% of
260–450 nm. They undergo phase transitions at 49°C and encapsulation efficiency. They also showed excellent thermal
54°C, respectively, with corresponding latent of fusion and reliability and thermal cycling stability. Zhu et al. [127] developed
crystallization recorded as 107.4–135.3 and 109.8–133.1 J/g, temperature controlling coating materials containing microen-
respectively. They possessed good thermal stability and also capsulated PCMs composed of n-octadecane as core and polyurea
exhibited decent thermal reliability after withstanding 2,000 as shell walls, which were synthesized via interfacial polymer-
thermal cycles [119]. A series of microencapsulated PCMs with ization technique. Morphological studies reveal the PCM micro-
boron nitride (BN) reinforced melamine-formaldehyde resin capsules can maintain its original shape and be dispersed
shell for improving the thermal conductivity was successfully uniformly in the coatings with 30 wt.% microencapsulated PCM
synthesized via in-situ polymerization technique. The ob- loads and ensured the latent heat capacity of microencapsulated
tained metal particles decorated with PCM microcapsules PCMs and the heat storage coatings are 151.89 and 45.5 J/g,
exhibited spherical profiles with a diameter ranging between 5

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respectively. Test chambers having wall boards painted with and groups in the pathway of search of future PCMs for latent heat
without microencapsulated PCM coatings were tested under the storage technology based on polymers. The scattered research
same conditions and compared. Overall, the chamber with available on this significant topic has been clubbed up to shape up as
microencapsulated PCM coatings can maintain a stable tempera- a detailed review on the utility of polymers, whether natural or
ture of 26–28°C for approximately 77 minutes when the heating synthetic, in the development or production of new and advanced
load is 80 W/m2. However, the chamber without PCM coating PCMs in the form of encapsulated or shape-stabilized PCMs
can only maintain such temperature for 13 minutes. composed of different types of PCMs, different shell wall materials,
or supporting matrices.
7. Other non-polymeric-based PCMs
In a recent study, PCM composites were developed by using the Acknowledgments
eutectic PCMs mixture of CA and LA as the active PCM and waste
fly ash as a supporting material. The performance of these PCM The authors would like to thank Delhi Technological University
composites was evaluated through simulation, by taking Guang- for providing technical and financial assistance.
dong as a reference city, with desirable temperature around 25°C.
The required temperature properties were achieved by using a
mass ratio of CA/LA of 4:6. The optimum FA/PCMs composite has
Funding
a latent heat of 45.38 J/g and has good thermal reliabilities. The The authors declare no financial support for the research,
results proved that the preparation of such PCMs is an efficient way authorship, or publication of this article.
for the reuse of solid waste FA by subjecting the inorganic material
for good contribution to the development of energy-saving
buildings [128]. Li et al. [129] fabricated PCM composites by Author contributions
introducing PEG into mesoporous pores of ZSM-5 assisted with Conceptualization, R.K.; methodology, S.T.; validation, R.K.;
vacuum impregnation. The latent heat of the as-prepared PCMs formal analysis, S.T. and R.K.; investigation, S.T.; resources, S.T.;
reaches 76.37 J/g without any leakage. Shape-stabilized PCMs data curation, S.T.; writing—original draft preparation, S.T.;
based on polyethylene glycol (PEG) loaded in varying loadings of writing—review and editing, R.K.; supervision, R.K.; project
60–90 wt.% confined in porous fumed silica (FS) as the porous administration, R.K. All authors have read and agreed to the
support were successfully investigated. The optimum 80 wt.% published version of the manuscript.
PEG/FS PCM possessed a high crystallinity of 93.1%, correspond-
ing to a remarkable TES capacity of 130.6 J/g, and excellent
thermal reliability post experiencing 500 thermal cycles. It was Conflicts of interest
observed that porous silica provided sufficient cavities to confine a
large amount of PEG with interactions such as surface tension, The authors declare no conflict of interest.
capillary, and interfacial hydrogen bonds (H-bond). The interfacial
H-bonds negatively affected the crystallinity of PEG and decreased
the TES capacity, which could be relieved by a large content of
Data availability statement
confined PEG [130]. He et al. [131] successfully developed Data supporting these findings are available within the article, at
temperature-regulating cement-based PCMs by incorporating https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadMatSci6184, or upon request.
PCM microcapsules composed of CA as latent heat storage compo-
nent and hydroxyapatite as the shell wall material. Fatty acid-filled
hydroxyapatite microcapsules exhibited high CA absorption ratio Institutional review board statement
and good physicochemical stability. The incorporation of CA/HAP Not applicable.
in cement-based materials leads to a decrease in workability,
acceleration of hydration process, and significant improvement of
thermal regulation property. The compressive strength of mixtures Informed consent statement
containing PCM capsules is noted to be increased when incorporat-
ing 10% of PCM microcapsule by volume. Not applicable.

8. Conclusions Sample availability

This comprehensive review presents the necessity of energy storage The authors declare no physical samples were used in the study.
and known TES technology, including PCMs available to mankind.
Fatty acid-based PCMs can be effectively useful in reducing the
reliance on the latent heat storage materials generated through fossil
Additional information
fuels while potently acting as an environmentally friendly energy Received: 2024-01-22
solution in making a “cleaner” and “greener” ecosystem as well as Accepted: 2024-03-25
boosting the concept of sustainable development. This study will
help readers in understanding the working, selection criteria, nature Published: 2024-05-02
of a broad range of PCMs, and also storage methodologies for their Academia Materials Science papers should be cited as Academia
effective usage in practical applications. This detailed literature Materials Science 2024, ISSN 2997–2027, https://doi.org/10.
study is focused on highlighting the significance of polymers in vast 20935/AcadMatSci6184. The journal’s official abbreviation is
research and development activities carried out by various research Acad. Mat. Sci.

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Publisher’s note 11. Rathod AC, Bandela CV, Rehman AR. Experimental study
on phase change material based thermal energy storage
Academia.edu stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in system. Int Res J Eng Technol. 2017;4(11):1–6.
published maps and institutional affiliations. All claims expressed
in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily 12. Akamo DO. Stabilization of low-cost phase change materi-
represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the als for thermal energy storage applications. IScience.
publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be 2023;26:107175; 1–17. doi: 10.1016/ j.isci.2023.107175
evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its 13. Schmit H, Pfeffer W, Rathgeber C, Hiebler S. Experimental
manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. investigation of the concentration dependent maximum
storage capacity of two inorganic phase change materials.
Energy Procedia. 2015;73:231–8.
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