Introduction

• Block diagram is a shorthand, graphical representation of a

physical system, illustrating the functional relationships among its
components.
OR
• A Block Diagram is a shorthand pictorial representation of the
cause-and-effect relationship of a system.

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 Introduction

• The simplest form of the block diagram is the single block, with
one input and one output.

• The interior of the rectangle representing the block usually

contains a description of or the name of the element, or the symbol
for the mathematical operation to be performed on the input to
yield the output.

• The arrows represent the direction of information or signal flow.

d
x y
dt
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 Introduction
• The operations of addition and subtraction have a special
representation.
• The block becomes a small circle, called a summing point,
with the appropriate plus or minus sign associated with the
arrows entering the circle.

• Any number of inputs may enter a summing point.

• The output is the algebraic sum of the inputs.

• Some books put a cross in the circle.

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 Components of a BD for a LTI System

• System components are alternatively called elements of the

system.
• Block diagram has four components:
• Signals
• System/ block
• Summing junction
• Pick-off/ Take-off point

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• In order to have the same signal or variable be an input to
more than one block or summing point, a take-off point is
used.
• It distributes the input signal, undiminished, to several
output points.
• This permits the signal to proceed unaltered along several
different paths to several destinations.

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 Example-1

• Consider the following equations in which x1, x2,. . . , xn, are

variables, and a1, a2,. . . , an , are general coefficients or
mathematical operators.

xn  a1 x1  a2 x2  an1 xn1

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 Topologies

• We will now examine some common topologies for

interconnecting subsystems and derive the single transfer
function representation for each of them.

• These common topologies will form the basis for reducing

more complicated systems to a single block.

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 CASCADE
• Any finite number of blocks in series may be
algebraically combined by multiplication of transfer
functions.

• That is, n components or blocks with transfer functions G1 ,

G2, . . . , Gn, connected in cascade are equivalent to a single
element G with a transfer function given by

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 Example

• Multiplication of transfer functions is commutative; that is,

GiGj = GjGi
for any i or j .

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 CASCADE

Figure:
a) Cascaded Subsystems.
b) Equivalent Transfer Function.

The equivalent transfer function is

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 Parallel Form

• Parallel subsystems have a common input and an output formed by

the algebraic sum of the outputs from all of the subsystems.

Figure: Parallel Subsystems.

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 Parallel Form

Figure:
a) Parallel Subsystems.
b) Equivalent Transfer Function.

The equivalent transfer function is

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 Feedback Form
• The third topology is the feedback form. Let us derive the
transfer function that represents the system from its input to
its output. The typical feedback system, shown in figure:

Figure: Feedback (Closed Loop) Control System.

The system is said to have negative feedback if the sign at the summing
junction is negative and positive feedback if the sign is positive.
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 Feedback Form

Figure:
a) Feedback Control System.
b) Simplified Model or Canonical Form.
c) Equivalent Transfer Function.

The equivalent or closed-loop

transfer function is
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 Unity Feedback System

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 Characteristic Equation
 The control ratio is the closed loop transfer
function of the system.

C( s ) G( s )

R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )

 The denominator of closed loop transfer function

determines the characteristic equation of the
system.
 Which is usually determined as:
1  G( s ) H ( s )  0

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 Reduction techniques
1. Combining blocks in cascade

G1 G2 G1G2
2. Combining blocks in parallel
G1
G1  G2
G2
3. Moving a summing point after a block

G G
G
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 Reduction techniques
3. Moving a summing point before/ahead of a block

G G
1
G

4. Moving a pickoff point after/behind a block

G G
1
G

5. Moving a pickoff point before/ahead of a block

G G
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G 19
 Reduction techniques
6. Eliminating a feedback loop

G
G
1  GH
H

G
G
1 G

H 1
7. Swap with two neighboring summing points

A B B A

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.
.

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 Reduction of Complicated Block Diagrams

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 Example-4: Reduce the BD to Canonical Form.

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 Example-4: Continue

However in this example step-4 does not apply.

However in this example step-6 does not apply.

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 Example-5: Simplify the Block Diagram.

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 Example-5: Continue

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 Example-6: Reduce the Block Diagram

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 Example-6: Continue

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 Example-7: Reduce the Block Diagram

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 Example-7: Continue

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 Exercise 0

H2

R _ C
+_ + G1 + G2 G3
+

H1

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 Superposition of Multiple Inputs

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 Example-8: Multiple Input System. Determine the output C
due to inputs R and U using the Superposition Method.

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 Example-8: Continue

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 Example-8: Continue

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 Exercise 2: Multiple-Input System. Determine the output C due to
inputs R, U1 and U2 using the Superposition Method.

2. Multi-Input Multi-Output System. Determine C1 and C2

due to R1 and R2.

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 Exercise 3

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 Answer for a Given Exercise

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 Exercise 4:
Obtain the transfer function c(s)/R(s). verify the result by the
signal flow graph method.

Assignment 2: exercise 0 and 4

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