Module 1 Sensors and Energy Systems

Srinivas Institute of Technology, Mangaluru
Chemistry for Computer Science Engineering Stream (CS/AD/AI/CB/CI/CA/CD/IS)
MODULE 1: Sensors and Energy Systems
Sensors:
● Introduction
● Working principle and applications of conductometric sensors Electrochemical
sensors, Thermometric sensors, and Optical sensors.
● Sensors for the measurement of DO
● Electrochemical sensors for the pharmaceuticals, surfactants, hydrocarbons,
electrochemical gas sensors for SOx, NOx,
● Disposable sensors in the detection of biomolecules and pesticides
Energy Systems
● Introduction to batteries
● Construction, working and applications of Lithium ion and Sodium ion batteries.
● Quantum dots sensitized solar cells (QDSSC’s)- Principle, Properties and
Applications
Self -Learning Topics: Type of electrochemical sensors. Gas sensor- O2 sensor, biosensor-
Glucose sensors,
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MODULE 1: Sensors and Energy Systems
Sensors
The word “sensor” comes from Latin (sensus: sense) and means feeler. A sensor is a device
that responds to pressure, thermal energy, acoustic energy, electromagnetic energy, motion, or
magnetism by generating an electrical signal.
Transducer (Actuators + Sensors)
Converts a primary form of energy into a corresponding signal with a different energy form.
Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical, chemical, etc.
Actuators-
The Devices which perform an output function
Sensors-
A device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
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Depending on the exact mode of signal transduction, electrochemical sensors can use arrange
of modes of detection such as;
Potentiometric (measure voltage)
Amperometric (measure current)
Conductimetric (measure conductivity)
Each principle requires a specific design of the electrochemical cell.
Electrochemical sensors:
Electrochemical sensors are devices that give information about the composition of a system
in real time by coupling a chemically selective layer (the recognition element) to an
electrochemical transducer. Electrochemical sensors use a chemical reaction to measure the
concentration of a specific gas in an environment
Working principle
Electrochemical sensors work by reacting with the gas of interest and producing an electrical
signal proportional to the gas concentration. Consisting of two electrodes (a working
electrode and a counter electrode), the sensor operates by allowing charged molecules to pass
through a thin layer of electrolyte.
Electrochemical sensors are made up of three essential components: a receptor that
binds the sample, or analyte and a transducer to convert the reaction into a measurable
electrical signal. In the case of electrochemical sensors, the electrode acts as the transducer.
Electrochemical sensing always requires a closed circuit. Current must flow to make a
measurement
In most electrochemical sensors; An electrode surface is used as the site of the reaction. The
electrode will either oxidize or reduce the analyte of interest. The current that is produced
from the reaction is monitored and used to calculate important data such as concentrations
from the sample.
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An electrochemical sensor consists of the following components:

Gas permeable membrane – This material covers the sensing electrode and is used to
control the amount of gas molecules reaching the electrode surface. The membrane also
performs the important role of filtering unwanted particulates.
Electrode (anode) – to create an effective reaction with gas molecules, the electrode is
typically made from metals such as platinum or gold and works as a transducer. The anode is
the point at which the current enters the electrode.
Electrode (cathode) – this is the point where the current leaves the electrode.
Electrolyte - the electrolyte facilitates the cell reaction and carries the ionic charge across
the electrodes.
Sensing electrode (or working electrode),
Counter electrode separated by a thin layer of electrolyte.
The fundamental concept in the detection of analytes by electrochemical sensors involves the
measurement of electric current generated by chemical reactions in the electrochemical
system.
● The reactions which occur at the interface of the surface of an electrode between the
recognition element, and the target/binding analyte generate an electrical double layer
and thus this potential is measured after transforming these chemical reactions into
this measurable electrochemical signal by a recognition element, and a transducer of
the sensor.
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Electrochemical sensor’s working mechanism involves the interaction of the target analyte
material with the electrode surface and bringing the desired change as a consequence to a
redox reaction, which generates an electrical signal that can be transformed to explore the
nature of the analyte species.
Application of Electrochemical sensors
● Electrochemical sensors are considered attractive tools to determine important
molecules or biomarkers that are used for the diagnosis of diseases and disorders.
● They are used for the monitoring of toxic levels of different substances in food quality
and environmental control.
● The biosensor application areas of these sensors extend to medical and biomedical
applications, process control, bioreactors, quality control, agriculture, bacterial and
viral diagnosis, industrial wastewater control.
Electrochemical Sensor Applications

Electrochemical sensors are used in a variety of applications, and they continue to play an
important role in many industries. Some of the most common applications include:
1. Environmental monitoring of air quality
Due to the expanding industrial world, many countries are affected by poor air quality,
particularly in urban areas. This poses a threat to quality of life with the major contributors of
air pollution being nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, hydrogen sulfide, and some volatile organic
substances. Electrochemical gas sensors are now becoming an essential tool in monitoring
and controlling contaminations affecting atmospheric quality. They offer a cheaper
widespread air monitoring alternative to the traditional and more expensive air quality
monitors based on infra-red spectroscopy and gas chromatography.
2. Detection of explosive gases and toxic vapours
There is an increased focus on explosion prevention within hazardous locations in
manufacturing and chemical industries. This is due to the presence of toxic and combustible
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gases. The monitoring of these hazardous areas helps achieve safer working environments.
Government and industry regulations, such as COSHH and OSHA, require workers to be
limited to the exposure of toxic gases and fumes. This has seen an increase in the use of
electrochemical gas sensors, which provide improved sensitivity and selectivity for a broad
range of toxic gases.
3. Oxygen monitoring in the medical sector
Electrochemical oxygen sensors are used in many brands and models of medical respirators
and ventilators used in respiratory therapy, life support systems and emergency medicine.
Where critically ill patients are at risk of not receiving enough oxygen from ambient air due
to respiratory issues, ventilators are used to supply an oxygen- rich mix of medical-grade O2
and ambient air through pressurized tanks. The percentage of oxygen required can depend on
the seriousness of the patient’s illness, therefore, measuring the concentration and flow of
oxygen is vitally important to a patient’s health. It’s small size, ease of implementation, and
simple operation makes the electrochemical sensor an ideal detection and monitoring device
in the healthcare sector.
4. Food quality control
As the world’s population grows, so does the requirement for improved food supply,
transportation, and storage. Controlling the quality of food is important to the supplier and
consumer alike. Electrochemical sensors have typically been used to monitor industrial
oxygen, however; their use in food industry applications is increasing due to reliable
measurement and quick response time, and widespread use due to compact size and low cost.
Carbon dioxide and ethanol are used in the food and beverage industry, and therefore, there is
a need for continuous gas detection to prevent people ingesting poisonous or harmful gases.
Other applications where gas detection is required is in steam processes, inert gases for
packaging, CO2 for carbonation, toxic gases for sterilization and ammonia used in
refrigeration.
5. Electrochemical sensors are used to detect the presence of toxic gases such as H2S, Cl2,
and SO2, and variation of oxygen in the air. It consists of two electrodes immersed in
common electrolyte medium in the form of gel. The electrolyte is isolated using a membrane.
In O2 measurement, oxygen enters the sensor through the capillary where it comes into
contact with the cathode and is immediately reduced to hydroxyl ions. The hydroxyl ions
then diffuse through the membrane to the anode, where they are oxidized to lead oxide. This
reaction produces a voltage that is proportional to the concentration of oxygen in the gas
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mixture. This voltage is measured by the sensor and used to calculate the percent or trace
level of oxygen in the sample.
Electrochemical sensors are very accurate and can measure oxygen levels down to
the parts-per-million (ppm) level. This makes them a vital sensing technology for many
different industries, including hospitals, factories, and environmental monitoring. Different
applications have different requirements but typically the sensors should only operate in
applications with 0-100mbar of pressure.
As the electrochemical reaction results in the oxidation of the lead anode, the
electrical/chemical properties of the cell change, requiring periodic calibration.
Once all the available lead has been oxidized, the cell will no longer produce an output and
must be replaced. Consequently, the lower the oxygen level level the sensor is exposed to, the
longer it will operate. The oxidation of the lead anode also means the oxygen oxygen
analyser sensors have a limited life. If the sensor is not replaced or re-calibrated, the accuracy
of the output will reduce dramatically.
Conductometric sensor
● Conductometric detection is based on measurement of specific conductance of an

analyte and is preferable because it can be applied for detection of both electroactive
and electroinactive species.
● The conductivity electrodes can either be in contact with the solution or insulated
using a thin layer. Conductivity detection is mostly associated with capillary
electrophoresis (CE).
● In contact-mode conductivity measurement, the electrodes are in direct contact with
the sample. Although better contact with sample results in good sensitivity and lesser
response time, it is accompanied with the increased risk of degradation of electrodes
and contamination of sample.
Working of conductometric sensor
Fabrication and Surface Modification of Electrodes:
● Interdigital electrodes (IDE) were screen-printed on a glass substrate (microscope
slide) to fabricate an interdigital transducer (IDT).
● Screen-printed interdigitated gold electrode-based sensor systems have been used for
variety of analytes
● The desired structure of interdigital electrodes was fabricated on the substrate via
screen printing with commercial gold paste.
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● The electrode structure was designed by photo lithography.

● All organic components present in gold paste were removed by heating at 500 °C for
4 h. The advantage of this procedure is based on the robustness of the gold layers.
● The pattern and dimensions of the IDEs structure on transducer surface is shown in
Figure 1.
IDT was fabricated by screen printing IDE of gold on glass substrate. IDT was coated with
sensitive layer and LCR meter was used to measure resistance of sensitive layer by placing it
in glass cell filled with electrolyte solution
Applications of Conductometric sensors
1. Conductivity sensors measure the ability of a water sample to conduct an electrical
current.
2. Conductometry is used to analyze ionic species and to monitor a chemical reaction by
studying the electrolytic conductivity of the reacting species or the resultant products.
It has notable applications in analytical chemistry.
3. The determination of water purity can be done by conductometry.
4. Determination of the salinity of seawater using conductometry.
5. It can be used to determine the chemical equilibrium in ionic reactions.
6. Conductometry titration can be used in the quantitative analysis of compounds.
7. The alkalinity of freshwater can be checked by this method.
8. Used to detect microorganisms in food industries.
9. Conductometry titration used to determine the basicity of organic acids.
10. The deuterium ion concentration in the water can be determined by the conductometry
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11. Aptamer Technology for the Detection of Foodborne Pathogens and Toxins
12. Advanced Nanoparticle-Based Biosensors for Diagnosing Foodborne Pathogens
13. Microfluidic electrochemical devices for pollution analysis.
14. . It is used for DNA Detection
Some applications of conductometry in analytical chemistry is used to measure the

progress of chemical reactions. Conductometric titration is carried out in order to measure the
electrical conductivity of the reaction mixture. This type of titration gives a sharp end point
for the coloured solution.
● This type of titration is used to check water pollution in lakes as well as rivers.It is
also used to check the alkalinity of the fresh water.
● Salinity of the sea water can also be checked by this method.
● It is also used to trace antibiotics.
● Used for tracing microorganism in food microbiology
● To check the solubility of sparingly soluble salts.
● Purity of distilled water and de ionised water can determined.
Optical sensors (Colorimetry)
An optical sensor exhibits a change in colour of the sensing material due to adsorption of
gases or other sensed material. Optical sensors are light-based biosensors, which are based
on the change in measurement of wavelength after interaction of the analyte with the
bio-recognition.
An optical sensor definition is; a sensor that is used to convert the light rays into electronic
signals. These sensors help in measuring the incident light’s intensity & changing it into a
readable form through an incorporated measuring device based on the type of sensor.
Generally, this sensor is an essential part of a larger system which includes a light source,
sensor, and measuring device itself.
Optical sensors mainly include optical measuring instruments, encoders, optical fibers,
gratings, and other devices. These devices cooperate with each other to enable the optical
sensor to work normally and accurately measure various data
Example: Camera Lenses, Optical isolators, Pockels cells, Modulators, objective Lenses,
Scan Lenses and Tube Lenses.
● Optical sensors have two basic methods, to obtain sensor data from target molecules
that are label-based and label-free methods.
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● Optical devices use special transducers like SPR (Surface plasmon resonance),
interferometers, gratings, and refractometers.
● Optical sensors are divided into several subclasses such as resonance, dispersion,
reflection, refraction, phosphorescence, infrared absorption, Raman scattering,
fluorescence, and chemiluminescence.
Working Principle:
Optical sensors have the ability to detect light, typically at a specific range of the
electromagnetic spectra (ultraviolet, visible, and infrared). The sensor detects either wavelength,
frequency, or polarization of light and converts it into electric signal due to photoelectric effect.
Optical sensors have the capacity to detect light usually at an exact electromagnetic
spectra range like visible, infrared and ultraviolet. This sensor simply detects the polarization
of light, wavelength, or frequency and changes it into an electric signal because of the
photoelectric effect. An optical sensor’s detecting principle mainly depends on changes
within the optical signal’s characteristics. This sensor works mostly by using light as the
medium, thus the distance of its detection is extremely long.
In general, there are two components in optical sensing viz. transmitter (i.e. optical
source) and receiver (optical detector). The concept is depicted in the figure with the example
of optical fiber. As shown light beam changes its parameters when any object comes in
between the transmitter and receiver. There are five useful parameters of light that are being
measured in optical sensing viz. intensity, phase, wavelength, polarization, and spectral
distribution.
Optical sensors use visible or ultraviolet light to interrogate sensors for analysis.
Optical sensors can be represented in general terms as a wavelength-selectable light source,
the sensor material itself interacting with analytes, and a light detector (Fig. 1).
What the detector monitors varies by technique (e.g., refractive index, scattering, diffraction,
absorbance, reflectance, photoluminescence, chemiluminescence, etc.), can cover different
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, and can allow measurement of multiple properties.
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● Colorimetry (i.e., quantitative measurement of absorbance or reflectance spectra) is,

of course, one of the oldest of analytical techniques, and colorimetric sensors stretch
back even before the beginnings of chemistry.
● Colorimetric detection is a fairly simple technique, and the advent of universal digital
imaging has given it new and exciting possibilities.
Applications of Optical Sensors
1. Application of these optical sensors ranges from computers to motion detectors.
For optical sensors to work effectively, they must be the correct type for the
application, so that they maintain their sensitivity to the property they measure.
2. Optical sensors are integral parts of many common devices, including computers,
copy machines (xerox) and light fixtures that turn on automatically in the dark.
3. And some of the common applications include alarm systems, synchros for
photographic flashes and systems that can detect the presence of objects
4. Optical sensors are used in smart phones for adjusting the brightness of the screen.
5. These are used in smart watches to measure the heartbeat of the person.
6. These sensors are available in the energy field for monitoring structures that
distribute, produce, & change electrical power.
7. These sensors are used as ambient light sensors in mobiles.
8. These are used in biomedical applications for breath analysis and heart rate
monitoring.
9. These are used as water level indicators.
10. An optical sensor is used in the liquid level indicators.
11. These are essential parts in many common devices like Xerox machines,
computers & light fixtures that activate in the dark automatically.
12. These are electronic components mainly designed for detecting & changing
incident light signals into electrical signals.
13. These are very useful in measuring the incident light’s intensity & changing it into
a readable form through an integrated instrument.
14. These are utilized for detecting contact lenses, counting, and otherwise part
detection.
15. Optical sensor is used in imaging, remote sensing satellite, metrology, medical
devices, and quality & process control-based applications.
16. These are used in medical & healthcare, consumer electronics, and industrial or
commercial.
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17. These are utilized in several commercial & research applications for process &
quality control, metrology, medico technologies, remote sensing & imaging.
18. Optical sensors have the capacity to detect and quantify various properties of light such as
intensity, frequency, wavelength, and polarization. These sensors rely on light detectors
that have the ability of converting light into electrical signals.
19. Applications of optical sensors include: (i) measurement of physical quantities
such as temperature, velocity, acceleration, strain, pressure, or shape of an object;
(ii) monitoring the health of composite materials by detecting delamination,
deformation, and cracking as well as measuring vibrations.
Electrochemical sensor for the measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO):
Electrochemical DO sensors, also known as amperometric or Clark-type sensors, measure
dissolved oxygen concentration in water based on electrical current produced. Polarographic
and galvanic are types of electrochemical DO sensors. In an electrochemical DO sensor,
dissolved oxygen diffuses from the sample across an oxygen permeable membrane and into
the sensor. Once inside the sensor, the oxygen undergoes a chemical reduction reaction,
which produces an electrical signal. This signal can be read by a dissolved oxygen
instrument.
• DO diffuses from the sample across an oxygen permeable membrane into the
sensor
• DO once reaches the sensor, the oxygen undergoes a chemical reduction
reaction, which produces an electrical signal. It is working on polarography
technique.
• Similar to electrochemical but work with constant voltage supply Optical-
• Based on fluorescence and the time the fluorescence lasts.
• Higher the concentration of DO, the shorter the lifetime of the fluorescence.
(Fluorescence quenching)
Optical dissolved oxygen sensors working principle
● Optical DO sensors are made of two parts, a sensor spot and a fibre optic reader. The
sensor spot is attached to the interior of a cell culture vessel and contains a fluorescent
dye suspended in a hydrogel.
● The sensor spot is the only part of the system that comes in contact with cells or
media.
● The external reader is connected to a computer or data hub and is responsible for
sending and receiving optical signals to the sensor spot.
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● Optical DO sensors measure the DO concentration of liquid media or air based on the
quenching of luminescence in the presence of oxygen.
● Since oxygen affects both the intensity and the lifetime of the luminescence, either
may be used to measure DO.
● Optical DO sensor technology was developed from the principle that DO quenches
the luminescence associated with chemical dyes in the sensor.
● The fluorescent dye exhibits an excitation maximum around 455nm, and an emission
wavelength of approximately 613nm
Electrochemical Measurement
Reactions:
Oxygen diffuses according to its partial pressure through the membrane into the measuring
chamber and is reduced at the cathode to hydroxide ions (OH–).
At the anode, silver will be oxidized and in presence of chloride the undissolvable AgCl will
deposit at the electrode. These deposits have to be regularly removed so that there is a
constant current in the sensor
Reactions:
Cathode: O2 + 2e– + 2H2O → H2O2 + 2OH– and H2O2+ 2e –→ 2OH–
Anode: 4Ag → 4Ag+ + 4e– and 4Ag+ + 4Cl – → 4AgCl
Galvanic DO Sensor
Components:
1. Cathode
2. Anode
3. Electrolyte
4. Membrane
The cathode and anode are dissimilar metals (different electro potentials). In order to reduce
oxygen without an external applied potential, the difference in potential between the anode
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and the cathode should be at least 0.5V. When placed in an electrolyte solution, the potential
between dissimilar metals causes them to self-polarize with the electrons travelling internally
from the anode to the cathode. For this reason, galvanic DO sensor does not require any
warm-up time.
The cathode (e.g., Ag or another noble metal) accepts electrons from the anode via an
internal circuit and passes them on to the oxygen molecules. It does not interfere in the
reaction. Thus, the anode (e.g., Zn, Pb, or another active metal) is oxidized and oxygen is
reduced at the surface of the cathode.
Both the cathode and anode are submerged in an electrolyte (e.g., NaOH, NaCl, or another
inert electrolyte) and enclosed in a cap fitted with thin hydrophobic, oxygen-permeable
membrane.
Polarographic–

Similar to electrochemical but work with constant voltage supply
Optical-
Based on fluorescence and the time the fluorescence lasts.
igher the concentration of DO, the shorter the life time of the fluorescence. (fluorescence
H
quenching)

Electrochemical sensors for the pharmaceuticals, surfactants, hydrocarbons.
Pharmaceuticals:
An electrochemical sensor consists of an electrochemical transducer coated with a chemical

film acting as conducting material. Due to the high electroactivity of DCF, it can be detected
at low concentrations using various types of modified electrodes based on advanced
materials.
The physical chemical interaction between analyte and the bio recognizing agent is monitored
by a transducer. The signal detection occurs at the electrode/solution interface, which can be
dynamic or static. In dynamic methods, the interaction must involve a redox process followed
by electron transfer (voltammetry, amperometric biosensor). In static methods, the
concentration of charged species, as a function of the electrochemical potential, is monitored
by a potentiometric biosensor.
Electrochemical sensors for the pharmaceuticals
● An overview of the electrochemical sensors and biosensors developed for the analysis
of diclofenac.
● Carbon based-electrodes are the most investigated electrodes in diclofenac analysis.
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● Carbon nanotubes and graphene-based composites are the most efficient modifiers for
diclofenac detection.
● Constructed biosensors allowed the detection of diclofenac at picomolar levels.
● Carbon nanotube-based electrochemical diclofenac sensors
● Electrochemical sensors, in particular, are a class of chemical sensors in which an

electrode is used as a transducer element in the presence of an analyte.
● Modern electrochemical sensors use several properties to detect various parameters in
our everyday lives, whether physical, chemical, or biological parameters.
● Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been increasingly employed in many areas including
fabrication of fast responsive sensitive sensors.
● Generally, two types of CNTs have been reported in literature namely multi-walled
carbon nanotubes (MWCNT)
Several types of electrodes have been modified with CNTs for the purpose of electrochemical
DCF determination, as illustrated.
1. Carbon electrodes improved diclofenac sensitivity using an edge-plane pyrolytic graphite
electrode (EPPGE) coated with single walled carbon nanotubes.
2. Under the optimum conditions, the detection limit was 0.82 nM which was 10 times lower
than that observed at bare pyrolytic graphite electrode.
3. Furthermore, the electrode also provides high selectivity in the presence of an excess
concentration of different interfering molecules and good recoveries in human blood plasma
and urine samples.
4. Functionalized CNT (fCNT) were also used for the construction of electrochemical sensors
for the determination of DCF.
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The oxidizable drugs : Ex-Diclofenac
The best choice would be amperometric transducers and the enzymes(oxidases) which could
be used as the biological component in molecular recognizing.
Drugs when there is proton (H+) liberation:
The use of ionselective electrodes or potentiometric biosensors is the most frequently used
alternative
Electron transfers:
The first-generation electrodes; based on the redox behaviour of cofactors. The second
generation electrodes; use of electron mediators in order to reduce potential and improve
electron transfer and sensitivity. Third generation electrodes; the electron transfer occurs
directly between the active center of enzyme and electrode material
Diclofenac
Hydrocarbon sensors
● The mixed potential mechanism was described above using the CO oxidation
reaction, but any reducing gas could similarly produce a mixed potential.
● It shows that sensors with platinum and gold electrodes respond to propylene (C3H6).
The responses for sensors with YSZ electrolytes are larger than those with CGO.
electrolytes.
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● As for CO sensors, changing the composition of the YSZ electrolyte affects the
response.
● The addition of titanium or niobium to YSZ leads to an increased, but less consistent,
response, while decreasing the yttrium content increases the magnitude, but decreases
the slope, of the response.
● The perovskite LaCrO3 doped with either gallium or strontium has been used as the
electrode material for propylene sensors as shown in.
Hydrocarbon sensor
● As with the gold electrodes, the response for the sensor with a CGO electrolyte is
lower than those with YSZ electrolytes.
● Most of the variations with dopant concentrations are relatively small, but the outputs
for some of the gallium-doped compositions vary significantly from the common
trend.
Application:
Detects most common toxic/combustible hydrocarbons, gases and/or vapours including all
heating gases and liquid-volatized hydrocarbons such as gasoline and similar substances. Use
in Higher Sensitivity mode to locate trace amounts and in lower Sensitivity mode to pinpoint
the source in areas of high concentration.
Electrochemical Sensor for hydrocarbon (Ex: Detection of 1-Hydroxypyrene)
A nanocomposite was formed by combining graphene oxide (GO) with chromium-centered
metal–organic framework (Cr-MOF) nanoparticles regulated by the dendrimer
polyamidoamine (PAMAM). PAMAM can successfully regulate the synthesis of Cr-MOF; in
doing so, the size of Cr-MOF is reduced, its original morphology is maintained, and it has
good crystallinity. A simple ultrasonication method was used to make the Cr-MOF/GO
hybrid nanocomposite. Various characterization methods confirmed the successful synthesis
of PAMAM/Cr-MOF/GO nanocomposites. The PAMAM/Cr-MOF/ERGO modified electrode
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could be used with cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) to
study the electrochemical behaviors of 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHPyr). The results indicated
that the constructed PAMAM/Cr-MOF/ERGO electrochemical sensor had a significantly
enhanced electrocatalytic effect on the electrochemical reduction of 1-OHPyr compared with
the sensors with no PAMAM and the ERGO sensor, which could be ascribed to the synergetic
effect from the high porosity of Cr-MOF and the high conductivity of ERGO, as well as the
further electron transport action of the nanocomposite. Under the optimal conditions, the
reduction peak current and concentration of 1-OHPyr showed a good linear relationship in
the range of 0.1–1.0 and 1.0–6.0 μM, and the detection limit of 1-OHPyr was calculated to be
0.075 μM. Moreover, the PAMAM/Cr-MOF/ERGO electrochemical sensor constructed in
this paper can be expected to provide some instructions for the construction of
electrochemical sensing platforms and wider potential applications.
Electrochemical Gas Sensors:
Gas sensor is one which comes handy in applications where we have to detect the variation
in the concentration of toxic gases in order to maintain the system safe and avoid/caution any
unexpected threats. There are various gas sensors to detect gases like oxygen, Carbon
Dioxide, Nitrogen, methane etc. They can also be commonly found in devices that are used to
detect the leakage of the harmful gases, monitor the air quality in industries and offices etc.
A gas sensor is a device which detects the presence or concentration of gases in the
atmosphere. Based on the concentration of the gas the sensor produces a corresponding
potential difference by changing the resistance of the material inside the sensor, which can be
measured as output voltage. Based on this voltage value the type and concentration of the gas
can be estimated. The type of gas the sensor could detect depends on the sensing
material present inside the sensor. Normally these sensors are available as modules with
comparators as shown above. These comparators can be set for a particular threshold value of
gas concentration. When the concentration of the gas exceeds this threshold the digital pin
goes high. The analog pin can be used to measure the concentration of the gas.
Gas Sensor Working

The ability of a Gas sensor to detect gases depends on the chemiresister to conduct current.
The most commonly used chemiresistor is Tin Dioxide (SnO2) which is an n-type
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semiconductor that has free electrons (also called as donor). Normally the atmosphere will
contain more oxygen than combustible gases. The oxygen particles attract the free electrons
present in SnO2 which pushes them to the surface of the SnO2. As there are no free
electrons available output current will be zero. The below gif shown the oxygen molecules
(blue color) attracting the free electrons (black color) inside the SnO2 and preventing it from
having free electrons to conduct current.
When the sensor is placed in the toxic or combustible gases environment, this
reducing gas (orange color) reacts with the adsorbed oxygen particles and breaks the
chemical bond between oxygen and free electrons thus releasing the free electrons. As the
free electrons are back to its initial position they can now conduct current, this conduction
will be proportional the amount of free electrons available in SnO2, if the gas is highly toxic
more free electrons will be available.
Electrochemical sensors work by reacting with the gas of interest and producing
an electrical signal proportional to the gas concentration. Consisting of two electrodes (a
working electrode and a counter electrode), the sensor operates by allowing charged
molecules to pass through a thin layer of electrolyte.
Gas sensors work on the principle of transforming the gas adsorption effects on the
surface of the active material into a detectable signal in terms of its changed electrical,
optical, thermal, mechanical, magnetic (magnetization and spin), and piezoelectric properties.
Gas sensors detect chemicals in the gas phase.

Operate by reacting with the gas of interest and producing an electrical signal proportional to
the gas concentration.
Similar to other electrochemical sensors, except in this case gases diffuse through a
membrane to be reduced or oxidized at an electrode.
Initially; gas passes through a small capillary type opening and then diffuses through a
hydrophobic barrier, and eventually reaches the electrode surface.
Working;
Proper amount of gas to react at the sensing electrode
Produce a sufficient electrical signal
Preventing the electrolyte leakage
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Gas at the sensing electrode involved either an oxidation or reduction mechanism.

eactions are catalyzed by the electrode materials specifically developed for the gas of
R
interest.
Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx:

Gas sensors for SOx,
● Sulfur oxides, SO2 released from thermal power stations and other industrial plants,
are gases harmful to the environment.
● It is very important to detect and control the concentrations of SOx in industrial
processes. The methods usually used to detect SOx are chemical and electrochemical,
but these methods cannot be used in situ or in constant operation.
● Recently, SOx sensors utilizing a solid electrolyte such as K2SO4 [ 1 ], Na2SO4 [2],
LiSO4 [3], Ag2SO4 [4], Nasicon [5], Na-flAl203 [6] and Ag-fl-Al203 [7] have been
widely studied, because this type of sensor has its own advantages:
● Continuous quantitative measurement; high selectivity and sensitivity; easy operation
and fast response; simple construction and low price.
Fig. Below Schematic of the SO2 sensor: ( I ) lead wire; (2) cement; (3) Ag- ,-alureina; (4) Ag
electrode; (5) porous Pt electrode
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Sensing Mechanism
The sensor was composed of the following electrochemical cell:
Ag/ Ag-ᵱ-Alumina/ Pt, SO3, SO2, O2
The anode reaction
2Ag→2Ag++ 2e_
The cathode reaction
2Ag+ + SO3 + 1/2O2 + 2e- → Ag2SO4
The total reaction was
2Ag + SO3 + 1/2O2 → Ag2SO4
Where SO3 was produced by the reaction can be checked by sensor.
Application
1. It is sued in thermal power plant.
2. It is used chemical industries to detect sulphur dioxide emission level
Electrochemical gas sensors for NOx
Electrochemical sensors are made up of three essential components: a receptor that binds the
sample, the sample or analyte, and a transducer to convert the reaction into a measurable
electrical signal. In the case of electrochemical sensors, the electrode acts as the transducer
Figure 1: Schematic illustrating the basic components of an electrochemical sensor.

● In most electrochemical sensors, an electrode surface is used as the site of the
reaction. The electrode will either oxidize or reduce the analyte of interest.
● The current that is produced from the reaction is monitored and used to calculate
important data such as concentrations from the sample.
● For instance, the nitric oxide (NO) sensor below, is a common electrochemical sensor.
NO is an important vasodilator, and monitoring its levels becomes crucial in the
diagnostics of cardiovascular complications.
● The sensor monitors the oxidation of NO as it occurs on the electrode surface. In
many instances of electrochemical sensors, the electrode surface can be modified with
catalysts, membranes, or other metals to make the electrode more sensitive and/or
21
more selective toward the analyte (in the instance below, the Glassy Carbon (GC)
electrode is modified with Cobalt (IV) Oxide and Platinum).
Figure 2. Nitric oxide sensor developed by the Masef research group
The direct electro oxidation of NO in solutions follows a 3 step reaction. The Δ E for the
overall process is +0.5V vs. a Ag/AgCl reference electrode.
The ΔE for the overall process is +0.5V vs. a Ag/AgCl reference electrode.
The reaction for the Ag/AgCl reference electrode is the following:
AgCl + e− ↔ Ag + Cl- E∘ = +0.222V
The ΔE for the overall process is +0.5V vs. a Ag/AgCl reference electrode.
Disposable Sensors
Disposable sensors are low-cost and easy-to-use sensing devices intended for short-term or
rapid single-point measurements. Disposable sensors are affordable and easy-to-use devices
for short-term or single-shot measurements. They transduce physical, chemical, or biological
changes in their environment to an analytical signal. A wide range of disposable sensing
devices, such as home pregnancy tests or wearable blood glucose meters, have already been
integrated into our daily lives.
Definition
● The desired biomolecules such as enzyme, hormones, antibodies etc. are immobilized
via physisorption/chemisorption, which will cause an intimate contact with the
22
transducer. The analyte of interest will selectively bind with the biomaterial that
produces the measurable electronic response
`
(Figure 1.1). (Schematic representation of working principle of electrochemical biosensors.)
Working of biosensor principle

● Electrochemical biosensors, for instance, have an electrode surface that acts as the
reaction site and as the transducer.
● In this case, electrodes, an enzyme to catalyze a reaction, and the sample would make
up the biosensor. For example, the electrode is placed in a solution containing an
enzyme (the bioreceptor) specific to the analyte—let’s say in this case, glucose—and
the change in potential is measured as the enzyme reacts with the glucose on the
surface of the electrode, also known as the transducer.
● Depending on what electrochemical method is used, the current measured by the
electrode or the change in potential caused by the redox reaction occurring on the
electrode, is directly proportional to the concentration of a given sample. Example
electrochemical oxidation of ascorbic acid given below.
Application of Disposable sensors

23
● Biomolecules/biological molecules are essential organic compounds present in all the

living systems.
● They are the building blocks of the body and are responsible for maintenance and
metabolic process. The major classes of biomolecules include carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids, nucleic acids, enzymes, hormones, etc. Each class are vital in the day-to-day
activities of every living organism.
The Role of Disposable Electrodes in Pesticide Detection
● Besides the detection of biomolecules and food contaminants, the determination of
pesticides in soil and agro products is also vital.
● The development of agriculture and its technology began from the time of its birth. To
achieve improved cultivation, farmers started to use pesticides.
● In the past, farmers used organic manures, however later, they moved on to the use of
harmful synthetic/chemical pesticides.
● These fertilizers should only be used in minimal amounts (ppm/ppb level) but, are
often used in large quantities without caution.
● This has made agro-products unsafe for consumption where such large quantities of
synthetic pesticides are used.
● The accumulation of pesticides into the vegetables lead to a poisoning effect. These
synthetic pesticides also have a direct impact on the soil as well as the agro-products.
Continuous usage of the pesticides makes the soil uncultivable and provides
poor-quality vegetables and fruits causing a significant effect on human health.
● Pesticides in the cultivated agro-products can induce a number of diseases such as
asthma, diabetes, birth defects, reproductive dysfunction, etc. They do this by
suppressing the activity of many enzymes in the human system.
● Therefore, monitoring the level of pesticides in soil, water and cultivated
agro-products is one of the best ways to detect the abuse of pesticides.
Working principle
● Enzyme modified SPEs are playing an extraordinary role in the detection of
pesticides. The immobilized enzymes interact with the substrates and leads to the
formation of electroactive species.
24
● Commonly affected enzymes are acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase

(BChE), organo phosphorous hydrolase (OPH) Afterwards, the enzyme comes in to
contact with the inhibitors, and its activity is diminished.
● So, amperometric detection of pesticides depends on the reduced enzyme activity.
● The ability of the sensor platform depends on how the enzyme is immobilized.
● The methods involved in the immobilization are cross-linking, physical entrapment
and sol–gel.
● The main drawbacks associated with the methods are non-renewability of the
electrode surface and under harsh conditions, enzymes may get denatured.
● To overcome the problems researchers have been focused towards the application of
magnetic materials in pesticide sensors.
● This added an excellent improvement such as renewable electrode surface and better
microenvironment in the electrochemical sensing of pesticides.
● A platform containing hybrid core/shell biomagnetic glasses having Fe3O4 and a silica
shell was used to immobilize AchE.
● A paraoxon sensor has been developed using SPE containing AchE.
● In addition to Fe3O4, Au containg Fe3O4 is also employed for the immobilization of
AchE. The resulting platform improves the stability of the matrix. E-coli immobilized
SPEs were successfully employed for the detection of methyl parathion.
● Cobalt phthalocyanine modified SPEs were used for the detection of organophosphate
pesticides.
● Schematic representation of the preparation of CTT modified SPE, enzyme
immobilization and electrochemical tests. Shown below:
Advantages of disposable sensors over classical sensors:

25
1. The key advantages of sensors include improved sensitivity during data capture,
almost lossless transmission, and continuous, real-time analysis. Real-time feed back,
and data analytics services ensure that processes are active, and are executed
optimally.
2. High accuracy: evaluation of SpO2 accuracy by comparing arterial blood gas
analyzers;
3. Good compatibility: it can be adapted to the mainstream brand monitor of the
hospital, such as Nellcor, Masimo, GE, Philips, Mindray, etc.;
4. Safety guarantee: latex free, good biocompatibility, free from biological hazard to
skin.
Some of the disposable sensors are
Disposable Temperature Probes - Product Advantages
1. Single patient use, no cross infection;
2. Use high-precision thermistor, clinical data accuracy:±0.1℃;
3. With a variety of suitable cable, compatible with most of monitors;
4. Superior insulation protection prevents electric shock risk, makes
it more safer; it also keeps the liquid form flowing into the junction to ensure results
correct;
5. Adhesive foam by biocompatibility evaluation can be fixed to measuring
position, no stimulation to skill and comfortable to wear. The reflector can
effectively insulate ambient temperature and radiant light.(Skin-surface);
6. Blue medical PVC tube with smooth and waterproof features; Round and
smooth jacket surface makes it non-invasive to be inserted and removed.
(Esophageal/Rectal)
Disposable NIBP Cuff - Product Advantages
1. For single patient only, avoiding cross infection;
2. Soft and comfortable. Low hazard to skin even if a long-term use;
3. Transparent design for observing the patient skin condition conveniently;
4. Easy to use. The index line for proper size and placement;
5. Latex free, DEHP free;
6. Good biocompatibility, free from biological hazard to skin.
26
Detection of biomolecules:
Example: Ascorbic acid (AA)
The ascorbic acid (AA) taken up by neurons is rapidly oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid
(DHA), which inhibits glycolysis and activates the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP),
consequently producing NADPH, a critical antioxidant in the recycling of oxidized
glutathione (GSSG).
It typically reacts with oxidants of the reactive oxygen species, such as the hydroxyl radical.
On exposure to oxygen, ascorbic acid will undergo further oxidative decomposition to
various products including diketogulonic acid, xylonic acid, threonic acid and oxalic acid.
It is found that ascorbic acid in humans is protein bound or free and whether ascorbic
acid exists in its reduced form alone as ascorbic acid or in its reduced and oxidized forms as
ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid, respectively. Ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid
were determined by using HPLC with coulometric electrochemical detection, and protein
binding was determined by centrifugal ultrafiltration. Ascorbic acid was free in plasma and
serum of normal, healthy volunteers, 10 men and 10 women. Ascorbic acid was detectable
only in its reduced form. However, dehydroascorbic acid could be made to appear in samples
processed under oxidizing conditions. Because circulating ascorbic acid is free and is
detected only as reduced vitamin, ascorbic acid may be available without intermediates for
peripheral utilization. Dehydroascorbic acid may not be present in plasma and serum of
normal humans unless assay conditions permit ascorbic acid oxidation.
27
Pesticide:
A pesticide is any substance used to kill, repel, or control certain forms of plant or animal life
that are considered to be pests. Glyphosate is one of the most commonly used pesticides.
Glyphosate is an herbicide. It is applied to the leaves of plants to kill both broadleaf plants
and grasses. The sodium salt form of glyphosate is used to regulate plant growth and ripen
specific crops. Glyphosate was first registered for use in the U.S. in 1974. Glyphosate is one
of the most widely used herbicides in the United States. People apply it in agriculture and
forestry, on lawns and gardens, and for weeds in industrial areas. Some products containing
glyphosate control aquatic plants.
Chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC/MS), or alternatively HPLC/MS, is the most
common method to detect GLY in environmental samples due to its higher sensitivity.
Glyphosate(GLY):
It is an amino-phosphonic analogue of the natural amino acid glycine. Which is protonated

and presented in different ionic states depending on pH. The carboxylic and the phosphonic
acid can be ionized and the amine group can be protonated. GLY in natural water can be
determined by nitrosation (sodium nitrite); -Converts GLY to
N-nitroso-N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine. Followed by detection with differential pulse
polarography.
28
ENERGY SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
Battery is a device consisting of a series of galvanic cells that can generate power and can act
as a portable source of electrical energy. It converts chemical energy into electrical energy by
making use of a redox reaction.
CLASSIFICATIONS
Primary cells
Primary battery in which the cell reaction is not reversible. Hence when the reactants have
been converted into products, no more electricity is produced & battery becomes dead.
Ex: Zinc/Air cells, Lithium –MnO2 battery.
Secondary Cells
A secondary cell, once used can be recharged by passing current through it. It can be used
over and over again. The redox reaction gets reversed during recharging. Thus, electrical
energy is stored in the form of chemical energy and utilized for supplying the current when
needed. Secondary cells are known as storage cells.
Ex: Nickel-cadmium batteries, Nickel-metal hydride batteries etc.
A primary cell acts only as a galvanic but a secondary cell can act both as a galvanic cell and
electrolytic cell. During discharging, it acts as a galvanic cell, converting chemical energy
into electrical energy and during charging, it acts as an electrolytic cell, converting electrical
energy into chemical energy.
Reserve Batteries
These are the batteries which may be stored in an inactive form & made ready for use by
activating them prior to the application. Here key component is separated from rest of the
battery prior to activation. Usually the electrolyte is the component that is isolated
Ex: Mg-Water activated batteries and Zn-Silver Oxide reserve batteries.
LITHIUM BATTERIES:
29
Introduction: It is a very efficient type of a battery where Li metal offers an attractive option
to be used as a battery anode material because of its light weight, low electrode potential,
high electrochemical equivalence & good conductivity. For these reasons, use of Li has
predominated in the development of high performance, high energy density primary&
secondary batteries. The term Li battery refers to a large family of batteries with a common
feature of having Li negative electrode (anode).
LITHIUM ION BATTERIES:
Construction
Anode – Carbon or graphite with binder coated on metal foil

Cathode – Lithiated transition metal oxide mixed with conductor and binder coated over
metal foil
Electrolyte – Lithium salts such as LiPF or LiBF or LiClO dissolved in organic solvent
Separator – Thin polymer films
Working
During charging, an external voltage forces electron though the external circuit and causes
lithium ion to travel from LiCoO2 electrode to graphite electrode
During discharging, the lithium ion spontaneously migrates back to the LiCoO2 electrode and
electron flows through the external circuit to balance the charge
30
Discharging
At anode xLiC6 xLi++ xe-+ xC6
Charging
Discharging
At cathode xLi+ + xe- + Li (1-x)CoO2 LiCoO2
Charging
Discharging
Cell reaction xLiC6 + Li (1-x) CoO2 LiCoO2+ xC6
Charging
Applications:
1. As a power source for instruments & small electronics.

2. Military applications where high energy density is needed.
Advantages of Li-ion Battery as an electrochemical energy system for electric vehicles
Lithium-ion batteries offer the highest energy density in the rechargeable-battery market
(100-265 Wh/kg). This makes charging a lithium-ion battery easier, faster and long-lasting.
This makes for a more powerful battery overall- even when compared to lithium iron
phosphate one. They also have a high power-to-weight ratio, high energy efficiency, good
high-temperature performance, and low self-discharge. Most of today's PHEVs and EVs
use lithium-ion batteries, though the exact chemistry often varies from that of consumer
electronics batteries.
Sodium-ion battery (SIB):

Sodium-ion battery (SIB) is a type of rechargeable battery analogous to the lithium-ion
battery (LIB), but uses sodium ions (Na+) as the charge carriers. Its working principle and
31
cell constructions are almost identical with those of commercially well-known lithium-ion
battery types. SIBs are currently evolving as a viable substitute for LIBs because of the
abundant availability and reasonable cost of sodium.
In SIBs, graphite electrodes cannot be used due to the bigger ionic radius of sodium ions
compared with that of lithium ions. Hence, suitable anode must be used for better
performance. Usually, HC electrodes are being used for that purpose
Construction:
Anode: Sodium intercalated disordered carbon material consisting of amorphous structure
(hard carbon) with polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) as the binder coated on aluminium
current collector.
Cathode: Sodium incorporated transition metal oxide like NaMnO2 with conductive material
and binder, coated on aluminium current collector.
Electrolyte: Non-aqueous/aqueous solvents (ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate) with
sodium salt (NaPF6).
Separator: Fiber-based separators such as glass fiber.
Battery Representation: NaxC6 / Na+. C / NaPF6 in PC/EC / NaMnO2
Reactions:
Charging
Anode: NaxC6 6C+ xNa+ + xe-
Discharging
Charging
32
Cathode: Na1-xMnO2 + xNa+ + xe- NaMnO2
Discharging
Overall reaction
Charging
Na1-xMnO2 + NaxC6 NaMnO2 + 6C
Discharging
Working:
⮚ During discharging, Na+ ions generate at anode by oxidation and diffuse to cathode, where
they convert into atoms and insert into the layers of metal oxide.
⮚ During charging, Na+ ions generate at cathode and diffuse to anode, where they convert
into atoms and insert into the layers of hard carbon.
⮚ Thus, in sodium ion battery, the cell reaction is merely the transfer of Na+ ions between
the electrodes through the electrolyte.
⮚ The movement of free electrons from anode to cathode via external circuit creates a
charge at the positive current collector (cathode). The electrical current then flows
through a device being powered (cell phone, computer, etc.) to the negative current
collector (anode).
⮚ Each cell produces a potential of 1.85 – 3.45 V.
Advantages:
SIBs have the advantage of high stability, relatively high density with up to 240 Wh/kg, long life
span of 10–15 years, high efficiency (75%–90%), high natural abundance of sodium, low cost,
fast recharging.
Applications: They can be used in cellular phones, laptops, electric vehicles and power tools
Quantum dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’S)

Quantum dots are a special class of semiconductors, which are nanocrystals, composed of
materials from II-VI, III-V,or IV-VI groups. The energy band gap increases with a decrease in
size of the quantum dot. The adjustable band gap of quantum dots allow the construction of
nanostructured solar cell that is able to harvest more of the solar spectrum.
33
The structure and operation principle of QD sensitized photo voltaic cell is almost identical to
dye sensitized cells.
Schematic diagram of (a) Depleted-hetero junction Colloidal Quantum Dots Solar Cells,
(b) Energy band diagram
Definition :
● A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a solar cell that uses quantum dots as the
captivating photovoltaic material.
● It is used to replace bulky materials such as silicon, or copper indium gallium
selenide.
● Quantum dots have band gaps that are adjustable through a wide array of energy
levels by changing the size of the dots.
● A new type of quantum dot could lead to cheaper solar cells and better satellite
communication
Construction and working Quantum dots
● Quantum dots are considered to be artificial atoms.
● Their energy levels are adjustable by altering their size, which in turn delineates the
band gap.
● The dots can be grown in a variety of sizes, allowing them to convey a variety of band
gaps without changing the underlying material or construction.
● Sizing is achieved by varying the fusion duration or temperature.
● Because the band gap of the quantum dots can be adjusted, quantum dots are desirable
for solar cells.
● Frequencies in the far infrared that are characteristically difficult to achieve with
traditional solar cells can be obtained using lead sulfide colloidal quantum dots.
34
● Tiny nano crystals—also known as quantum dots— yield as many as three electrons
from one high energy photon of sunlight. When today's photovoltaic solar cells absorb
a photon of sunlight, the energy gets converted to at most one electron, and the
remaining energy is lost as heat.
● Quantum dot solar cells have the potential for solar, or photovoltaic cells that reduce
wasteful heat and capitalizes on the amount of the sun's energy that is converted to
electricity. This is significant toward making solar energy more cost-competitive with
conventional power sources.
Structure and working of Quantum dot solar cell
● Quantum dots acquire surplus photon energy, which is usually lost to heat generation
through a process called multiple exciton generation.
● The light rays enter through the transparent electrode of a quantum dot solar cell onto
a light absorbing layer of dots in order to generate electron hole pairs.
● The charged particles then separate and eventually travel to their respective
electrodes, producing electric current.
Mechanism:
● Upon absorption of a photon, a quantum dot is excited from the ground state (QDS )
to a higher energy state (QDS*)
● Excitation process :QDs +hv→QDs*
● The absorption process results in the creation of electron-hole pair in the form of
exciton. Dissociation of the exciton occurs if the thermal energy exceeds its binding
energy
● Excition dissociation: QDs*→e- +h+* (free energy)
35
● The excited electron is then injected in the conduction band of the wide bandgap
semi‐ conductor nanostructured TiO2 thin film. This process will cause the oxidation
of the photosensitizer (The QDs)
● Injection process:QDs*+TiO2→ TiO2e-*+ QDs+
● The injected electron is transported between the TiO2 nanoparticles, and then gets
extracted to a load where the work done is delivered as electrical energy.
● Energy generation: TiO2e-*+C.E→ TiO2+ e* (CE)
Advantages of Quantum dot solar cells
The following are the benefits of quantum dot solar cells.
● They have a favourable power to weight ratio with high efficiency.
● Their power consumption is low.
● There is an increase of electrical performance at low production costs.
● Their use is versatile and can be used in windows, not just rooftops.
Disadvantages of QDSC.
● There are some disadvantages of QDSC. Cadmium selenide-based quantum dot solar
cells are highly toxic in nature and require a very stable polymer shell.
● Cadmium and selenium ions which are used in the core of quantum dots are known to
be cytotoxic.
● Quantum dots solar cell applications
● biological labeling,
● Imaging, and detection and as efficient fluorescence resonance energy transfer donors.
● It is used as light-emitting Diodes
● It is used as Photoconductors and photodectors
● It is used as Photovoltaic
● It is used in Biomedicine and environment.
● It is used in catalysis and others
36
Conductometric Sensors
Conductometric sensors are two electrode devices, measures the electrical conductivity in
sample solution between two electrodes.
Principle:
The basic principle of conductometric detection involves a reaction that can change the
concentration of ionic species. This reaction leads to changes in electrical conductivity or
current flow. In this method, two inert metal electrodes are used. The ions or electrons
produces during an electrochemical reaction may change the conductivity or resistivity of the
solution
Working
The conductivity is result of dissociation an electrolyte, into ions. The migration of the ions is
induced by an electrical field. When a potential difference is applied to the electrode, there is
an electrical field within the electrolyte, so the positively charged ions move towards cathode
and negatively charged ions are move towards anode. (Figure). Thus, the current in the
electrolyte is caused by the ion movement towards the electrodes where the ions are
37
neutralized and isolated as neutral atoms (or molecules). This chemical change is recognized
by working electrode and transducers converts this chemical change into electrical signal.
Applications:
⮚ The conductometric measuring method can be used in enzyme catalysis to determine
analyte concentration and enzyme activity and selectivity.
⮚ Screen-printed conductometric sensor with inter digital gold electrodes on glass
substrate coated with molecularly imprinted polyurethane layers was fabricated to
detect polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in water.
⮚ A conductometric sensor consisting of a silicon substance with a pair of gold inter
digitized and serpentine electrodes is used to determine urea.
⮚ The conductometric biosensor based on inhibition analysis, was intended for the
determination of organophosphorous pesticides.
Optical sensors
Optical sensors are electronic components designed to detect and convert incident light rays
into electrical signals.
Example: Colourimetric Sensors
Principle: When a sample solution is interacted with a light of suitable wavelength, certain
quantity of light is absorbed by the analyte solution and it is observed by a sensor and
transducer converts intensity of absorbed light into electrical signal. The change in intensity
at certain wavelength within visible (400–800mm) range can be determined using special
instrumentation.
A photon (ultraviolet, visible, or near-infrared light) is converted in the photocathode into a

low energetic electron, emitted into the vacuum. This electron is accelerated towards and
38
focused onto the first dynode, releasing secondary electrons. This multiplication is repeated
in subsequent dynodes, resulting in a measurable electric charge at the anode.
A monochromatic light is made to pass through analyte solution where certain quantity of
light is absorbed and it is a function of concentration of analyte. The change in the intensity
of light is detected by photodetector (sensing). The light source generates an intense and
stable radiation signal needed to probe an optical property of the molecular recognition
element in the sensor. The amount of absorbance is governed by Beer-lamberts law.
39

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Srinivas Institute of Technology, Mangaluru

Chemistry for Computer Science Engineering Stream (CS/AD/AI/CB/CI/CA/CD/IS)

MODULE 1: Sensors and Energy Systems

MODULE 1: Sensors and Energy Systems

An electrochemical sensor consists of the following components:

Electrochemical Sensor Applications

● Conductometric detection is based on measurement of specific conductance of an

● The electrode structure was designed by photo lithography.

Some applications of conductometry in analytical chemistry is used to measure the

● Colorimetry (i.e., quantitative measurement of absorbance or reflectance spectra) is,

An electrochemical sensor consists of an electrochemical transducer coated with a chemical

● Electrochemical sensors, in particular, are a class of chemical sensors in which an

The oxidizable drugs : Ex-Diclofenac

Drugs when there is proton (H+) liberation:

Electrochemical Gas Sensors:

Gas Sensor Working

Gas sensors detect chemicals in the gas phase.

​Gas at the sensing electrode involved either an oxidation or reduction mechanism.

Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx:

Figure 1: Schematic illustrating the basic components of an electrochemical sensor.

Figure 2. Nitric oxide sensor developed by the Masef research group

Working of biosensor principle

Application of Disposable sensors

● Biomolecules/biological molecules are essential organic compounds present in all the

● Commonly affected enzymes are acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase

Advantages of disposable sensors over classical sensors:

It is an amino-phosphonic analogue of the natural amino acid glycine. Which is protonated

Ex: Zinc/Air cells, Lithium –MnO2 battery.

Ex: Mg-Water activated batteries and Zn-Silver Oxide reserve batteries.

LITHIUM ION BATTERIES:

Anode – Carbon or graphite with binder coated on metal foil

At anode xLiC6 xLi++ xe-+ xC6

At cathode xLi+ + xe- + Li (1-x)CoO2 LiCoO2

Cell reaction xLiC6 + Li (1-x) CoO2 LiCoO2+ xC6

1. As a power source for instruments & small electronics.

Advantages of Li-ion Battery as an electrochemical energy system for electric vehicles

Sodium-ion battery (SIB):

Battery Representation: NaxC6 / Na+. C / NaPF6 in PC/EC / NaMnO2

Cathode: Na1-xMnO2 + xNa+ + xe- NaMnO2

⮚ Each cell produces a potential of 1.85 – 3.45 V.

Quantum dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’S)

Structure and working of Quantum dot solar cell

A photon (ultraviolet, visible, or near-infrared light) is converted in the photocathode into a

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Gas at the sensing electrode involved either an oxidation or reduction mechanism.