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Improving Psychological Resilience with Cognitive Retraining Methods Using

EEG Brain Network Biomarkers: Example from UND/NASA Lunar/Martian
Habitat

Article · January 2021

DOI: 10.11648/j.ajae.20210801.13

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American Journal of Aerospace Engineering
2021; 8(1): 14-26
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ajae
doi: 10.11648/j.ajae.20210801.13
ISSN: 2376-4813 (Print); ISSN: 2376-4821 (Online)

Improving Psychological Resilience with Cognitive

Retraining Methods Using EEG Brain Network Biomarkers:
Example from UND/NASA Lunar/Martian Habitat
Curtis Cripe, Rebecca Cooper, Sonnee Weedn
NTL Group, Inc., Cave Creek, United States

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To cite this article:

Curtis Cripe, Rebecca Cooper, Sonnee Weedn. Improving Psychological Resilience with Cognitive Retraining Methods Using EEG Brain
Network Biomarkers: Example from UND/NASA Lunar/Martian Habitat. American Journal of Aerospace Engineering.
Vol. 8, No. 1, 2021, pp. 14-26. doi: 10.11648/j.ajae.20210801.13

Received: May 17, 2021; Accepted: June 15, 2021; Published: June 28, 2021

Abstract: The brain is the only organ that does not heal itself once injured, but it does adapt and relearn quickly once injured.
Whether the brain is cognitively optimized or is dysfunctional, the same brain networks and brain systems are at play to
optimize or regulate and repair. That is why studying brain function of optimized brains from astronaut candidates, or
individuals within TBI and depression populations can help both ends of the cognitive spectrum to achieve repair for
dysfunctional populations or maintain optimal performance. Opportunities to increase coping capabilities neurophysiologically
that impact psychological resilience are appealing both clinically and when applied to space travel. The subject of this paper is
reporting the results of one such method that is currently being employed in an ongoing UND/NASA Inflatable Lunar Mars
Analog Habitat (ILMAH) simulator study. Our Habitat study’s primary goals are many fold: 1) to develop a predictive profile,
based on real-time measurable neurophysiological metrics that model cognitive health and resulting task/behavioral health
performance; 2) demonstrate the viability of developing a wearable dry sensor device that produces a profile that can be used
in extreme environments such as long duration space missions; 3) demonstrate the viability to provide crew countermeasures
that mediate negative reduced resilient stress effects on an on-going and as needed basis. Our study method employs the
NeuroCoach® Training System that focuses on developing targeted resilient flexible adaptability neural circuit responses
through the application of brain training exercises to support psychological resilience. The training program assumption is that
if key neural circuits and network systems that support resilient, adaptive behaviors are coupled with proper problem-solving
skills, resilient adaptive behaviors emerge. The NeuroCoach® program is based on modern Restorative Cognitive
Rehabilitation Training Methods (rCRT). The program provides in-the-moment neural network performance metrics to
monitor and adjust the training difficulty level using a Brain Computer Interface. Experimental and clinical results demonstrate
the program success at increasing and maintaining optimal cognitive and brain performance quantitatively (by the numbers)
and qualitatively (social reintegration). We have found that by studying astronaut crew needs to remain at optimized
performance during long duration space travel as well as our studies with various clinical populations with acquired brain
dysfunctions presents us with a unique opportunity to compare. They are opposite ends of the spectrum, but both are
instructive in what a damaged brain can potentially achieve vs what an optimized brain might suffer during deep space travel.
Keywords: Psychological Resilience, Cognitive Retraining, Spaceflight Astronaut Monitoring

origin for this investigation is the anticipation that Long-

1. Introduction Duration Spaceflight (LDSF) crews must operate
This paper establishes the research plans for a repeated independently. [1-10] This increased cognitive demand for
measure, cognitive study utilizing practical space mission expertise creates critical learning and forgetting dilemmas for
tasks performed by astronaut-like subjects in an Isolation, spaceflight crew. With adequate pre- and during-mission
Confined and Extreme (ICE) analogous environment. The training systems, many of the other LDSF stressors can be
 American Journal of Aerospace Engineering 2021; 8(1): 14-26 15

mitigated. However, detecting changes in how resilient and network performance throughout the brain. Thus,
responsive the brain is and distinguishing when training is neuroadaptations to a space environment may potentially not
most needed to ensure continued fitness for duty is vital for only affect other primary brain networks that contribute to
sustained and safe spaceflight [1-10]. Living and working in task performance, but also to behavioral health and well-
outer space introduces unique physiological, psychological, being. In other words, monitoring the effect of the
and psychosocial stressors to the human body. Many neuroadaptive process is necessary to keep an astronaut at
stressors are known and documented, LDSF crews will travel peak optimal brain function before, during and after a
well beyond Earth’s protective lower orbits, which will mission is a top priority.
create additional and more troublesome stressors. More
research is needed into how these stressors affect the natural 2.2. Clinical Population Needs
brains resilience and how they can be adequately mitigated. Likewise, recent and on-going mental health literature
LDSF is known to alter brain structure and function and evidence indicates consistent observations of cognitive
leading to an imbalance in the neuronal and glial networks’ dysfunctions as fundamental mental health factors, regardless
function and the neurovascular unit [6]. of the diagnostic condition [21-23]. Cognitive dysfunction
Resilience - In a constantly changing world, our brain has complaints are cited as a major reason for elevated
evolved to fine-tune its behavior under changing exploitation of health-care resources and have been found to
environmental conditions, needed to help generate be principal factors in the influence of health-care outcomes
appropriate responses essential to attain goals, interact [21-23]. As such, cognitive dysfunctions can be considered
socially, avoid danger and sustain proper mental health. The transdiagnostic abnormalities with dissimilar yet intersecting
evolution of our natural abilities has progressed neuro- phenotypic traits; their use as primary therapeutic targets is
physiologically and is reflected in many skills sets that recommended. What this means in the field of Psychology
include our professional and interpersonal domains. These and treatment, is that effects related to cognitive function are
biological advancements have resulted in many abilities that being recommended to be added to treatment plans for many
allow humans to learn, develop skills, and adapt to new diagnostic conditions [22-28]. Underpinning these
conditions. All are required for effective functioning in social complaints and a target for treatment is a reduction in one’s
and professional environments. For our astronauts, it may be ability to implement resilient vigilant and flexible adaptable
even more important that these abilities remain resilient and behavior – both essential for recovery and reintegration back
be preserved at the highest level throughout a mission and into society. This means the individual’s ability to learn,
upon their return from space. Equally important, these same develop skills, and adapt to new conditions is compromised
needs exist on earth and become more obvious for those in from a brain circuitry and neural network perspective and
many clinical settings. these abilities are natural remediation targets.
The paper is structured in the following format:
Introduction, Problem at Hand, Habitat and Clinical Results
report, followed by a more detailed description regarding the 3. Background
rationale behind neural circuit and metrics choices. 3.1. Improving Psychological Resilience

2. Problem at Hand Based upon recent mission reports, the need to reduce
and/or avoid neuroadaptive space travel effects during long
2.1. Astronaut Needs duration space missions is necessary [1-10]. Similarly, this
same need exists in clinical settings as an adjunctive clinical
Long-duration space missions will generate new intervention for many clinical cases [28-30]. In support of the
neurophysiological and psychological challenges never possibility of increasing one’s coping abilities and resilience,
before experienced due to extended periods of microgravity several authors are demonstrating supportive evidence
and radiation exposure. Both are proven to modify Central through behavioral interventions and targeted neuro-physical
Nervous System (CNS) performance, comprising the brain’s exercises in various treatment settings [30-47]. Neuro-
natural ability to self-regulate, process information, maintain physical improvements are seen by fMRI and other
cognitive control and neurogenesis [1-10]. Relevant to long- observable and quantified behavior means. At the
term space missions, the hippocampus, thalamus, cerebellum neurophysiological level, improvements appear to be
and amygdala (the brain’s cognitive control system mediators) achievable by increasing either gray or white matter density
are vulnerable to radiation and microgravity effects [8-24]. within and between key nodes in the neural circuity that
Past space experiments have demonstrated that results in improved neural function [41-47]. The results of
neuroadaptations (structural and neuro-network connectivity our data, while working with crew both pre and during
changes) occur in space due to space related environmental habitat missions, further strengthens this hypothesis as a
effects that affect cognitive performance (3D spatial possibility. More importantly, our results are adding to the
perceptions, reaction times, moods, etc.) [1-9]. Equally identification of key behavioral health neurophysiological
important to note, the entire interwoven set of brain networks monitoring targets.
participate in neuro-adaptive processes altering basic neural In the cognitive neuroscience literature several authors are
16 Curtis Cripe et al.: Improving Psychological Resilience with Cognitive Retraining Methods Using EEG Brain
Network Biomarkers: Example from UND/NASA Lunar/Martian Habitat

reporting important relationships as they relate to resilience. 3.2.2. Coping Styles

For example, Santarnecchi et. al. (2015, 2018) note resiliency Coping styles are an important element of psychological
at the neurophysiological and psychological levels appear to resilience [47, 65, 66]. Positive adaptive problem-oriented
vary based upon key circuits that support IQ performance coping skills are interconnected with well-being and a higher
that include language, memory, the salience, and default quality of life. Adaptive problem-oriented coping skills are
mode networks. Additionally, authors are also suggesting considered coupled with psychological factors encompassing
other important neural network circuit properties that include positive and negative affect, positive emotion regulation,
efficient neural network hubs that correlate with intelligence, self-esteem, emotional flexibility, inhibitory control, and
cognitive control, and vigilance [48-53]. more [67-69]. In contrast, avoidance coping styles have been
linked to a predisposition to psychiatric disorders such as
3.2. Neural Circuit and Metrics Choice Rationale PTSD, anxiety, and major depression.
3.2.1. Psychological Resilience 3.2.3. Increasing Coping Abilities – Behaviorally
Resilience is defined as a multi-dimension construct Notably, many behavioral interventions effectively aid in
representing an individual’s ability to positively adapt and transferring proper coping skills (strategies) which can be
respond to stress and adversity while maintaining proper seen in neuroimaging as changes between brain regions that
mental health and well-being [47, 65, 66]. The construct support proper neural function, including mindfulness
includes interacting factors such as genetics, epigenetics, training, controlled stress exposure, stress inoculation
psychosocial factors, childhood developmental environment, training, and behavioral training targeting psycho-social risk
cognitive abilities profile, and functional neural circuitry factors [70-72]. However, by their behavioral nature these
integrity (65-66). Implied in the construct definition, are two interventions do not explicitly target the brain circuitry
stances for consideration: 1) physical (i.e. physiology, responsible for individual differences in coping/resilience.
neurophysiology and state of health); and 2) skills (i.e. What is missing is supporting interventions that focus on
natural/learned expressions - abilities-talents). strengthening and developing the neuro-physiological
Regardless of the domain in life (space travel, athletics, mechanisms, and thereby provide structural support for
academics, careers, leadership, social, etc.) it is commonly neural circuit performance and can easily and effectively be
accepted that the expression of a person’s natural abilities are implemented alongside existing behavioral intervention
modulated by four interrelated but conjoining features: 1) programs. In other words, both behavioral intervention and
current physical abilities (strength/health); 2) learned skills brain circuit strengthening will work better in tandem, than
(knowledge and ability to adapt); 3) motivational intent; 4) each as a standalone.
environmental conditions (opportunities/stressors).
One major key that defines success is how resilient we are 3.2.4. Neurophysiology of Coping Styles
to adapt to these four modulating factors -- i.e., the ability to Addressing if neurophysiological differences in each
resourcefully adapt to any and all unplanned situations that coping style even exists, Santarnecchi et al. (2018) used
may impact one’s goals and to adapt and remain resilient fMRI scans to study 102 healthy adults’ brains as they relate
under many/any forms of stress. (In particular with deep to coping styles. In the study, the authors successfully
space travel, the unplanned and unknown will always be a identified significant associations between neural network
factor). However, when too much stress and/or adversity “functional connectivities” (connectivity strength between
enters one’s life, one’s ability to respond in a resilient brain regions) between different neural circuits in the brain.
manner is often impacted, either because of the lack of skills Significant correlations for three out of five major coping
to cope, and/or the neurophysiological strength to remain styles were found (avoidance-oriented, problem-oriented, and
resilient. In other words, to be successful it is important to be social-support-oriented) with the Salience Network (SN) and
psychologically strong, skillful, present in the moment to the Default Mode Network (DMN) [47].
respond, and to have access to our inner resources to make it The SN and DMN networks, especially the DMN, are
happen… i.e., to Problem Solve or Cope. correlated with problem-oriented (left angular gyrus - BA39)
The need to remain neurophysiologically resilient under and social support-oriented coping (left frontopolar cortex -
stressful unknown conditions, is the key training driver and BA10), whereas the avoidance-oriented (ACC) coping also
focus that underpins the NeuroCoach® program in general, explains individual variability in this coping style by means
but specifically regarding our Habitat crew experiments. The of its negative correlation with medial structures of the DMN
NeuroCoach® monitoring/training program focuses on key [47]. These finding linked coping styles with the SN and
neural circuits that support resilient adaptive behaviors to DMN networks to emotional processing, viscero-somatic
allow the brain to remain or become more resilient and open perception, the integration of somatic signals for
to coping strategies, thereby allowing one’s natural Fluid interoceptive awareness, the determination of stimulus
Intelligence to take place and continue to be expressed under salience and attentional focus, as well as imagination of past
stressful conditions. Hence through the BCI interface and future scenarios, mind wandering, and auto-biographical
measurements, neurophysiologically, allowing for a more memory [73, 74]. The authors further noted that the tendency
robust state of mindfulness that can provide access to proper to express one style over another was linked to spontaneous
problem-solving skills, and resilient adaptive behaviors. brain patterns that guided automatic selection of one stress-
 American Journal of Aerospace Engineering 2021; 8(1): 14-26 17

related response instead of another. In this context, the information, and then cataloging and blending of those in
authors introduced the reasonableness of linking coping style frontal cognitive control areas. Notably, these finding further
relationships to the two resting-state networks. Moreover, the focus on both the monitoring NeuroCoach® function and
possibility of increasing one’s ability to cope by addressing provide individualized brain regions training targets when
the neuro-physical underpinnings of coping styles was needed.
introduced by the authors.
3.2.7. Working Memory and Resilience
3.2.5. Fluid Intelligence and Resilience Several emerging theories of consciousness that include
Fluid intelligence (gf) characterizes the ability to solve the Global Workspace, Neural Blackboard Architectures
problems unrelated to previously learned knowledge an and IDOYP [87, 88] link the function of the working
essential element in resilient behavior [75]. This ability memory network as the “workspace” in which all forms of
underwrites encoding of new information and its efficient information are integrated. The WMN serves as a primary
manipulation, representing a critical component of human network supporting reasoning, expanded thought, and
cognition and has been shown to have a strong predictive awareness by providing the mind a conscious workspace
power over both educational and professional success [76], for information to reside in [78, 87, 88]. Several theories
making the neural networks that support these operations describe working memory as the “desktop of our
obvious training targets. conscious awareness”, is utilized to hold thoughts in our
To explore the resilience relationship aspect of these mind, gives rise to awareness and task execution
networks, Santarnecchi et al. [29] documented the limitations that vary under different cognitive load and
association between individual intelligence quotients (IQ) stress conditions [79, 87, 88]. Recent research has
and brain resilience as it responded to targeted simulated identified brain networks that contribute to distinctive
(specific network nodes) and random attacks, using resting- aspects of cognitive control and how they operate with the
state fMRI and graph analysis methods (n= 102 healthy working memory network [78, 80]. Putative WMN
individuals). Enhanced brain resilience to targeted attacks structural and functional mechanisms are often found
(TA) was correlated with higher IQs in networks belonging impaired in several conditions including aging, learning
to language and memory processing regions, whereas regions impairment, addiction, as well as a number of
related to emotional processing are mostly supported by psychopathological diseases, such as schizophrenia,
lower IQ individuals. These results suggest that pre- and depression, and obsessive-compulsive disorder [60, 61],
post-changes in IQ scores may be both useful training targets making working memory and cognitive control areas
as well as predictors of astronaut performance and for critical to monitor. Recent electrophysiological studies
clinical recovery. note that increases or decreases in task- related activation,
predominantly within the theta or alpha band produced by
3.2.6. Fluid Intelligence and White Matter cognitive control/working memory networks, is associated
Other authors have investigated white matter (WM) with schizophrenia, inhibitory and sustained attention,
substructures, level of efficient hub connections and their lapses of attention, working memory dysfunction, deficits
relationship with gf [76-82]. Network nodal efficiency, a in emotional engagement and reward processing
graph analysis metric, has been shown to be significantly (depression), error processing and conflict monitoring
related to intelligence in three brain regions. Higher gf scores (obsessive-compulsive disorder) [89-95].
showed higher nodal efficiency in right anterior insula (AI)
and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), two hub regions 3.2.8. Cognitive Control Networks (CC) and Resilience
the salience network, with both regions shown to be Recent findings suggest the existences of a set of brain
vulnerable to space flight environmental effects [1-6] and networks contemplated as the cognitive control network
implicated in various mental health conditions [21-27]. system. This network system involves of a set of well-
Likewise, higher gf was linked with lower nodal efficiency in defined brain structures that consist of flexible hubs that
the left temporo-parietal junction area (TPJ). This regulates a distributed set of brain systems (e.g., visual,
relationship was found to be similar between younger and limbic, motor) according to current task goals [96-102]. More
older participants [82]. Further, other gF components importantly, an increasing number of studies report
findings including cognitive measures of information alterations to this system are found throughout a noticeable
processing speed and reasoning ability, but not memory range of mental diseases. Equally important, many acquired
performance, were significantly related. mental health disorders (due to health, injury, or poor
In line with these findings, neuroimaging studies of gF are lifestyle choice such as substance abuse) have been shown to
commonly supportive of the parieto-frontal integration theory disturb this system via neuroadaptations and are considered
(P-FIT) of intelligence [84-86]. The P-FIT model postulates a the root of poor mental health. These reports, indirectly,
theoretical framework for how the assimilation of cortical suggest that the CC networks may play a critical role for
structures relates to individual intellectual abilities [84]. promoting and maintaining mental health as well as
Equally the theory points the way to how performance on indirectly imply a relationship to resilience.
tests of intelligence requires processing of modality specific
sensory inputs, integration of multimodal sensory
18 Curtis Cripe et al.: Improving Psychological Resilience with Cognitive Retraining Methods Using EEG Brain
Network Biomarkers: Example from UND/NASA Lunar/Martian Habitat

4. Method 4.3. Habitat Sample Size Limitation

4.1. Study Purpose Each habitat mission is limited to a crew of three, which
limits our sample size. To date we have been involved in 3
The ILMAH study is an ongoing experiment that aims at missions, plus one currently on going. To help support the
examining and characterizing the impact of different viability of our approach of improving psychological
simulated spaceflight environmental situations on the resilience, we report also on recent findings from clinical
temporal changes in five large-scale brain networks that studies using the NeuroCoach® method where larger samples
support neurocognitive functions critical for task sizes are available.
performance and behavioral health maintenance during
extended long duration space expeditions. We chose to 4.4. Monitoring/Training Networks for Resilient Flexible
examine the changes in the neural functional connectivity Adaptability Responses
EEG metrics during resting and cognitive task, based upon
the need to obtain an evidence-based biomarker that would We selected five key networks considered to fine-tune
be predictive of possible reduction in task performance behavior under variable environmental conditions. These
and/or behavioral health disturbances. The study procedures networks are implicated in maintaining proper task
are demonstrating the feasibility of using dry sensors to performance and mental health preservation [56-59]. The
wirelessly collect continuous real-time temporally integrated networks include: Working Memory - the primary network
brain performance data experienced during simulated space that supports reasoning, expanded thought, and awareness by
mission events. Various mission events are included linking providing the mind a conscious workspace for information to
experimental conditions such as real time data collection reside in [60, 61]; Cognitive Control Networks (CCN)
during simulated EVA scenarios within spacesuits in Cognitive control incorporates processes involved in
combination with previous night sleep profiles, physical producing and preserving appropriate task goals, including
exercise routines, and operational workload scenarios. suppressing irrelevant mental and physical activities that
distract from achieving the desired set of task goals [60, 61] –
4.2. Inflatable Lunar Mars Analog Habitat (ILMAH) CCN Subdivisions - (60, 61) The Frontal-Parietal network
(FPN) provides active online control allowing it to adaptively
The ILMAH is a surface planetary analog facility located initiate and adjust control [59-60]; (2) the Cingulate-
in Grand Forks, North Dakota. The interior consists of a Opercular Network (CON) provides stable ‘set-maintenance’
galley, bathroom, lab space, and private sleeping quarters (state maintenance) over the entire task epoch or behavioral
for up to 4 crewmembers. The ILMAH is about 12.2 meters strategy [60, 61]; (3) the Salience Network (SN) (Attention
(40 feet) long, 3 meters (10 feet) wide, and 2.4 meters (8 Networks plus Insula Network) is involved in rapid detection
feet) in height, although the living space is a little less. of goal-relevant events and facilitation of access to
Crewmembers enter their simulation through the “airlock” appropriate cognitive resources by interacting with multiple
in the front. As you walk through the habitat, there is a functional systems and thereby supporting a wide range of
small port on the other end that leads to a tunnel. This cognitive processes [60, 61]. Default Mode Network (DMN)
crawlspace leads to a rover that allows crewmembers to is implicated in the brain's default resting state conditions and
drive around on the “planetary surface” and find a spot to in its ability to sustain task performance. The DMN is
explore using the simulated spacesuits attached to the back composed of functionally specialized subsystems, with the
of the rover. Throughout this process, the crewmembers are anterior DMN (i.e. medial Prefrontal Cortex (PFC))
never exposed to the conditions outside, however, the associated in identifying stimuli as self-salient, whereas the
habitat relies on the water and air supplied from the mission posterior DMN region jointly with the parahippocampal
support team. gyrus are involved in autobiographical search and memory
Since its completion, the ILMAH has been used for retrieval. Mechanisms within the DMN are implicated in
seven different “missions” from 10-30 days, simulating regulating emotional reactivity and may take a key role in the
various phases of surface Mars operations. In all missions, empathic process by establishing a distinction between other
only three crewmembers were selected at a time, in order and self- related feelings [60, 61]. Further, regarding
to leave some space available for experimentation. The congruent cognitive/behavioral health performance a close
studies have mostly involved human psycho-social relationship between empathy and executive regulatory
response to isolation and confinement. Construction mechanisms exist. Sluggish and/or poor (dis) engagement of
techniques and operations during Extra Vehicular the DMN is a noted biomarker within several mental health
Activities (EVAs) were also explored during two missions. conditions including depression and attention deficit
Studies about microbial growth and plant production in disorders [60-64]. The opposed relationship between DMN
small, closed spaces has also occurred [55, 56]. We have and cognitive control networks may influence the ability to
successfully conducted and collected neurocognitive data exert cognitive control [61-64] and play an important role in
during Mission V, VI and VII and are currently the regulation of mind-wandering and rumination that
participating in Mission VIII, in which we continue to impacts task performance [64].
refine our procedures to be less invasive.
 American Journal of Aerospace Engineering 2021; 8(1): 14-26 19

4.5. NeuroCoach® Training Methods The application has been used to promote a relaxed
sustained attentional focus in professional athletes and
The NeuroCoach® system employs the use of the most clinically as a restorative cognitive enhancement tool in brain
current rCRT methods that incorporates a BCI that provides injured and learning-disabled populations clinically the last
neural network performance integrity metrics (nPIMs) to the 10 years. The Split Attention exercises was built based on the
training activity. The program supports non-verbal cognitive neuroscience literature that satisfies The Institute of
enhancement/ repair treatment programs by providing a set of Medicine’s Checklist criteria for brain training.
cognitive remediation applications (training programs) that The application uses an adaptive training procedure to
monitors and evaluates a user’s defined neural networks adjust difficulty level of the cognitive training exercises. As
system performance status in real-time. Based on a accuracy of performance is achieved at a specified level (e.g.,
NeuroCodex® evaluation and brain map that measures of 75% for a combined neural network performance level –
cognitive abilities while the individual is undergoing selected nPIMs, response successes, response times) the
cognitive activities measures everyone’s brain performance. exercise difficulty is increased (or decreased) incrementally
These metrics (nPIMs) are derived from the neural network based on performance criteria. Increasing evidence
system that supports the cognitive function being trained. demonstrates that adaptive training promotes neural network
The CRT methodology is implemented as a set of computer transfer between functional brain system, that are reflected in
activities to engage the desired training cognitive functions everyday function. The level of difficulty of the program
based on classic neuroscience experiments found in the adjusts based upon the current responses with the goal of
literature. The BCI interface informs the trainer, the user, and proper ratio of neurocircuit engagement as opposed to level
CRT activity in real time, regarding current neural network of correct responses.
performance integrity status based on the user’s present
nPIMs state.
The CRT activity incorporates a performance leveling 5. Habitat and Clinical Results
algorithm (PLA) to adjust the intensity of the activity by 5.1. Preliminary Study Results
rendering the pursuit to be either more or less intense.
Unique in our method is that the PLA encompasses both To date we have conducted three 14-day mission studies
nPIMs and behavioral responses (response times, accuracy) during Mission V, VI and VII (and currently are in the
to adjust the level of intensity play of the activity. This is habitat for Mission VIII) within the Inflatable Lunar/Martian
based upon the current real-time performance ability of the Analog Habitat located at the University of North Dakota.
user that is required to properly engage the long-term All experimental Mission occurrences offer a continued
potentiation (LTP) and long-term depreciation (LTD) opportunity to determine the feasibility and quality of using a
network learning rules [102-107]. The intention of the rapid-application wearable dry EEG sensor system and self-
performance leveling algorithm adjustment is to adjust the administered cognitive task battery by crewmembers to gain
level of activity play to a comfortable level, thus allowing the insights into NASA’s Human Research Program (HRP)
user to progress through the activity successfully while at the questions of whether functional changes in the brain can be
same time focusing on developing and/or strengthening the effectively monitored and could be predictive of cognitive
performance integrity of the neural system being trained. The performance during a mission.
BCI interface informs the trainer, the user, and CRT activity We analyzed data quality and temporal changes in sleep,
in real time, current neural network performance integrity and task-related EEG (ERP, ERSP, and brain connectivity)
status based on the user’s present nPIMs state. Incorporated and behavioral measures from seven male and two female
within the device is an FDA registered EEG brain-computer crew members, through the multiple missions. EEG, ECG,
interface (BCI) that integrates with a previously FDA and EMG data were obtained from crewmembers during
registered neurometric database to identify and then extravehicular activities in planetary spacesuits, while
enhance/strengthen/repair neuro-circuit performance needed sleeping, and while performing a cognitive task battery.
to promote clear, resilient and stable cognitive function. Significance tests or temporal changes in measures were
4.6 rCRT Example and Description: The Split-Attention computed using ANOVA.
application is an adaptive process-based, nonverbal training Resting connectivity analysis and normative database
technique designed to aid in “resetting/enhancing” the comparisons were performed. A comprehensive analysis of
attention (ANT), working memory (WM), frontal parietal data quality during cognitive tasks and sleep, as well as
network (FPN) and salience network (SN). Split-Attention questionnaire data obtained from crewmembers, revealed
uses a relaxation and restorative framework that allows the suitable data quality, ease of use, and comfort of the EEG
trained networks to regain or obtain natural homeostatic systems.
balance needed to maintain a desired level of performance. Figure 1 highlights changes in functional connectivity of
The application focuses on training the useful field of view the Supplementary Motor Area (SMA) with 88 regions of the
(visual attention), working memory, cognitive speed, task brain throughout mission duration. Note, the reallocation of
switching, and multiple attention abilities all in one the neural network functional connectivity during the mission,
application. indicating possible ICE mission effects that affect the SMA
20 Curtis Cripe et al.: Improving Psychological Resilience with Cognitive Retraining Methods Using EEG Brain
Network Biomarkers: Example from UND/NASA Lunar/Martian Habitat

interactions the left and right hemispheres, including hypo and hyper connectivity reallocation of resources.

Figure 1. Resting state functional connectivity changes in crew member S3 during ILMAH Mission 5. Note resource reallocations between 88 brain regions
and SMA (BA6) during mission phases. Z-scores obtained with respect to an age normed FDA registered database using BrainDx Light blue colors indicate
an reduced connectivity requiring the brain to exert more effort in achieving a particular performance level on a behavioral task/activity. This same trend was
observed on all subsequent missions.

Figure 2 shows significant reduction in sensory (auditory) Attention training application module as a crew
evoked potential (AEP) amplitude in 2 of 3 crew members, countermeasure, to determine both viability and impact on
throughout the mission in response to passive auditory neural network measured changes. The Split-Attention
stimuli. application is an adaptive process-based, nonverbal training
Equally important, exploratory results shown in Figure 3, technique designed to aid in “resetting/enhancing” the
suggests the feasibility of possible predictive task attention (ANT), working memory (WM), frontal parietal
performance results. Taken together, our preliminary results network (FPN) and salience network (SN). The crew member
support the feasibility and practicability of crew- assigned to that activity reported it was an easy task to
administered dry EEG data collection procedures within an perform. More importantly, we did not observe the changes
ICE as proposed below. We are currently repeating the study in the working memory/attentional drifts that we observed in
during Mission VIII. other crew members. Suggesting a potential positive effect.
On Mission VII we included the NeuroCoach® Split

Figure 2. Significant reductions in sensory (auditory) evoked potential amplitude throughout mission.
 American Journal of Aerospace Engineering 2021; 8(1): 14-26 21

Figure 3. EEG metrics may predict task performance Significant correlation observed between neural metrics related to working memory, cognitive control,
an vigilant attention system measured on a given day an psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) reaction time on the following day.

criteria were used for all groups: (1) <60 days of sobriety; (2)
5.2. Clinical Results Substance Abuse Augmented a history of severe traumatic brain injury with a loss of
Treatment consciousness of >30 minutes; and (3) histories of
A retrospective chart review was performed on 200 schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or obsessive-compulsive
participants (100 males and 100 females) who completed a disorder. Each group received the same pretest and posttest.
BCI/CRT augmented treatment program. Participant records Experimental Pre- and Post-Test Measures: Table 1 depicts
were structured using a pre-test and post-test profile analysis the ten dependent (i.e., treatment) measures chosen from the
quasi-experimental design to explore treatment effects over Woodcock Johnson Cognitive Abilities III Assessment
48 training sessions. Participants’ records were organized Battery (WJIII) (64). The WJIII is a set of cognitive ability
into treatment group (n=200) and non-treatment comparison sub-tests based on the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of
group (n=120). The treatment group was composed of 200 cognitive abilities. The CHC theory provides a
participant records (n=100: 100 males and 100 females); the comprehensive framework for understanding the structure of
non-treatment comparison group included 121 records cognitive information processing abilities.
(n=121: 61 males and 60 females). The following exclusion The pre- and post-treatment results established a
contributing inferential response towards treatment as
22 Curtis Cripe et al.: Improving Psychological Resilience with Cognitive Retraining Methods Using EEG Brain
Network Biomarkers: Example from UND/NASA Lunar/Martian Habitat

increasing cognitive control abilities. The 18-month follow- that the by using a rCRT program such as the NeuroCoach®
up assessment indicated over 80% of treated participants- program to increase and maintaining optimal cognitive and
maintained sobriety in contrast to 44% of non-treated. A brain performance, both quantitatively (by the numbers) and
profile analysis was conducted to investigate the effect that qualitatively (social reintegration) can be achieved. We have
treatment status (No Treatment, Treatment) had on 10 found that by studying astronaut crew needs to remain at
subtests of the Woodcock Johnson Test of Cognitive optimized performance during long duration space travel as
Abilities III (WJIII). The grouping Group means were used well as our studies with various clinical populations with
for data screening. All participants had complete data sets (i.e. acquired brain dysfunctions presents us with a unique
no missing data). No univariate or multivariate outliers were opportunity to compare and contrast both ends of the
detected, with p =.001, assumptions regarding normality of cognitive performance spectrum. These individuals represent
sampling distributions, homogeneity of variance—covariance opposite ends of the spectrum, both are instructive in what a
matrices, linearity, and multicollinearity were met. damaged brain can potentially achieve vs what an optimized
brain might suffer during deep space travel and needs to be
5.3. Effects on Cognitive Abilities guarded against. Equally important, exploring both ends of
Table 1 displays mean scores, standard deviations and the cognitive performance spectrum allows us to observer
number of participants for each between subjects’ group how we might develop common solutions that might solve
(Treatment, No Treatment) for all ten subtests of the WJIII. both problems.
A significant multivariate effect was found after testing the
difference for all variables across time between test groups.
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