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(Redirected from Stone)
"Rocks", "Stone", and "Stones" redirect here. For other uses, see Rocks
(disambiguation), Stone (disambiguation), and Stones (disambiguation).

The Grand Canyon, an

incision through layers of sedimentary rocks.

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In geology, rock (or stone) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate
of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included,
its chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks form the Earth's
outer solid layer, the crust, and most of its interior, except for the liquid outer
core and pockets of magma in the asthenosphere. The study of rocks involves
multiple subdisciplines of geology, including petrology and mineralogy. It may be
limited to rocks found on Earth, or it may include planetary geology that studies the
rocks of other celestial objects.

Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks, sedimentary
rocksand metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools in the
Earth's crust, or lava cools on the ground surface or the seabed. Sedimentary rocks
are formed by diagenesis and lithification of sediments, which in turn are formed by
the weathering, transport, and deposition of existing rocks. Metamorphic rocks are
formed when existing rocks are subjected to such high pressures and temperatures
that they are transformed without significant melting.

Humanity has made use of rocks since the earliest humans. This early period, called
the Stone Age, saw the development of many stone tools. Stone was then used as a
major component in the construction of buildings and
early infrastructure. Mining developed to extract rocks from the Earth and obtain the
minerals within them, including metals. Modern technology has allowed the
development of new human-made rocks and rock-like substances, such as concrete.

Study
Further information: Geology, Petrology, and Mineralogy
Geology is the study of Earth and its components, including the study of rock
formations. Petrology is the study of the character and origin of rocks. Mineralogy is
the study of the mineral components that create rocks. The study of rocks and their
components has contributed to the geological understanding of Earth's history,
the archaeological understanding of human history, and the development
of engineeringand technology in human society.[1]

While the history of geology includes many theories of rocks and their origins that
have persisted throughout human history, the study of rocks was developed as a
formal science during the 19th century. Plutonism was developed as a theory during
this time, and the discovery of radioactive decay in 1896 allowed for the radiocarbon
dating of rocks. Understanding of plate tectonics developed in the second half of the
20th century.[2]

Classification
See also: Formation of rocks

A balancing
rock called Kummakivi (literally "strange stone")[3]
Rocks are composed primarily of grains of minerals, which are crystalline
solids formed from atoms chemically bonded into an orderly structure.[4]: 3 Some rocks
also contain mineraloids, which are rigid, mineral-like substances, such as volcanic
glass,[5]: 55, 79 that lacks crystalline structure. The types and abundance of minerals in a
rock are determined by the manner in which it was formed.

Most rocks contain silicate minerals, compounds that include silica tetrahedra in
their crystal lattice, and account for about one-third of all known mineral species and
about 95% of the earth's crust.[6] The proportion of silica in rocks and minerals is a
major factor in determining their names and properties.[7]
 Rock outcrop along a mountain creek
near Orosí, Costa Rica.
Rocks are classified according to characteristics such as mineral and chemical
composition, permeability, texture of the constituent particles, and particle size.
These physical properties are the result of the processes that formed the rocks.
[5]
Over the course of time, rocks can be transformed from one type into another, as
described by a geological model called the rock cycle. This transformation produces
three general classes of rock: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

Those three classes are subdivided into many groups. There are, however, no hard-
and-fast boundaries between allied rocks. By increase or decrease in the proportions
of their minerals, they pass through gradations from one to the other; the distinctive
structures of one kind of rock may thus be traced, gradually merging into those of
another. Hence the definitions adopted in rock names simply correspond to selected
points in a continuously graduated series.[8]

Igneous rock
Main article: Igneous rock

Sample of igneous gabbro

Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word igneus, meaning of
fire, from ignis meaning fire)[9] is formed through the cooling
and solidification of magma or lava. This magma may be derived from partial melts
of pre-existing rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust. Typically, the melting of
rocks is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a
decrease in pressure, or a change in composition.[10]: 591–599

Igneous rocks are divided into two main categories:

  Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools
and crystallizes slowly within the Earth's crust. A common example of this
type is granite.
 Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface either
as lava or fragmental ejecta, forming minerals such as pumice or basalt.[5]
Magmas tend to become richer in silica as they rise towards the Earth's surface, a
process called magma differentiation. This occurs both because minerals low in
silica crystallize out of the magma as it begins to cool (Bowen's reaction series) and
because the magma assimilates some of the crustal rock through which it ascends
(country rock), and crustal rock tends to be high in silica. Silica content is thus the
most important chemical criterion for classifying igneous rock.[7] The content of alkali
metal oxides is next in importance.[11]

About 65% of the Earth's crust by volume consists of igneous rocks. Of these, 66%
are basalt and gabbro, 16% are granite, and 17% granodiorite and diorite. Only 0.6%
are syenite and 0.3% are ultramafic. The oceanic crust is 99% basalt, which is an
igneous rock of mafic composition. Granite and similar rocks, known as granitoids,
dominate the continental crust.[12][13]

Sedimentary rock
Main article: Sedimentary rock

Sedimentary sandstone with iron

oxide bands
Sedimentary rocks are formed at the earth's surface by the accumulation and
cementation of fragments of earlier rocks, minerals, and organisms[14] or as chemical
precipitates and organic growths in water (sedimentation). This process
causes clastic sediments (pieces of rock) or organic particles (detritus) to settle and
accumulate or for minerals to chemically precipitate(evaporite) from a solution. The
particulate matter then undergoes compaction and cementation at moderate
temperatures and pressures (diagenesis).[5]: 265–280 [15]: 147–154

Before being deposited, sediments are formed by weathering of earlier rocks

by erosion in a source area and then transported to the place of deposition
by water, wind, ice, mass movementor glaciers (agents of denudation).[5] About 7.9%
of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary rocks, with 82% of those being
shales, while the remainder consists of 6% limestone and 12% sandstone
and arkoses.[13] Sedimentary rocks often contain fossils. Sedimentary rocks form
under the influence of gravity and typically are deposited in horizontal or near
horizontal layers or strata, and may be referred to as stratified rocks.[16]
Sediment and the particles of clastic sedimentary rocks can be further classified
by grain size. The smallest sediments are clay, followed by silt, sand, and gravel.
Some systems include cobbles and boulders as measurements.[17]

Metamorphic rock
Main article: Metamorphic rock

Metamorphic banded gneiss

Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any rock type—sedimentary rock,
igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock—to
different temperature and pressure conditions than those in which the original rock
was formed. This process is called metamorphism, meaning to "change in form". The
result is a profound change in physical properties and chemistry of the stone. The
original rock, known as the protolith, transforms into other mineral types or other
forms of the same minerals, by recrystallization.[5] The temperatures and pressures
required for this process are always higher than those found at the Earth's surface:
temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C and pressures greater than 1500 bars.
[18]
This occurs, for example, when continental platescollide.[19]: 31–33, 134–139 Metamorphic
rocks compose 27.4% of the crust by volume.[13]

The three major classes of metamorphic rock are based upon the formation
mechanism. An intrusion of magma that heats the surrounding rock causes contact
metamorphism—a temperature-dominated transformation. Pressure metamorphism
occurs when sediments are buried deep under the ground; pressure is dominant,
and temperature plays a smaller role. This is termed burial metamorphism, and it can
result in rocks such as jade. Where both heat and pressure play a role, the
mechanism is termed regional metamorphism. This is typically found in mountain-
building regions.[7]
Depending on the structure, metamorphic rocks are divided into two general
categories. Those that possess a texture are referred to as foliated; the remainders
are termed non-foliated. The name of the rock is then determined based on the types
of minerals present. Schists are foliated rocks that are primarily composed
of lamellar minerals such as micas. A gneiss has visible bands of differing lightness,
with a common example being the granite gneiss. Other varieties of foliated rock
include slates, phyllites, and mylonite. Familiar examples of non-foliated
metamorphic rocks include marble, soapstone, and serpentine. This branch
contains quartzite—a metamorphosed form of sandstone—and hornfels.[7]

Extraterrestrial rocks
Main article: Planetary geology
Though most understanding of rocks comes from those of Earth, rocks make up
many of the universe's celestial bodies. In the Solar System, Mars, Venus,
and Mercury are composed of rock, as are many natural satellites, asteroids,
and meteoroids. Meteorites that fall to Earth provide evidence of extraterrestrial
rocks and their composition. They are typically heavier than rocks on Earth. Asteroid
rocks can also be brought to Earth through space missions, such as
the Hayabusa mission.[20] Lunar rocks and Martian rocks have also been studied.[21]

Human use

Ceremonial cairn of rocks, an ovoo,

from Mongolia
The use of rock has had a huge impact on the cultural and technological
development of the human race. Rock has been used by humans and
other hominids for at least 2.5 million years.[22]Lithic technology marks some of the
oldest and continuously used technologies. The mining of rock for its metal content
has been one of the most important factors of human advancement, and has
progressed at different rates in different places, in part because of the kind of metals
available from the rock of a region.

Anthropic rock
Main article: Anthropic rock
Anthropic rock is synthetic or restructured rock formed by human activity. Concrete is
recognized as a human-made rock constituted of natural and processed rock and
having been developed since Ancient Rome.[23] Rock can also be modified with other
substances to develop new forms, such as epoxy granite.[24] Artificial stone has also
been developed, such as Coade stone.[25] Geologist James R. Underwood has
proposed anthropic rock as a fourth class of rocks alongside igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic.[26]

Building
See also: Building material § Stone or rock

A stonehouse on the hill in Sastamala,

Finland Raised garden bed with natural

stones
Rock varies greatly in strength, from quartzites having a tensile strength in excess of
300 MPa[27]to sedimentary rock so soft it can be crumbled with bare fingers (that is, it
is friable).[28] (For comparison, structural steel has a tensile strength of around 350
MPa.[29]) Relatively soft, easily worked sedimentary rock was quarried for construction
as early as 4000 BCE in Egypt,[30] and stone was used to build fortifications in Inner
Mongolia as early as 2800 BCE.[31] The soft rock, tuff, is common in Italy, and
the Romans used it for many buildings and bridges.[32] Limestone was widely used in
construction in the Middle Ages in Europe [33] and remained popular into the 20th
century.[34]

Mining
Main article: Mining
 Mi Vida uranium mine near Moab, Utah
Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the
earth, from an ore body, vein or seam.[35] The term also includes the removal of soil.
Materials recovered by mining include base metals, precious
metals, iron, uranium, coal, diamonds, limestone, oil shale, rock
salt, potash, construction aggregate and dimension stone. Mining is required to
obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or
created artificially in a laboratory or factory. Mining in a wider sense comprises
extraction of any resource (e.g. petroleum, natural gas, salt or even water) from the
earth.[36]

Mining of rock and metals has been done since prehistoric times. Modern mining
processes involve prospecting for mineral deposits, analysis of the profit potential of
a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials, and finally reclamation of the
land to prepare it for other uses once mining ceases.[37]

Mining processes may create negative impacts on the environment both during the
mining operations and for years after mining has ceased. These potential impacts
have led to most of the world's nations adopting regulations to manage negative
effects of mining operations.[38]

Tools
Main article: Stone tool
Stone tools have been used for millions of years by humans and earlier hominids.
The Stone Age was a period of widespread stone tool usage.[39] Early Stone
Age tools were simple implements, such as hammerstones and sharp flakes. Middle
Stone Age tools featured sharpened points to be used as projectile points, awls,
or scrapers. Late Stone Age tools were developed with craftsmanshipand distinct
cultural identities.[40] Stone tools were largely superseded by copper and bronze tools
following the development of metallurgy.