Sound:

It is a form of energy that causes

sensation of hearing. It is produced when
a body vibrates. Thus, sound requires a
medium for its propagation.

Audible Range of frequency - 20Hz to

20000 Hz
Frequency > 20000 Hz - Ultrasonic
Frequency < 20 Hz - Infrasonic
V = f λ (f = frequency, λ = wavelength)
f= l/T

Mechanical/Elastic Waves - When particles of medium vibrate there is change of

K.E. and vice versa. Two types:
(1) Longitudinal wave - when
particles of medium vibrate
along the direction of
propagation of wave forming
compressions and rarefactions.
Ex. Sound wave in Air, in solid
and inside a liquid.
(2) Transverse Wave - When
particles of medium vibrate
normal to the direction of the
propagation of wave forming
crest and trough. Ex Sound wave
in a solid, and on surface of
Liquid.

REFLECTION OF SOUND WAVES

Sound waves, just like any other wave, when strike a hard surface (or boundary
of another medium), return back to the same medium obeying the laws of
reflection i.e. (i) the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence, (ii) the
incident ray, reflected ray and normal at the point of incidence, all lie in one
plane. The return of a sound wave on striking a surface such as wall, metal
sheet, plywood etc. back in the same medium is called the reflection of sound
wave. The only requirement for the reflection of sound wave is that the size of
the reflecting surface must be bigger than the wavelength of the sound wave.
The phenomenon of reflection of sound waves is utilized in making a
megaphone (or speaking tube), sound board and ear trumpet.

ECHO
Production (or generation) of an echo
The sound heard after reflection from a distant obstacle (such as a cliff, a
hillside, wall of a building, edge of a forest, etc.) after the original sound has
ceased, is called an echo.

Condition for hearing an echo

An echo is heard only if the distance of the person producing a sound from the
rigid obstacle (or reflector) is far enough to allow the reflected sound to reach
the person at least 0-1 second after the original sound is heard The reason is
that the sensation of a sound persists in our ears for about 0-1 second after the
exciting stimulus ceases to act.

𝑽𝒕
d=
𝟐
To hear the echo distinctly, following three conditions must be satisfied :
(1) The minimum distance between the source of sound (or observer) and the
reflector in air must be 17 m. It is different in different medium depending upon
the speed of sound in that medium.
(2) The size of the reflector must be large enough as compared to the
wavelength of the sound wave.
(3) The intensity of sound should be such that the reflected sound reaching the
ear is sufficiently loud to be audible.

Note: (1) If the reflector is at a distance less than 17 m, the reflected sound gets
mixed with the original sound.
(2) If there are repeated reflections at the reflecting surface, the sound gets
prolonged. This effect is known as reverberation. It can easily be experienced in
high tombs like Taj Mahal, Sikandra, etc.

DETERMINATION OF SPEED OF SOUND BY THE METHOD OF ECHO

The echo method can be used to determine the speed of sound in air. For this,
sound is produced from a place at a known distance say, d at least 50 m from
the reflecting surface. The time interval in which the echo reaches the place
from where the sound was produced, is noted by a stop watch having the least
count 0.01 s. Then the speed of sound is calculated by using the following
relation:
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐝
V =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥
𝟐𝒅
= m/s
𝒕

USE OF ECHOES
Echoes find their application in sound ranging and echo depth sounding by
using ultrasonic waves.
Ultrasonic waves (frequency above 20 kHz) are more energetic than the audible
sound, so they have the following three properties for their wide use :
(1) They can travel undeviated through a long distance.
(2) They can be confined to a narrow beam.
(3) They are not easily absorbed in a medium.

(1) Use of echoes by bats, dolphins and fisherman

Animals have different audible ranges of frequency e.g., bats, dolphins and dogs
have a much higher upper audible limit than human beings.
Bats can produce and detect sound of very high frequency up to about 100 kHz.
By hearing the echo, bats come to know, even in the dark, the location of the
obstacle, so they turn away from their path and fly safely without colliding with
it. This process of detecting an obstacle is called sound ranging.
Dolphins detect their enemy and obstacle by emitting ultrasonic waves and
hearing their echo. They use ultrasonic waves for hunting their prey.
A trawlerman or fisherman sends an ultrasonic pulse from a source (a very high
frequency vibrator) into the sea and receives the pulse reflected from the shoal
of fish in a detector.

(2) Use of echoes by 'SONAR'

The word 'SONAR stands for sound navigation and ranging. These waves are
received after reflection from an obstacle such as an enemy submarine, iceberg,
sunken ship, etc. To find the distance of the obstacle from the ship, the time
interval t between the instant when waves are sent and the instant. The depth of
sea can also be found by this method. The process is then called echo depth
sounding.
Note: (1) In radar (radio detection and ranging). the echo method is used to
detect the presence of an obstacle and also to find its range. A signal of
electromagnetic waves (such as radio waves or micro waves).
(2) Both in 'SONAR' and 'RADAR', the transmitter and the receiver are placed
close to each other.

(3) Use of echoes in medical field

In medical field, echo method of ultrasonic waves is used for imaging human
organs (such as liver, gall bladder, uterus, womb, etc.) This is called
ultrasonography. Similarly, echo cardiography is used to obtain the image of
human heart.

NUMERICALS:
1. The human ear can detect sound in the frequency range 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. If
speed of sound is 330 m/s , find the wavelength, corresponding to the audible
range of frequencies.
2. The diagram below shows (a) displacement-time, and (b) displacement-
distance, graph of a wave travelling in a string with velocity 20m/s. In each case,
use the graph to calculate the frequency and wavelength of the wave.

3. A boy hears an echo of his own voice from a distant hill after one second. The
speed of sound in air is 350 m/s. What is the distance of the hill from the boy?
4. A RADAR' is able to detect the reflected waves from an enemy's aeroplane
after a time interval of 0.02 milli-second. If the velocity of the waves is 3 x 10⁸
m/s, calculate the distance of the aeroplane from the radar.

5. A boy standing in front of a wall at a distance of 85 m produces 2 claps per

second. He notices that the sound of his clapping coincides with the echo. The
echo is heard only once when clapping is stopped. Calculate the speed of sound.
6. A boy stands 60 m in front of a tall wall and claps. The boy continues to clap
every time an echo is heard. Another boy finds that the time taken between the
first and fifty-first clap is 18s. Calculate the speed of sound.

7. A man standing in front of a vertical cliff fires a gun. He hears the echo after 3
s. On moving closer to the cliff by 82.5 m, he fires again and hears the echo after
2.5 s. Find: (a) the distance of the cliff from the initial position of the man, and
(b) the speed of sound.
8. A person standing between two vertical cliffs and 640 m away from the
nearest cliff, produces sound. He hears the first echo after 4 s and the second
echo 3 s later. Calculate: (a) the speed of sound in air, and (b) the distance
between the cliffs.

9. In a SONAR, ultrasonic waves are sent into the sea water and the reflected
waves from a sunken ship are received after 2.0 s. If the velocity of waves in sea
water is 1450 m/s, find the depth of the sunken ship.
Natural Vibrations:
The periodic vibrations of a body in absence of any
external force on it. The period of vibration depends on
shape and size of body. It occur only in vacuum
presence of medium causes resistance so amplitude
decreases. Ex: Tuning force struck against a hard
rubber pad.

Nature of natural vibrations

Natural vibrations are simple harmonic vibrations under the restoring force, the
amplitude and frequency of which remain constant. Once a body starts
vibrating, it continues its vibrations with the same amplitude and same
frequency forever.
The vibrations of a constant amplitude can occur only in vacuum. Since in
practice it is very difficult to have vacuum, it is very difficult to realise such
vibrations in practice. As a matter of fact, the surrounding medium offers
resistance (or friction) to the motion, so the energy of the vibrating body
continuously decreases due to which the amplitude of vibration gradually
decreases.

Damped Vibrations:
The periodic vibrations of a body of decreasing
amplitude in the presence of a resistive force.
The amplitude decreases due to the frictional
force. Ex: A simple pendulum vibrating in air.

Forced Vibrations:
The vibrations of a body which take place under the influence of an external
periodic force acting on it.
Ex: (1) When stem of vibrating tuning fork is pressed on top of table.
(2) When artist play guitar string by his fingers forced vibration is caused hollow
box.

Resonance [A special case of Forced Vibration]

Resonance is a special case of forced vibrations. When the frequency of the
externally applied periodic force on a body is equal to its natural frequency, the
body readily begins to vibrate with an increased amplitude. This phenomenon is
known as resonance. The vibrations of large amplitude are called resonant
vibrations.
Condition for Resonance
It occurs only when the applied force causes forced vibration in the body and
the frequency of applied force is exactly equal to the natural frequency of
vibrating body.

Demonstration of resonance:
Experiment 1: Resonance with tuning forks

Experiment 2: Forced and resonant vibrations of pendulums

Experiment 3: Resonance in air column
Some Examples of Resonance:
(1) Resonant vibrations of pendulums
(2) Resonance in machine parts
(3) Resonance in a stretched string and sound box of musical instruments and
sonometer
(4) Resonance in air column and tuning fork
(5) Resonance in a bridge
(6) Resonance in radio and TV receivers

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
Two sounds can be distinguished from one another by the following three
different characteristics :
(1) loudness,
(2) pitch (or shrillness), and
(3) quality (or timbre).
(1) Loudness & Intensity:
Loudness: Loudness is the
characteristic by virtue of which a loud
sound can be distinguished from a
faint one, both having the same pitch
and quality.
Loudness of sound depends on the
amplitude of the wave.

Intensity: Intensity of a sound wave at

a point of the medium is the amount of
sound energy passing per second
normally through unit area at that
point.
Its unit is watt per m².
Greater the energy carried by a sound
wave, greater is the intensity of sound.

Factors affecting the loudness of sound:

i) Loudness is proportional to the square of the amplitude
ii) Loudness varies inversely as the square of distance from the source
iii) Loudness depends on the surface area of the vibrating body
iv) Loudness depends on the density of the medium
v) Loudness depends on the presence of resonant bodies

Relationship between the Loudness and Intensity

Although loudness of sound depends on its intensity, but loudness is not the
same as intensity. Intensity is a measurable quantity, while loudness is a
sensation. Experimentally, Weber and Fechner established a relationship
between loudness L and intensity I which is given as :

L = K log10 I

where K is constant of proportionality. The level of sound is expressed in dB

(decibel). 1 dB is defined as the change in level of loudness when the intensity of
sound changes by 26%.
Noise Pollution
The disturbance produced in the
environment due to undesirable sound is
called noise pollution. The safe limit of
level of sound for hearing is below 80 dB.
Sound level 30 dB to 80 dB has a soothing
sensation, while the sound of level 30 dB
represents the lower limit of hearing.

(2) Pitch (or shrillness) and Frequency

Pitch is that characteristic of sound by which
an acute (or shrill) note can be distinguished
from a grave (or flat) note loudness.
Pitch is considered only in reference to
musical sounds. Each musical note has a
definite pitch. If the pitch is high, the sound
is shrill and if the pitch is low, the sound is
flat.
Pitch of a note depends on its frequency. Two
notes sounded on the same instrument with
same amplitude, will differ in pitch when their vibrations are of different
frequencies.
(3) Quality (or timbre) and Wave Form:
Quality (or timbre) of a sound is
that characteristic which
distinguishes the two sounds of
the same loudness and same
pitch, but emitted by two
different instruments because
of change in their wave forms .
•The quality of a musical sound
depends on the wave form.
• Quality of a musical sound
depends on the number of the
subsidiary notes and their relative amplitudes present along with the principal
note.

Music and Noise:

All sounds which produce sensation of hearing are divided into:
1) Music: Music is a pleasant,
continuous and uniform sound
produced by regular and periodic
vibrations. E.g., sound produced by a
musical instrument. Their sound
level is usually between 10 dB to 30
dB.
2) Noise: Sound other than the
musical sound is called noise. It is a
sound produced by an irregular
succession of disturbances and is
usually discontinuous. Usually
sounds of level above 120 dB are
termed as noise. It is discordant and unpleasant to the ears.