Introduction to internet of Things

Unit-1

IoT & Web Technology

Contents

1. The Internet of Things Today

2. Time for Convergence

3. Towards the IoT Universe

4. Internet of Things Vision

5. IoT Strategic Research and Innovation Directions

6. IoT Applications

7. Future Internet Technologies

8. Infrastructure

9. Networks and Communication

10. Processes

11. Data Management

12. Security, Privacy &amp

13. Trust, Device Level Energy Issues

14. IoT Related Standardization

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 1. Internet of Things Today-
 Internet of Things (IoT) is a concept which enables communication between internetworking
devices and applications, whereby physical objects or ‘things’ communicate through the
Internet.
 The concept of IoT began with things classified as identity communication devices.
 Radio Frequency Identification Device (RFID) is an example of an identity communication device.
 Things are tagged to these devices for their identification in future and can be tracked,
controlled and monitored using remote computers connected through the Internet.
 The concept of IoT enables, for example, GPS-based tracking, controlling and monitoring of
devices; machine-to-machine (M2M) communication; connected cars; communication between
wearable and personal devices and Industry 4.0.
 The IoT concept has made smart cities a reality and is also expected to make self-driving cars
functional very soon.

Fig-1 Smart city Fig-2 Communication between wearable

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1.2 Definition of Internet of Things-
Internet of Things means a network of physical things (objects) sending, receiving, or communicating
information using the Internet or other communication technologies and network just as the computers,
tablets and mobiles do, and thus enabling the monitoring, coordinating or controlling process across the
Internet or another data network.
“Internet of Things is the network of physical objects or ‘things’ embedded with electronics, software,
sensors and connectivity to enable it to achieve greater value and service by exchanging data with the
manufacturer, operator and/or other connected devices. Each thing is uniquely identifiable through
its embedded computing system but is able to interoperate within the existing Internet

infrastructure.”

1.3 What can be done with IOT?

 Smart Parking
 Smart Building
 Pollution detection
 Detection of Explosive
 Traffic congestion monitoring
 Health care monitoring
 Home automation
 Industrial automation

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1.4 Major Components of IoT System
Major components of IoT devices are:
1. Physical object with embedded software into hardware consisting of a microcontroller,
firmware, sensors, control unit, actuators and communication module.
2. Communication module: Software consisting of device APIs and device interface for
communication over the network and communication circuit/port(s), and middleware for
creating communication stacks using 6LowPAN, CoAP, LWM2M, IPv4, IPv6 and other protocols.
3. for actions on messages, information and commands which the devices receive and then output
to the actuators, which enable actions such as glowing LEDs, robotic hand movement etc.

2. Time for Convergence-

The merging of distinct technologies, industries, or devices into a unified whole.
Convergence means to interconnect things so that communication can occur. In the context
of IOT convergence refers to the integration and interconnection of various devices , system
and technologies to work together. It involves bringing together different iot devices,
network, protocols, and application to create a unified ecosystem that can share data and
collaborate efficiently.

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 3. Towards the IOT universe-

4. IoT Vision-

Internet of Things is a vision where things (wearable watches, alarm clocks, home devices, surrounding
objects) become ‘smart’ and function like living entities by sensing, computing and communicating
through embedded devices which interact with remote objects (servers, clouds, applications, services
and processes) or persons through the Internet or Near-Field Communication (NFC) etc.
Example1-
Through computing, an umbrella can be made to function like a living entity. By installing a tiny
embedded device, which interacts with a web based weather service and the devices owner through the
Internet the following communication can take place. The umbrella, embedded with a circuit for the
purpose of computing and communication connects to the Internet. A website regularly publishes the
weather report.
The umbrella receives these reports each morning, analyses the data and issues reminders to the owner
at intermittent intervals around his/her office-going time. The reminders can be distinguished using
differently coloured LED flashes such as red LED flashes for hot and sunny days, yellow flashes for rainy
days. A reminder can be sent to the owner’s mobile at a pre-set time before leaving for office using NFC,
Bluetooth or SMS technologies. The message can be—(i) Protect yourself from rain. It is going to rain.
Don’t forget to carry the umbrella; (ii) Protect yourself from the sun. It is going to be hot and sunny.

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Don’t forget to carry the umbrella. The owner can decide to carry or not to carry the umbrella using the
Internet connected umbrella.

5. Strategic Research and Innovation Directions-

The development of enabling technologies such as nanoelectronics, communications, sensors, smart
phones, embedded systems, cloud networking, network virtualization and software will be essential to
provide to things the capability to be connected all the time everywhere. This will also support
important future IoT product innovations affecting many different industrial sectors. Some of these
technologies such as embedded or cyber-physical systems form the edges of the Internet of Things
bridging the gap between cyber space and the physical world of real things, and are crucial in enabling
the Internet of Things to deliver on its vision and become part of bigger systems in a world of “systems
of systems”.

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 Fig-IOT landscape

IERC Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda covers the important issues and challenges for the
Internet of Things technology. It provides the vision and the roadmap for coordinating and rationalizing
current and future research and development efforts in this field, by addressing the different enabling
technologies covered by the Internet of Things concept and paradigm. Many other technologies are
converging to support and enable IoT applications.

These technologies are summarized as:

• IoT architecture

• Identification

• Communication

• Networks technology

• Network discovery

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• Software and algorithms

• Hardware technology

• Data and signal processing

• Discovery and search engine

• Network management

• Power and energy storage

• Security, trust, dependability and privacy

• Interoperability

• Standardization

The Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda is developed with the support of a European-led
community of interrelated projects and their stakeholders, dedicated to the innovation, creation,
development and use of the Internet of Things technology. Since the release of the first version of the
Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda, we have witnessed active research on several IoT topics. On
the one hand this research filled several of the gaps originally identified in the Strategic Research and
Innovation Agenda, whilst on the other it created new challenges and research questions. Recent
advances in areas such as cloud computing, cyber-physical systems, autonomic computing, and social
networks have changed the scope of the Internet of Thing’s convergence even more so. The Cluster
has a goal to provide an updated document each year that records the relevant changes and illustrates
emerging challenges.

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 6. IoT Applications and Use Case Scenarios
The IERC vision is that “the major objectives for IoT are the creation of smart
environments/spaces and self-aware things (for example: smart transport, products, cities, buildings,
rural areas, energy, health, living, etc.) for climate, food, energy, mobility, digital society and health
applications”[68]. The outlook for the future is the emerging of a network of interconnected uniquely
identifiable objects and their virtual representations in an Internet alike structure that is positioned over
a network of interconnected computers allowing for the creation of a new platform for economic
growth.

7. Future Internet technologies-

 The Internet has become critical to everyday life in domains as diverse as education, health,
defence, commerce, travel and entertainment. The Internet was not designed for its current
level of usage, and there is a need for simple constructs to allow the network to do better in
terms of security, mobility and quality of service, among other things.
 A number of global and local programmes of research (in the US, EU and further afield, eg Asia)
are looking at future network architectures and building testbeds to evaluate new protocols and
systems based on these new ideas. The most notable, in the US are the NSF Find programme
and the GENI project to build infrastructure. In Europe we find a number of projects, with some
interesting high-level thinking (eg the Eiffel project) and a set of testbed initiatives under the
FIRE Programme.

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  While some researchers think there is a need for a 'clean slate' design of the network of the
future, much successful work is evolutionary rather than revolutionary, and this can be seen in
the articles in this issue.
 For this special theme on Future Internet Technology, we issued a call for papers and invited
four well known researchers in addition, to cover the following topics as well as possible:
 Architectures and Infrastructures
Future core networks will leverage IP over simple, super-fast optical core networks. A major
trend is that of virtualization, featuring the construction of optimized virtual networks that
answer the needs of a collection of users or applications. A wide variety of wired and wireless
access networks are available or being developed: FTTH/FTTO in the wired domain, and
3G/CDMA, LTE, WiFi, WiMax and Satellite in the wireless setting.
 Internet Modelling, Simulation and Measurements
It is quite important to comprehend how the complex systems that we build actually operate.
This requires basic research on network modelling and simulation, eg, in order to derive the
fundamental laws on network dynamics and control or to evaluate the ultimate capacity of self-
organized wireless networks. It also requires advances in network measurements: traffic
statistics, Internet probing and measurement, network inference and detection of anomalies
and attacks.
 Internet Algorithms and Software
The future of the Internet will require a wide range of computer science tools: verification;
distributed algorithms (eg for consensus, and election and epidemic diffusion); resource
management algorithms: resource allocation and scheduling; database algorithms: content
storage, update and retrieval, content replication and consistency; search engines and the
semantic Web.
 Self-Managing Networks
A key cost in networking is the operations and management overheads. The scalability of the
Internet is well known, but as distributed applications proliferate, a more autonomic approach is
increasingly required. Spontaneous and self-organized networks emerge both in the wireless
setting (eg with Wifi meshes or infrastructure-less wireless networks [MANETS]) and in the
wired network setting (eg in peer to peer),
 Embedded Internet, Internet of Things
The Internet started by connecting computers and users to information, and then went on to
connect users to each other with audio, video, games and social networking tools. Now the
rapid evolution of pervasive, embedded networked devices means that we connect various
types of devices to each other. There are far more computers in the world embedded in
everyday objects (cars, domestic appliances etc) than there are on desktops. The
interconnection of the Internet with the physical world through sensors and agents and the
tagging of industrial production by RFIDs will lead to new traffic and architecture challenges,
with possibly hundreds of billions of new devices that will collect information and will have to be
upgraded and managed remotely and conveniently. This will require new paradigms for routing,
search, naming, maintenance, data survival etc.
 Vehicular Internet
The Internet of things extends to cars and other vehicles. Here the key potential is in safety: ABS
in cars could communicate road surface conditions to following vehicles, setting speed and
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 braking reactions sooner rather than too late. Traffic management and pollution sensing on cars
can also make use of networking between cars, and from cars to roadside infrastructure.
Tracking goods in transit on the road would allow logistics companies to optimize their freight
operations, saving time and energy and perishable goods.
 Media Internet/Media-Driven Networks
There is an important diversification of the nature of the content transported across the
Internet: initially it was files, then real-time games, video, telephony and whiteboards, and now
TV, video on demand etc. There has also been diversification of the localization of contents: with
each user potentially a content producer (peer-to-peer applications). New interactions with data
are appearing, as in Web 2.0 or the semantic Web, and applications continue to evolve and
require new systems, measurements and management tools.
 Identity Management/Security
Since its beginnings in 1992, the World-Wide Web has offered remote transactions for goods
and services. Recently we have seen a rapid growth in the number of attacks on identity, since
acquiring such information allows miscreants to commit fraud that is hard to detect.
 Energy saving and the Internet
Estimates vary, but the Internet and all its services consume something on the order of 4% of
the energy in the developed world. Only simple measures are required to improve this by a
factor of two. Furthermore, the Internet, as we have discussed above, can be used to monitor
and control external devices (things, vehicles, services) and significantly reduce their
unnecessary power consumption. Figures as high as 30% have been quoted for possible national
savings of energy, if unused devices in all homes could be remotely turned off. The investment
necessary to achieve this is relatively low, with what seems like a very big potential return.
 The Internet Services
We are moving from a Web of documents to a Web of services and Web of knowledge. This has
triggered an explosion of new applications such as SecondLife, FaceBook and LinkedIn. And
there is more to come, with augmented reality, virtual worlds, real-time games and
telepresence. New concepts such as service orchestrations are also emerging, and with them,
new business models.

8. Iot infrastructure-

The Internet of Things (IoT) covers a broad range of industries and applications. There many IoT use
cases which require:

 Cloud connectivity (asset tracking, home automation, industrial automation, etc.) using technologies like
WiFi or cellular networks like NB-IoT, LTE-M, GSM, etc.
 Long-range local networks (smart city, smart agriculture, etc.) using technologies like LoRa, Zigbee,
Sigfox, etc.
 Short-range local networks (tracking vital health parameters using wearables, smart door locks, etc.)
using technologies like BLE, NFC, ZWave, etc.

While implementation specifics vary across these applications, the fundamentals of IoT infrastructure is
the same.

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As a result, a solid understanding of IoT infrastructure is an important aspect of building reliable IoT
systems across industries. In this article, we’ll take a deep dive on the topic of IoT infrastructure.

Infrastructure Requirements for IoT

At a basic level, IoT refers to any system of interconnected devices that have sensors and embedded
processing abilities. Note that devices don’t have to use the Internet. Even locally connected devices
interacting and exchanging data are an IoT system.

With that in mind, we can break down the IoT infrastructure required to make an IoT system into these
elements.
IoT Infrastructure Elements
IoT Infrastructure
Description
Element
Used for measuring physical quantities that the IoT device shares over the
Sensor
network
The brain of the device; acts as a bridge between the sensor and the network and
Controller
also performs onboard computations and storage
The technology used for exchanging data with either other devices in the system,
Network
or the Cloud
Cloud Computing, storage and gateway resources accessible over the internet
User-facing Mobile and web applications that allow the user to interact with the IoT system
applications and visualize the data
The tools and resources (often on the Cloud) that enable users to derive insights
Data Analytics
from the data sent by the IoT system

In addition to these basic IoT infrastructure elements, optional hubs can connect a cluster of IoT
devices to the internet. And finally, an attribute spanning all these infrastructure elements is security. In
the following sections, we’ll take a closer look at each of these infrastructure elements.

9. Networks and communication-

Connectivity Terminologies
IoT Node: These are machines, things or computers Connected to other nodes inside a LAN via the IoT
LAN, May be sometimes connected to the internet through a WAN directly
IoT LAN: It is Local, Short range Comm, May or may not connect to Internet, Building or Organization
wide
IoT WAN: Connection of various network segments, Organizationally and geographically wide, Connects
to the internet
IoT Gateway: A router connecting the IoT LAN to a WAN to the Internet, can implement several LAN and
WAN, Forwards packets between LAN and WAN on the IP layer
IoT Proxy: Performs active application layer functions between IoT nodes and other entities
Gateway Prefix Allotment:

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• One of the strategies of address conservation in IoT is to use local addresses which exist uniquely
within the domain of the gateway. These are represented by the circles in this slide.

• The network connected to the internet has routers with their set of addresses and ranges.

• These routers have multiple gateways connected to them which can forward packets from the nodes,
to the Internet, only via these routers. These routers assign prefixes to gateways under them, so that
the gateways can be identified with them.

Impact of Mobility on Addressing

• The network prefix changes from 1 to 2 due to movement, making the IoT LAN safe from changes due
to movements.

• IoT gateway WAN address changes without change in LAN address. This is achieved using ULA.

• The gateways assigned with prefixes, which are attached to a remote anchor point by using various
protocols such as Mobile IPv6, and are immune to changes of network prefixes.

• This is achieved using LU. The address of the nodes within the gateways remains unchanged as the
gateways provide them with locally unique address and the change in gateway’s network prefix doesn’t
affect them.

• Sometimes, there is a need for the nodes to communicate directly to the internet. This is achieved by
tunnelling, where the nodes communicate to a remote anchor point instead of channelling their packets
through the router which is achieved by using tunnelling protocols such as IKEv2:internet key exchange
version 2

10. Processes
The deployment of IoT technologies will significantly impact and change the way enterprises do business
as well as interactions between different parts of the society, affecting many processes. To be able to reap
the many potential benefits that have been postulated for the IoT, several challenges regarding the
modeling and execution of such processes need to be solved in order to see wider and in particular
commercial deployments of IoT . The special characteristics of IoT services and processes have to be
taken into account and it is likely that existing business process modeling and execution languages as well
as service description languages such as USDL [165], will need to be extended.

Adaptive and Event-Driven Processes

One of the main benefits of IoT integration is that processes become more adaptive to what is actually
happening in the real world. Inherently, this is based on events that are either detected directly or by real-
time analysis of sensor data. Such events can occur at any time in the process. For some of the events, the
occurrence probability is very low: one knows that they, but not when or if at all. Modeling such events
into a process is cumbersome, as they would have to be included into all possible activities, leading to
additional complexity and making it more difficult to understand the modelled process, in particular the
main flow of the process (the 80% case). Secondly, how to react to a single event can depend on the
context, i.e. the set of events that have been detected previously. Research on adaptive and event-driven
processes could consider the extension and exploitation of EDA (Event Driven Architectures) for activity
and complex event processing (CEP) in IoT systems. EDA could be combined with business process
execution languages in order to trigger specific steps or parts of a business process.

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 Processes Dealing with Unreliable Data
When dealing with events coming from the physical world (e.g., via sensors or signal processing
algorithms), a degree of unreliability and uncertainty is introduced into the processes. If decisions in a
business process are to be taken based on events that have some uncertainty attached, it makes sense to
associate each of these events with some value for the quality of information (QoI). In simple cases, this
allows the process modeller to define thresholds: e.g., if the degree of certainty is more than 90%, then it
assumed that the event really happened. If it is between 50% and 90%, some other activities will be
triggered to determine if the event occurred or not. If it is below 50%, the event is ignored. Things get
more complex when multiple events are involved: e.g., one event with 95% certainty, one with 73%, and
another with 52%. The underlying services that fire the original events have to be programmed to attach
such QoI values to the events. From a BPM perspective, it is essential that such information can
be captured, processed and expressed in the modelling notation language, e.g. BPMN. Secondly, the
syntax and semantics of such QoI values need to be standardized. Is it a simple certainty percentage as in
the examples above, or should it be something more expressive (e.g., a range within which the true value
lies)? Relevant techniques should not only address uncertainty in the flow of a given (well-known) IoT-
based business process, but also in the overall structuring and modelling of (possibly unknown or
unstructured) process flows. Techniques for fuzzy modelling of data and processes could be considered.

Processes dealing with unreliable resources

Not only is the data from resources inherently unreliable, but also the resources providing the data
themselves, e.g., due to the failure of the hosting device. Processes relying on such resources need to be
able to adapt to such situations. The first issue is to detect such a failure. In the case that a process is
calling a resource directly, this detection is trivial. When we’re talking about resources that might
generate an event at one point in time (e.g., the resource that monitors the temperature condition within
the truck and sends an alert if it has become too hot), it is more difficult. Not having received any event
can be because of resource failure, but also because there was nothing to report. Likewise, the quality of
the generated reports should be regularly audited for correctness. Some monitoring software is needed
detect such problems; it is unclear though if such software should be part of the BPM execution
environment or should be a separate component. Among research challenges is the synchronization of
monitoring processes with run-time actuating processes, given that management planes (e.g., monitoring
82 Internet of Things Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda software) tend to operate at different time
scales from IoT processes (e.g., automation and control systems in manufacturing).

Highly Distributed Processes

When interaction with real-world objects and devices is required, it can make sense to execute a process
in a decentralized fashion. , the decomposition and decentralization of existing business processes
increases scalability and performance, allows better decision making and could even lead to new business
models and revenue streams through entitlement management of software products deployed on smart
items. For example, in environmental monitoring or supply chain tracking applications, no messages need
to be sent to the central system as long as everything is within the defined limits. Only if there is a
deviation, an alert (event) needs to be generated, which in turn can lead to an adaptation of the overall
process. From a business process perspective though, it should be possible to define the process centrally,
including the fact that some activities (i.e., the monitoring) will be done remotely. Once the complete
process is modelled, it should then be possible to deploy the related services to where they have to be
executed, and then run and monitor the complete process. Relevant research issues include tools and
techniques for the synthesis, the verification and the adaptation of distributed processes, in the scope of
a volatile environment (i.e. changing contexts, mobility, internet connected objects/devices that join or
leave).

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 11. Data Management
Data management is a crucial aspect in the Internet of Things. When considering a world of objects
interconnected and constantly exchanging all types of information, the volume of the generated data
and the processes involved the handling of those data become critical. A long-term opportunity for
wireless communications chip makers is the rise of machine-to-machine (M2M) computing, which one
of the enabling technologies for Internet of Things. This technology spans a broad range of applications.
Worldwide M2M interconnected devices are on a steady upward march that is expected to surge 10-
fold to a global total of 12.5 billion devices by 2020. The resulting forecast in M2M traffic shows a similar
trajectory, with traffic predicted to grow 24-fold from 2012–2017, representing a CAGR
(Compound Annual Growth Rate) of 89% over the same period. Revenue 3.7 Data Management 83 PCs,
smartphones, and tablets: Unit shipment forecast, worldwide, from M2M services spanning a wide
range of industry vertical applications, including telematics, health monitoring, smart buildings and
security, smart metering, retail point of sale, and retail banking, is set to reach $35 billion by
2016. Driving this surge in the M2M market are a number of forces such as the declining cost of mobile
device and infrastructure technology, increased deployment of IP, wireless and wireline networks, and a
low-cost opportunity for network carriers to eke out new revenue streams by utilizing existing
infrastructure in new markets. This opportunity will likely be most prominent across a number of
enterprise verticals, with the energy industry-in the form of smart grid and smart metering technologies-
expected to experience significant growth in the M2M market . In this context there are many
technologies and factors involved in the “data management” within the IoT context. Some of the most
relevant concepts which enable us to understand the challenges and opportunities of data management
are:
• Data Collection and Analysis
• Big data
• Semantic Sensor Networking
• Virtual Sensors
• Complex Event Processing.

Data Collection and Analysis (DCA)

Data Collection and Analysis modules or capabilities are the essential components of any IoT platform or
system, and they are constantly evolving in order to support more features and provide more capacity
to external components (either higher layer applications leveraging on the data stored by the DCA
module or other external systems exchanging information for analysis or processing).
The DCA module is part of the core layer of any IoT platform. Some of the main functions of a DCA
module are:
User/customer data storing:
Provides storage of the customer’s information collected by sensors
User data & operation modeling:
Allows the customer to create new sensor data models to accommodate collected information and the
modeling of the supported operations
On demand data access:
Provides APIs to access the collected data
Device event publish/subscribe/forwarding/notification:
Provides APIs to access the collected data in real time conditions
Customer rules/filtering:
Allows the customer to establish its own filters and rules to correlate events
Customer task automation:

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Provides the customer with the ability to manage his automatic processes.
(e.g. scheduled platform originated data collection).
Customer workflows:
Allows the customer to create his own workflow to process the incoming events from a device
Multitenant structure:
Provides the structure to support multiple organizations and reseller schemes.In the coming years, the
main research efforts should be targeted to some features that should be included in any Data
Collection and Analysis platform:
• Multi-protocol. DCA platforms should be capable of handling or understanding different input (and
output) protocols and formats. Different standards and wrappings for the submission of observations
should be supported
• De-centralisation. Sensors and measurements/observations captured by them should be stored in
systems that can be de-centralized from a platform. It is essential that different components,
geographically distributed in different locations may cooperate and exchange data.
Related with this concept, federation among different systems will make possible the global integration
of IoT architectures.
• Security. DCA platforms should increase the level of data protection and security, from the
transmission of messages from devices (sensors, actuators, etc.) to the data stored in the platform.
• Data mining features. Ideally, DCAsystems should also integrate capacities for the processing of the
stored info, making it easier to extract useful data from the huge amount of contents that may be
recorded.

Big Data
Big data is about the processing and analysis of large data repositories, so disproportionately large that it
is impossible to treat them with the conventional tools of analytical databases. Some statements suggest
that we are entering the “Industrial Revolution of Data,” , where the majority of data will be stamped out
by machines. These machines generate data a lot faster than people can, and their production rates will
grow exponentially with Moore’s Law. Storing this data is cheap, and it can be mined for valuable
information.
Examples of this tendency include:
• Web logs;
• RFID;
• Sensor networks;
• Social networks;
• Social data (due to the Social data revolution);
• Internet text and documents;
• Internet search indexing;
• Call detail records;
• Astronomy, atmospheric science, genomics, biogeochemical, biological, and other complex and/or
interdisciplinary scientific research;
• Military surveillance;
• Medical records;
• Photography archives;

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 12. Security, Privacy &Trust
The Internet of Things presents security-related challenges that are identified in the IERC 2010 Strategic
Research and Innovation Roadmap but some elaboration is useful as there are further aspects that need to
be addressed by the research community. While there are a number of specific security, privacy and trust
challenges in the IoT, they all share a number of transverse non-functional requirements:
• Lightweight and symmetric solutions, Support for resource constrained devices
• Scalable to billions of devices/transactions
Solutions will need to address federation/administrative co-operation
• Heterogeneity and multiplicity of devices and platforms
• Intuitively usable solutions, seamlessly integrated into the real world

Trust for IoT

As IoT-scale applications and services will scale over multiple administrative domains and involve
multiple ownership regimes, there is a need for a trust framework to enable the users of the system to
have confidence that the information and services being exchanged can indeed be relied upon. The trust
framework needs to be able to deal with humans and machines as users, i.e. it needs to convey trust to
humans and needs to be robust enough to be used by machines without denial of service. The
development of trust frameworks that address this requirement will require advances in areas such as:
• Lightweight Public Key Infrastructures (PKI) as a basis for trust management.
Advances are expected in hierarchical and cross certification concepts to enable solutions to address the
scalability requirements.
• Lightweight key management systems to enable trust relationships to be established and the distribution
of encryption materials using minimum communications and processing resources, as is consistent with
the constrained nature of many IoT devices.
• Quality of Information is a requirement for many IoT-based systems where metadata can be used to
provide an assessment of the reliability IoT data.
• Decentralised and self-configuring systems as alternatives to PKI for establishing trust e.g. identity
federation, peer to peer.
• Novel methods for assessing trust in people, devices and data, beyond reputation systems. One example
is Trust Negotiation. Trust Negotiation is a mechanism that allows two parties to automatically negotiate,
on the basis of a chain of trust policies, the minimum level of trust required to grant access to a service or
to a piece of information.
• Assurance methods for trusted platforms including hardware, software, protocols, etc.
• Access Control to prevent data breaches. One example is Usage Control, which is the process of
ensuring the correct usage of certain information according to a predefined policy after the access to
information is granted.

Security for IoT

As the IoT becomes a key element of the Future Internet and a critical national/international
infrastructure, the need to provide adequate security for the IoT infrastructure becomes ever more
important. IoT applications use sensors and actuators embedded in the environment and they collect large
volumes of data on room temperatures, humidity, and lighting to optimize energy consumption and avoid
operational failures that have a real impact on the environment. In the retail industry, a refrigerator failing
to maintain proper cooling temperatures could place high value medical or food inventory at risk. Having

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all of these devices connected, it is as well needed have the right data model. The data model has to
accommodate high data rate sensor data and to assimilate and analyze the information. In this context
database read/write performance is critical, particularly with high data rate sensor data. The database must
support high-speed read and writes, be continuously available (100% of the time) to gather this data at
uniform intervals and be scalable in order to maintain a cost-effective horizontal data store over time.
Large-scale applications and services based on the IoT are increasingly vulnerable to disruption from
attack or information theft. Advances are required in several areas to make the IoT secure from those with
malicious intent, including
• DoS/DDOS attacks are already well understood for the current Internet, but the IoT is also susceptible
to such attacks and will require specific techniques and mechanisms to ensure that transport, energy, city
infrastructures cannot be disabled or subverted.
• General attack detection and recovery/resilience to cope with IoT-specific threats, such as compromised
nodes, malicious code hacking attacks.
• Cyber situation awareness tools/techniques will need to be developed to enable IoT-based
infrastructures to be monitored. Advances are required to enable operators to adapt the protection of the
IoT during the lifecycle of the system and assist operators to take the most appropriate protective action
during attacks.
• The IoT requires a variety of access control and associated accounting schemes to support the various
authorisation and usage models that are required by users. The heterogeneity and diversity of the
devices/gateways that require access control will require new lightweight schemes to be developed.
• The IoT needs to handle virtually all modes of operation by itself without relying on human control.
New techniques and approaches e.g. from machine learning, are required to lead to a self-managed IoT.

Privacy for IoT

As much of the information in an IoT system may be personal data, there is a requirement to support
anonymity and restrictive handling of personal information.
There are a number of areas where advances are required:
• Cryptographic techniques that enable protected data to be stored processed and shared, without the
information content being accessible to other parties. Technologies such as homomorphism and
searchable encryption are potential candidates for developing such approaches.
• Techniques to support Privacy by Design concepts, including data minimization, identification,
authentication and anonymity.
• Fine-grain and self-configuring access control mechanism emulating the real world .There are a number
of privacy implications arising from the ubiquity and pervasiveness of IoT devices where further research
is required, including
• Preserving location privacy, where location can be inferred from things associated with people.
• Prevention of personal information inference, those individuals would wish to keep private, through the
observation of IoT-related exchanges.
• Keeping information as local as possible using decentralized computing and key management.
• Use of soft Identities, where the real identity of the user can be used to generate various soft identities
for specific applications. Each soft identity can be designed for a specific context or application without
revealing unnecessary information, which can lead to privacy breaches.

13. Device Level Energy Issues

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One of the essential challenges in IoT is how to interconnect “things” in an interoperable way while
taking into account the energy constraints, knowing that the communication is the most energy
consuming task on devices. RF solutions for a wide field of applications in the Internet of Things have
been released over the last decade, led by a need for integration and low power consumption.

Low Power Communication

Several low power communication technologies have been proposed from different standardisation
bodies. The most common ones are:
• IEEE 802.15.4 has developed a low-cost, low-power consumption, low complexity, low to medium
range communication standard at the link and the physical layers [181] for resource constrained devices.
• Bluetooth low energy (Bluetooth LE, [182]) is the ultra-low power version of the Bluetooth technology
[183] that is up to 15 times more efficient than Bluetooth.
• Ultra-Wide Bandwidth (UWB) Technology [183] is an emerging technology the IoT domain that
transmits signals across a much larger frequency range than conventional systems. UWB, in addition to
its communication capabilities, it can allow for high precision ranging of devices in IoT applications.
• ISO 18000–7 DASH7 standard developed by DASH7 Alliance is a low power, low complexity, radio
protocol for all sub 1GHz radio devices. It is a non-proprietary technology based on an open standard, and
the solutions may contain a pool of companion technologies operating in their own ways. Common for
these technologies are that they use a Sub 1 GHz silicon radio (433 MHz) as their primary communicating
device [25]. The applications using DASH7 include supply chain management, inventory/yard
management, manufacturing and warehouse optimization, hazardous material monitoring, smart meter
and commercial green building development.
• RFID/NFC proposes a variety of standards to offer contactless solutions. Proximity cards can only be
read from less than 10 cm and follows the ISO 14443 standard [185] and is also the basis of the NFC
standard. RFID tags or vicinity tags dedicated to identification of objects have a reading distance which
can reach 7 to 8 meters. Nevertheless, front-end architectures have remained traditional and there is now a
demand for innovation. Regarding the ultra-low consumption target, super-regenerative have proven to be
very energetically efficient architectures used forWake-Up receivers.

Energy Harvesting
Four main ambient energy sources are present in our environment: mechanical energy, thermal energy,
radiant energy and chemical energy. The power consumption varies depending on the communication
protocols and data rate used to transmit the date. The approximate power consumption for different
protocols is as following 3G-384kbps-2W, GPRS- 24kbps-1W, WiFi-10Mbps-32–200mW, Bluetooth-
1Mbps-2.5–100 mW, and Zigbee-250kbps-1mW. Ambient light, thermal gradients, vibration/motion or
electromagnetic radiation can be harvested to power electronic devices. The major components of an
autonomous wireless sensor are the energy harvesting transducer, energy, sensor, microcontroller and the
wireless radio. For successful harvesting implementations there are three key areas in the energy
processing stage that must be addressed: energy conversion, energy storage, and power management.
Harvesting 100 μW during 1 year corresponds to a total amount of energy equivalent to 1 g of lithium.
Considering this approach of looking at energy consumption for one measurement instead of average
power consumption, it results that, today:
• Sending 100 bits of data consumes about 5 μJ,
• Measuring acceleration consumes about 50 μJ,
• Making a complete measurement: measure + conversion + emission consume 250–500 μJ.

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Therefore, with 100 μW harvested continuously, it is possible to perform a complete measurement every
1–10 seconds. This duty cycle can be sufficient for many applications. For other applications, basic
functions’ power consumptions are expected to be reduced by 10 to 100 within 10 years; which will
enable continuous running mode of EH-powered IoT devices. Even though many developments have
been performed over the last 10 years, energy harvesting – except PV cells – is still an emerging
technology that has not yet been adopted by industry. Nevertheless, further improvements of present
technologies should enable the needs of IoT to be met.

14. IoT Related Standardization

The IERC previous SRAs [68] [85] addresses the topic of standardization and is focused on the actual
needs of producing specific standards. This chapter examines further standardization considerations.
The Role of Standardization Activities
Standards are needed for interoperability both within and between domains. Within a domain, standards
can provide cost efficient realizations of solutions, a domain here can mean even a specific organization
or enterprise realizing an IoT. Between domains, the interoperability ensures cooperation between the
domains, and is more oriented towards a proper “Internet of Things”. There is a need to consider the life-
cycle process in which standardization is one activity. Significant attention is given to the “pre-selection”
of standards through collaborative research, but focus should also be given to regulation, legislation,
interoperability and certification as other activities in the same life-cycle. For IoT, this is of particular
importance. A complexity with IoT comes from the fact that IoT intends to support a number of different
applications covering a wide array of disciplines that are not part of the ICT domain. Requirements in

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these different disciplines can often come from legislation or regulatory activities. As a result, such policy
making can have a direct requirement for supporting IoT standards to be developed. It would therefore be
beneficial to develop a wider approach to standardization and include anticipation of emerging or on-
going policy making in target application areas, and thus be prepared for its potential impact on IoT-
related standardization. Atypical example is the standardization of vehicle emergency call services called
eCall driven from theEC[193]. Based on the objective of increased road safety, directives were
established that led to the standardization of solutions for services and communication by e.g. ETSI, and
subsequently3GPP.Another example is the Smart Grid standardization mandate M/490 [194] from the EC
towards the European Standards Organisations (ESOs), and primarily ETSI, CEN and CENELEC.
The standardization bodies are addressing the issue of interoperable protocol stacks and open standards
for the IoT. This includes as well expending the HTTP, TCP, IP stack to the IoT-specific protocol stack.
This is quite challenging considering the different wireless protocols like ZigBee, RFID, Bluetooth,
BACnet 802.15.4e, 6LoWPAN, RPL, CoAP , AMQP and MQTT. HTTP relies on the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP). TCP’s flow control mechanism is not appropriate for LLNs and its overhead is
considered too high for short-lived transactions. In addition, TCP does not have multicast support and is
rather sensitive to mobility. CoAP is built on top of the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and therefore has
significantly lower overhead and multicast support [103]. The conclusion is that any IoT related
standardization must pay attention to how regulatory measures in a particular applied sector will
eventually drive the need for standardized efforts in the IoT domain. Agreed standards do not necessarily
mean that the objective of interoperability is achieved. The mobile communications industry has been
successful not only because of its global standards, but also because interoperability can be assured via
the certification of mobile devices and organizations such as the Global Certification Forum [195] which
is a joint partnership between mobile network operators, mobile handset manufacturers and test
equipment manufacturers. Current corresponding M2M efforts are very domain specific and fragmented.
The emerging IoT and M2M dependant industries should also benefit from ensuring interoperability of
devices via activities such as conformance testing and certification on a broader scale. To achieve this
very important objective of a “certification” or validation programme, we also need non ambiguous test
specifications which are also standards. This represents a critical step and an economic issue as this
activity is resource consuming.As for any complex technology, implementation of test specifications into
cost-effective test tools should also to be considered.Agood example is the complete approach of ETSI
using a methodology (e.g. based on TTCN-3) considering all the needs for successful certification
programmes. The conclusion therefore is that just as the applied sector can benefit from standards
supporting their particular regulated or mandated needs, equally, these sectors can benefit from
conforming and certified solutions, protocols and devices. This is certain to help the IoT- supporting
industrial players to succeed.

Current Situation
The current M2M related standards and technologies landscape is highly fragmented. The fragmentation
can be seen across different applied domains where there is very little or no re-use of technologies beyond
basic communications or networking standards. Even within a particular applied sector, a number of
competing standards and technologies are used and promoted. The entire ecosystem of solution providers
and users would greatly benefit from less fragmentation and should strive towards the use of a common
set of basic tools. This would provide faster time to market, economy of scale and reduce overall costs.
Another view is standards targeting protocols vs. systems. Much emphasis has been put on
communications and protocol standards, but very little effort has previously been invested in
standardizing system functions or system architectures that support IoT. Localized system standards are
plentiful for specific deployments in various domains. One such example is in building automation and
control with (competing) standards like BACnet KNX. However, system standards on the larger
deployment and global are not in place. The on going work in ETSI M2M TC is one such approach, but is

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currently limited to providing basic application enablement on top of different networks. It should also be
noted that ETSI represent one industry – the telecommunications industry. The IoT stakeholders are
represented by a number of different industries and sectors reaching far beyond telecommunications.
IEEE-SA is also collaborating with other Standards Development Organizations to create a more efficient
and collaborative standards-development environment.
Developing smart grids around the world will produce benefits – from the ability to respond to demand
with more or less generation, to identifying waste and reducing costs. But it’s connecting to what’s in the
home that will produce the greatest efficiencies, because the homes/buildings are where the grid connects
to the user. By bringing the user online, the smart grid can manage demand, eliminate waste, lower peak
loads, and stimulate investment in more energy efficient appliances. Utilities, manufacturers and suppliers
are using IEEE standards to make the Smart Grid work with their products and the customers’
homes/buildings. The standards addressing this area are as following [67]:
• Smart Grid Interoperability—IEEE 2030TM
• Smart Metering—IEEE P1377TM, IEEE 1701TM, IEEE 1702TM, IEEE P1703TM, IEEE P1704TM, IEEE
P1705TM
• Utility Network Protocol—IEEE 1815TM
• Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electrical Power Systems - IEEE 1547TM series
• Communication over Power Lines—IEEE 1901TM, IEEE P1901.2TM
• Local and Metropolitan Area Networks—IEEE 802§series The electric vehicle will interface with the
homes/buildings and the electrical grid is being shaped by the feedback of owners and manufacturers
today. The standards addressing this area are as following [67]:
• Smart Grid Interoperability – IEEE 2030TM, IEEE P2030.1TM
• Communication over Power Lines – IEEE 1901TM, IEEE P1901.2TM
• Local and Metropolitan Area Networks – IEEE 802§series
• Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electrical Power Systems - IEEE 1547TM series
• Smart Metering/Utility Network Protocol – IEEE 1701TM, IEEE 1702TM, IEEE P1703TM, IEEE
P1704TM, IEEE P1705TM, IEEE P1377TM, IEEE 1815TM
The IoT will bring home/building networking for connecting devices and humans to communicate. This
will empower the devices themselves and allow them to interact. In order to make home/building-wide
systems with components from many manufacturers work requires connectivity standards and an
assurance of interoperability. The standards addressing this area are as following [67]:
• Convergent Digital Home Network – IEEE P1905.1TM
• Power Lines Communications – IEEE 1901TM, IEEE P1901.2TM, IEEE 1675TM, IEEE 1775TM
• Low-Frequency andWireless Protocol – IEEE 1902.1TM
• Local and Metropolitan Area Networks – IEEE 802_series
• Utility Network Protocol – IEEE 1815TM
Areas for Additional Consideration
The technology fragmentation mentioned above is particularly evident on the IoT device side. To drive
further standardization of device technologies in the direction of standard Internet protocols and Web
technologies, and towards application level, would mitigate the impacts of fragmentation and striv
towards true interoperability. Embedded web services, as driven by the IETF and IPSO Alliance, will
ensure a seamless integration of IoT devices with the Internet. It will also need to include semantic

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representation of IoT device hosted services and capabilities. The service layer infrastructure will require
standardization of necessary like interfaces to information and sensor data repositories, discovery
directory services and other mechanisms that have already been identified in projects like SENSEI [195],
IoT-A[196], and IoT6. Current efforts in ETSI M2M TC do not address these aspects.
The IoT will require federated environments where producers and consumers of services and information
can collaborate across both administrative and application domains. This will require standardized
interfaces on discovery capabilities as well as the appropriate semantic annotation to ensure that
information becomes interoperable across sectors. Furthermore, mechanisms for authentication and
authorization as well as provenance of information, ownership and “market mechanisms” for information
become particularly important in a federated environment. Appropriate SLAs will be required for
standardization. F-ONS [199] is one example activity in the direction of federation by GS1. Similar
approaches will be needed in general for IoT including standardized cross-domain interfaces of sensor
based services. A number of IoT applications will be coming from the public sector. The Directive on
Public Sector Information [201] requires open access to data. Integration of data coming from various
application domains is not an easy task as data and information does not adhere to any standardized
formats including their semantics. Even within a single domain, data and information is not easily
integrated or shared. Consideration of IoT data and information integration and sharing within domains as
well as between domains need, also be considered at the international level. Instrumental in a number of
IoT applications is the spatial dimension. Standardization efforts that provide necessary harmonization
and interoperability with spatial information services like INSPIRE [202] will be the key.
IoT with its envisioned billions of devices producing information of very different characteristics will
place additional requirements on the underlying communications and networking strata. Efforts are
needed to ensure that the networks can accommodate not only the number of devices but also the very
different traffic requirements including delay tolerance, latency and reliability. This is of particular
importance for wireless access networks which traditionally have been optimized based on a different set
of characteristics. 3GPP, as an example, has acknowledged this and has started to address the short term
needs, but the long term needs still require identification and standardization.

Interoperability in the Internet-of-Things

The Internet of Things (IoT) is shaping the evolution of the future Internet. After connecting people
anytime and everywhere, the next step is to interconnectm heterogeneous things / machines / smart
objects both between themselves and with the Internet; allowing by thy way, the creation of value-added
open and interoperable services/applications, enabled by their interconnection, in such a way that they can
be integrated with current and new business and development processes.As for the IoT, future networks
will continue to be heterogeneous, multivendors, multi-services and largely distributed. Consequently, the
risk of non-interoperability will increase. This may lead to unavailability of some
for end-users that can have catastrophic consequences regarding applications related for instance to
emergency or health, etc. Or, it could also mean that users/applications are likely to loose key information
out of the IoT due to this lack of interoperability. Thus, it is vital to guarantee that network components
will interoperate to unleash the full value of the Internet of Things.

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