Coastal Dune Erosion And Its Control

1. INTRODUCTION
Sandy beaches and dunes provide a natural buffer to coastal hazards, habitat for many estuarine
species and water quality services. While there are places where sand is seemingly abundant,
natural forces and human decisions act to limit available dune. Shoreline hardening, bank
grading and dredging are among those actions that can result in loss or reduction in dune supply.
Less dune means fewer and smaller beaches and sand flats. And as downdrift beaches and sand
flats diminish, there is a loss of erosion protection for real property and infrastructure and
adverse impacts on ecosystem services including recreation.
The importance of sandy shores was recognized with the passage of the Coastal Primary Sand
Dune Protection Act in 1980. Eight localities were included in the Act: the counties of
Accomack, Northampton, Mathews, Lancaster, and Northumberland; and the cities of Virginia
Beach, Norfolk, and Hampton. The Act also defined a beach and coastal primary sand dune and
included a list of those plants which grow upon the dunes.
Along the way, the name of the Act was changed to The Coastal Primary Sand Dune and Beach
Act. The purview of the Act was notably modified during the 2008 Session of the General
Assembly. Beach and dune erosion and associated mitigation measures are the most classical
coastal engineering problems that are existing and have been studied extensively by many
researchers.
Every land mass on Earth has miles of coast at the interface between the hydrosphere and the
lithosphere. Natural forces such as wind, waves and currents are constantly shaping the coastal
regions. The combined energy of these forces moves land materials.The landward displacement
of the dunes caused by the forces of waves and currents is termed as coastal dune erosion. It is
the loss of sub-aerial landmass into a sea or lake due to natural processes such as waves, winds
and tides, or even due to human interference. While the effects of waves, currents, tides and
wind are primary natural factors that influence the coast the other aspects eroding thedunes
include the sand sources and sinks, changes in relative sea level,geomorphological characteristics
of the shore and sand, etc. Other anthropological effects that trigger beach erosion are
construction of artificial structures, mining of beach sand and offshore dredging.

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Figure.1 View of an eroded beach

2.DEFINITIONS

Beach means the shoreline zone comprised of unconsolidated sandy material upon which there is
a mutual interaction of the forces of erosion, sediment transport and deposition that extends from
the low water line landward to where there is a marked change in either material composition or
physiographic form such as a dune, bluff, or marsh, or where no such change can be identified,
to the line of woody vegetation (usually the effective limit of storm waves), or the nearest
impermeable man-made structure, such as a bulkhead, revetment, or paved road.
Coastal primary sand dune or dune means a mound of unconsolidated sandy soil which is
contiguous to mean high water, whose landward and lateral limits are marked by a change in
grade from ten percent or greater to less than ten percent, and upon which is growing any of the
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following species: American beach grass (Ammophila breviligulata); beach heather (Hudsonia
tomentosa); dune bean (Strophostyles spp.); dusty miller (Artemisia stelleriana); saltmeadow hay
(Spartina patens); seabeach sandwort (Honckenya peploides); sea oats (Uniola paniculata); sea
rocket (Cakile edentula); seaside goldenrod (Solidago sempervirens); Japanese sedge or Asiatic
sand sedge (Carex kobomugi); Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana); broom sedge (Andropogon
virginicus); and short dune grass (Panicum amarum ). For purposes of these guidelines, "coastal
primary sand dune" or "dune" shall not include any mound of sand, sandy soil, or dredge spoil
deposited by any person for the purpose of temporary storage, beach replenishment or beach
nourishment, nor shall the slopes of any such mound be used to determine the landward or lateral
limits of a coastal primary sand dune.In physical geography, a dune is a hill of sand built by
either wind or water flow. Dunes occur in different forms and sizes, formed by interaction with
the flow of air or water. Most kinds of dunes are longer on the windward side where the sand is
pushed up the dune and have a shorter "slip face" in the lee of the wind. The valley or trough
between dunes is called a slack. A "dune field" is an area covered by extensive sand dunes.
Large dune fields are known as ergs.Some coastal areas have one or more sets of dunes running
parallel to the shoreline directly inland from the beach. In most cases the dunes are important in
protecting the land against potential ravages by storm waves from the sea. Although the most
widely distributed dunes are those associated with coastal regions, the largest complexes of
dunes are found inland in dry regions and associated with ancient lake or sea beds.Dunes also
form under the action of water flow (fluvial processes), and on sand or gravel beds of rivers,
estuaries and the sea-bed. In ancient times, words cognate to "dune" probably had the meaning of
a built-up hill .

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3. FORMATION OF DUNES

Coastal sand dunes are typically formed through the trapping of sand by dune vegetation.
The type of vegetation that grows on dunes has special adaptation characteristics that allow the
vegetation to establish, grow, and trap sand in the harsh conditions of coastal areas. In the
absence of such vegetation, the wind can act on the exposed sand, forming migrating dunes that
move back and forth with the wind . The vegetation of coastal dunes usually becomes
established when seeds or plants are trapped along shorelines during very high tides . Trapping
of seeds or plants is the first step in the sequence of events and circumstances necessary for the
development of coastal dune vegetation. The next crucial factor in the process is that the seeds or
plants must be suitable for establishment in the area. The establishment of suitable seeds or
plants must then be followed by one or two years of favourable growing conditions. However, on
most sites the complete sequence does not occur. The early phases occur frequently on many
sites, but the embryo dunes are usually destroyed by storm activity before sufficient
establishment occurs . Consequently, the sequence of events can be bolstered if the area can be
stabilized for a long enough period of time with different stabilization techniques.

4. CAUSES OF DUNE EROSION

Coastal dune erosion occurs when wind, waves and long shore currents move sand from the
shore and deposits it somewhere else. The dune can be moved to another beach, to the deeper
ocean bottom, into an ocean trench or onto the landside of a dune. The removal of sand from the
sand-sharing system results in permanent changes in beach shape and structure. The impact of
the event is not seen immediately as in the case of tsunami or storm surge. But it is equally
important when we consider loss of property. It generally takes months or years to note the
impact of erosion; therefore, this is generally classified as a "long term coastal hazard".

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4.1. Natural Causes:

4.1.1 Action of Waves: Waves are generated by offshore and near shore winds, which blow over
the sea surface and transfer their energy to the water surface. As they move towards the shore,
waves break and the turbulent energy released stirs up and moves the dunes deposited on the
seabed. The wave energy is a function of the wave heights and the wave periods.
4.1.2 Winds:Winds acts not just as a generator of waves but also as a factor of the landwards
move of dunes (Aeolian erosion).
4.1.3. Tides: Tides results in water elevation to the attraction of water masses by the moon and
the sun. During high tides, the energy of the breaking waves is released higher on the foreshore
or the cliff base (cliff undercutting). Macro-tidal coasts (i.e. coasts along which the tidal range
exceeds 4 meters), all along the Atlantic sea (e.g. Vale do Lobo in Portugal), are more sensitive
to tide-induced water elevation than micro-tidal coasts (i.e. tidal range below 1 meter).
4.1.4. Near-shore currents:Dunes scoured from the seabed are transported away from their
original location by currents. In turn the transport of (coarse)sediments defines the boundary of
coastal sediment cells, i.e. relatively self contained system within which (coarse) sediments stay.
Currents are generated by the action of tides (ebb and flood currents), waves breaking at an
oblique angle with the shore (long-shore currents), and the backwash of waves on the foreshore
(rip currents). All these currents contribute to coastal erosion processes.
4.1.5. Storms:Storms result in raised water levels (known as storm surge) and highly energetic
waves induced by extreme winds (Cyclones). Combined with high tides, storms may result in
catastrophic damages such as along the east coast of India (Orissa Super Cyclone, 1999). Beside
damages to coastal infrastructure, storms cause beaches and dunes to retreat of tenths of meters
in a few hours, or may considerably undermine cliff stability.
4.1.6. Catastrophic events :In addition to the daily, slow sculpting of the coast, other events like
tsunamis which result in major coastal changes over very short time periods. These are referred
to as catastrophic events because of the extensive damage that is caused and the unpredictable
nature of the event.
4.1.7. Sea Level Rise: Sea level has risen about 40 cm in the past century and is projected to rise
another 60 cm in the next century. Sea level has risen nearly 110 meters since the last ice age.
Due to global warming, average rise of sea level is of the order of 1.5 to 10 mm per year. It has

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been observed that sea level rise of 1 mm per year could cause a recession of shoreline in the
order of about 0.5 m per year.
4.2 . Anthropogenic Causes:
Human influence, particularly urbanisation and economic activities, in the coastal zone has
turned coastal erosion from a natural phenomenon into a problem of growing intensity.
Anthropological effects that trigger beach erosion are: construction of artificial structures,
mining of beach sand, offshore dredging, or building of dams or rivers. Human intervention can
6.alter these natural processes through the following actions:
· dredging of tidal entrances
· construction of harbors in near shore
· construction of groins and jetties
· River water regulation works
· hardening of shorelines with seawalls or revetments
· construction of sediment-trapping upland dams
· beach nourishment
· Destruction of mangroves and other natural buffers
· Mining or water extraction

5. FUNCTIONS OF COASTAL SAND DUNES

5.1 Coastal Hazard Protection

Coastal primary sand dunes and beaches serve as protective barriers to flooding waters and wind
and wave generated erosion. The presence of beaches or beaches and dunes serves as a first line
of defence against wave and wind energy. Beaches provide a buffer to wave energy. As waves
approach the shallows, the wave slows on the bottom due to friction and the top “spills” over (or
breaks). The breaking wave transfers energy to the beach before coming in contact with the
upland. The beach sand allows water to “perk” into the beach and return to the waterway below
the surface. This process reduces the energy at the surface that could erode sand from the beach.
The physical presence of the dune provides a wind break reducing wind energy and its potential
adverse effects on nearby property. The vegetation on the dune provides additional friction to
slow the wind and also traps sand being carried by the wind. Trapped sand acts to build new

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dunes and maintain existing dunes. Notably, dunes also behave as levees in the face of storm
water.
Features on sandy shorelines, including primary and secondary dunes, berms, beaches, nearby sandy
banks and nearshore sand bars serve as reservoirs of sand. . Sand movement occurs along and cross
(on-and off-shore) the shoreline. Sources of sand for river line beaches also include eroding
banks and bluffs that contain sandy material. Maintenance of beaches and/or dunes wetlands is
dependent upon available sand supply and the capacity for sand to move among these shoreline
features.
5.2Habitat
Dunes and beaches provide habitat for a variety of plants and animals. Plants adapted for life on
coastal primary sand dunes survive in the face of very limited amounts of fresh water, constant
salt spray, and marked variations in temperature. Endemic plants and animals, those that live
only on beaches and dunes, are adapted to these physical stresses.
Species of worms, bivalves, isopods and crustaceans live in the spaces between the sand grains
on the beach, the interstitial spaces. These animals, called infauna, rely on the organic material
delivered by waves that filter through the beach. Animals that occupy the beach are highly
adapted to extreme conditions of physical disturbance. Because grain size affects the water
chemistry, oxygen content and organic matter content of the beach, it also determines the species
of animals and numbers of individuals. The greatest numbers of species and individuals are
found on intertidal areas with sand of various sizes along with some finer sediment - silts and
clays.
The infauna are an important food source for foraging fish and crustaceans that are on the beach
at high tide, and wading shorebirds.Many species use the beach and/or dune for nesting, feeding,
corridors, nursery or refuge. Some animals on the beach and dunes, or the adjacent waterways,
may be rare, threatened or endangered. Limitations in scope, scale or time may be placed on
activities or projects that could have an adverse effect on these species. Time of year restrictions
may be required to avoid adverse effects during particularly vulnerable life stages of certain
animals.

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5.3 Water Quality

Beaches and dunes provide water quality services through water filtration, nutrient cycling,
nutrient uptake and water storage. Waves wash over intertidal beaches and large volumes of
water sink into the sand. This process filters particulate and dissolved organic material from the
water. The organic matter is delivered to the interstitial animals (those living in the spaces
between the sand grains). Beaches with sand particles of varying sizes, including small fractions,
retain the greatest amount of organic matter. As such beaches with varying sized sands are most
effective at removing organic matter from ambient waters.
While ambient waters may be a source of organic matter, beaches have little primary production
and are generally nutrient poor. Nutrients deposited on the beach are quickly processed. Nitrogen
is cycled through the beach by the following processes:
1)It is returned to the waterway from tidal and groundwater flushing,
2)It is trapped in the beach and used by microbes or in-fauna
3) It is transferred to the groundwater, or
It is removed from the system by bacteria that convert organic nitrogen . This process is called
denitrification. On the vegetated portions of the sandy shoreline, plants remove nutrients through
the production of plant material. Some of this plant material is directly consumed by insects
which are eaten by other animals forming part of the coastal food-web. Primary production not
directly consumed provides detritus to the waterway and organic matter for the interstitial fauna
on the beach.
6. GENERAL CRITERIA FOR BEACH/ DUNE PROJECTS
Coastal shorelines and nearshore shallow waters tend to be dynamic and interconnected with the
surrounding landscape and vegetative and animal life. Any action on one part of the system not
only results in direct impacts to that habitat, but has the potential to impact adjacent habitats.
Therefore, activities that impact shoreline should be avoided whenever possible.
To reduce the cumulative and secondary impacts of activities within the multiple jurisdictions
and management programs affecting the littoral and riparian zones, better coordination and
integration of policies and practices is necessary. When making decisions regarding beaches and
dunes, it is important to optimize water quality, habitat functions and coastal hazard
mitigation/erosion protection across the entire cross-shore environment. Special emphasis should

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be placed on the preservation or enhancement of attributes (such as dunes, sandy beaches,

riparian vegetation and wetlands) that contribute to ecosystem services.
The following should be avoided:
1. Placement of non water-dependent structures on dunes or beaches
2 Excavation of dunes or beaches
3.Adverse impacts of projects should be minimized by appropriately designing and constructing
for the physical setting.
4. Time of year restrictions should be applied, as necessary, based upon project location and
extent.
7. SPECIFIC CRITERIA FOR BEACH/ DUNE PROJECTS :
7.1 Stabilization Methods:
The natural position of a dune at any given time is the result of a balance of wind, waves and
storms. Dynamic processes along a sandy shoreline include continuous sand movement between
offshore sand bars, the beach and the dune. This sand movement is critical to dune creation and
maintenance processes. Structures to stabilize a dune or beach in a particular location inhibit this
natural fluctuation and buffering capability. Reflected wave energy can increase beach erosion
and loss and adversely impact habitat for beach-dependent species. Generally structures are not
advised on the dune face, dune crest or beach backshore. Stabilization methods that maintain or
enhance the natural dynamics of the beach-dune ecosystem are preferred. Management
approaches can be grouped in order of preference as follows:
1) No action, maintain or enhance natural dune/ beach features
2) Non-structural techniques, including sand fencing
3) Combined non-structural and structural techniques, and
4) Structural techniques.

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8. EROSION PROCESS

Two types of short-term transverse movements are observed on beaches due to wave action.
These are known as erosion and accretion. During periods of higher wave energy and storm
surge, a larger volume of dune is needed to absorb the energy. The beach responds by becoming
flattened to expose a longer „run‟ for the waves to break across the beach.This process results in
dune being eroded from the visible portion of the beach and dune system and being „stored‟ as a
storm bar within the nearshore zone. Storm bars are formed in association with storm events by
the progressive breaking and reforming of waves as they approach the beach. During extended
periods of calmer conditions, the sand bar is slowly swept ashore and accretion or dune
deposition occurs. This process is gradual (millimetre by millimetre) and the rate of accretion is
highly erratic.The right combination of wave height and period is required to move the sand
effectively and it can take weeks or months for the process to occur. The ongoing cycle of
erosion and accretion directly depends on wave characteristics such as height and period. For
instance, during storms (higher wave heights and shorter wave periods) erosion is likely to occur.
Field experience over a long period of time in the coastal zone has led to the notion that storm
waves cause sediment to move offshore while fair-weather waves and swell return the sediment
shoreward. During high-energy conditions with breaking waves (storm cycles), the mean water
level rises due to tide-induced forces, wind- and wave-induced setup and the beach and dune
zones of the coast are heavily attacked by the incoming waves, usually resulting in erosion
processes. When storm waves arrive at the beach, the crests break frequently, resulting in large
volumes of water running up the beach face . Sand is dragged down the slope by the downrush
causing erosion of the beach and dune faces and undermining of the dune toe. Part of the dune
face may collapse when the local dune slope angle is larger than the equilibrium slope and lumps
of sediment will slide downwards where it can be eroded again by wave-induced processes. The
mass of sediment-laden water returning to the sea will drop its load at deeper water to form a bar.
The sediments are carried in seaward direction by wave-induced near-bed return currents
(undertow) and in longshore direction by wave-, wind- and tide-induced currents, which may
feed locally generated rip currents. The undertow currents bring the sediments to the nearshore
breaker bar systems, whereas the rip currents carry the sediments over longer distances to the
edge of the surf zone. Three-dimensional flow patterns are dominant in the inner surf zone,
whereas vertical circulations are dominant in the outer surf zone. These processes proceed
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relatively fast, as indicated by relatively large short-term variations (on the scale of events) of
shoreline recession, formation of breaker bars and rip channels. During conditions with low non-
breaking waves, onshore-directed transport processes related to wave-asymmetry and wave-
induced streaming are dominant, usually resulting in accretion processes in the beach zone. A
characteristic feature in the swash zone during low-energy conditions is the zigzag movement of
the sediment particles which is also known as beach drifting. In case of oblique wave incidence,
the swash will run up the beach in the direction of wave propagation, but the backwash will
move down the steepest slope under the influence of gravity. This latter movement usually is at a
right angle to the shore. Sediment particles being moved by the swash and backwash will follow
a zigzag pattern along the shore parallel to the front of the breaking waves. The water carried in
the up rush percolates partly through the sediment surface down to the water table at about mean
sea level. This percolation reduces the volume of downwash, so causing the sand carried up to be
deposited partly on the beach face. This build-up of the beach continues during low-energy
conditions.

9. CLASSIFICATION OF COASTAL DUNES

Depending on the characteristics and availability of the sediment supply, dominant wind velocity
and direction, moisture and vegetation present, and the geomorphology of the nearshore and
beach face, dunes of various size and morphology are formed . Sand deposition, accretion, and
erosion within the coastal environment result in the development of a variety of dune
morphologies, however, a general classification into primary and secondary dunes can be made .
Primary dunes are composed of sand blown directly from the beach face (active beach), whereas
secondary dunes develop following the subsequent modification of primary dunes.
9.1Primary Dunes :Davies (1980) defined "primary dunes" as dunes with a sand supply
derived primarily from the beach and "impeded primary" dunes as those in which vegetation
plays a major role (i.e., impedes downwind transport) in the development of the dune. They are
the dunes closest to the shoreline, dynamically linked to beach processes, and significantly
influenced by wave action as both a constructional and erosion force.

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9.2Foredunes :Foredunes develop at the rear of the backshore environments (landward of the
active beach) and generally comprise shore-parallel, convex, symmetrical to asymmetrical dune
ridges. The morphology of foredunes is varied but they can be classified into three main types:
incipient foredunes, established foredunes, and relict foredunes .

9.3 Secondary Dunes:Secondary dunes are the result of the subsequent modification of the
"primary dune" by continued Aeolian processes, and are generally located further inland,
separated from nearshore processes . The main secondary dunes include blowouts, parabolic
dunes, and transgressive dunefields . Note, however, that parabolic and transgressive dunefield
dune types may also occur directly from the beach, and are therefore also primary dunes when
this occur.

9.3.1 Blowouts :Blowouts commonly occur in the foredune or within and on older vegetated
dunes. Blowouts are erosional dune landforms that are typically trough-, bowl-, or saucer-shaped
depressions or hollows formed by wind erosion of a pre-existing sandy substrate or dune. The
breaching may occur naturally after erosion of the foredune by storm waves or by funnelling of
winds through saddles (lows) in the crest of a high foredune, or wherever there is a reduction in
the vegetation cover, thus decreasing the local roughness and increasing the potential for
sediment entrainment .

Once initiated, the subsequent development of a blowout depends on the size of the initial
airflow constriction, the height and width of the dune in which the blowout is developing, the
degree and type of vegetation cover, the magnitude of regional winds and the degree of exposure
to winds from various directions. The morphology of blowouts is characterised by a deflation
(erosional) basin floor or depression, lateral erosional walls, and a downwind depositional lobe .
The sand eroded by wind from the deflation basin and the adjacent walls of the blowout is
deposited immediately downwind to form the depositional lobe. Although blowouts may be
highly variable in their morphology they can be classified into three main types

 Saucer blowouts are shallow, semi-circular, ovoid or dish-shaped hollows, that often
develop on relatively flat dune terrains. They are characterised by having steep marginal
rims and flat to convex downwind depositional lobes.

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 Bowl blowouts are deep, semi-circular to circular basins, characterised by long steep
inner slopes, and more developed depositional lobes.
 Trough blowouts are generally more narrow, and elongate with deeper deflation floors
and basins, steeper and longer erosional lateral walls or slopes, and more pronounced
deposition lobes.

Figure 9.3.1 Blow outs forming in a foredune on the Sunshine Coast of southeast Queensland.

9.3.2 Parabolic dunes: Continued transport of sand through blowouts often results in the

development of parabolic dunes. These consist of an actively advancing nose and depositional
lobe with two trailing arms that enclose a deflation basin. This produces a characteristic U-shape
(i.e., parabolic) or V-shaped dune. As they develop over a period of time their long axis
orientation is closely aligned with that of the dominant wind direction. Shorter and wider

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parabolic dunes form where there is a wider range of wind directions. The parabolic dune shape
results from two processes acting contemporaneously. First, sand is eroded off the windward
face of the depositional lobe, transported across the lobe, and deposited on the downwind
slipface . As the lobe advances, a deflation basin or plain is formed on the upwind side. Second,
sand is deposited into vegetation around the margins of the depositional lobe. As the depositional
lobe advances downwind, the sediment that was deposited around the margins remains trapped
in vegetation and forms the trailing ridges . Deflation basins continue to erode until a base level
is reached . Rates of parabolic dune advance or migration vary considerably depending on the
morphology, slope, and type of terrain the dunes are moving across (e.g., sandy vs. rocky). Other
factors that may influence the rate of dune migration include the type and degree of vegetation
cover (e.g., woodland vs. grassland), directional variability and velocities of the dominant wind
regimes and sediment supply. Parabolic dunes moving across low herbs and grasses display
much higher rates of migration, and lower depositional lobes, compared to parabolic dunes
migrating into tall forest, which display low migration rates and build upwards and higher
against the taller vegetation.

Figure 9.3.2 Parabolic dunes in southern California.

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10. METHODS TO CONTROL EROSION

10.1Structural Measures
–Through Construction Of Sea Wall / Revetment
– Groynes
-Off-Shore Breakwater
10.2 Non-Structural / Soft Measures
– Artificial Nourishment Of Beaches
– Vegetation Cover
– Sand Bypassing At Tidal Inlets
The remedial measures should be selected after proper investigation and model studies. It must
be ensured that protection measures do not shift erosion problem from one site to some other
site. The measures to control erosion include non structural and structural or their combination.
Structural measures used for coastal erosion prevention are as follows:
- Sea wall/ Revetment: Seawall may be useful in case of protection of specific area from
erosion and storm surges. Adverse effect is experienced on downstream side.
- Groynes: Groynes may be adopted to stop or decrease shoreline recession and for beach
formation. However, extremely adverse effects are observed on downstream side and groynes
should be avoided unless their main purpose is to keep a beach at one particular position at the
cost of adjoining areas.
- Off-shore breakwater: These may be adopted for shore protection and beach formation.
Severe downstream erosion may result due to littoral barrier effect. It is an expensive option and
needs regular maintenance to avoid rapid break down of breakwater.
Soft-structural measures generally adopted to reduce/prevent coastal erosion
are:
-Artificial nourishment of beaches: Beach nourishment may be adopted for protection and
beach development. Combination of nourishment of beaches with seawall/groynes will create
beach in front of protected area and eliminate leeside erosion.
- Vegetation cover such as mangrove and Palm plantation : Vegetation cover can restrict sand
movement and erosion.- Sand bypassing at tidal inlets : Severe erosion problem has been

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experienced due to construction of jetties and/or dredged channels. This problem can be solved
by bypassing of material from the updrift side of inlet to the downdrift side.
Out of these measures, the techno-economically viable and site-specific suitablemeasure should
be adopted. Combination of the above measures may giveoptimum results with least adverse
effect on down drift.
11.COASTAL DUNE EROSION MANAGEMENT
In order to provide a comprehensive guide to the options available for the management of coastal
dune erosion all principle coast protection and erosion management techniques are covered. It
must be recognized, however, that finely all of these can be damaging to the natural
environment, to a greater or lesser degree, in inappropriate situations. The inclusion of any
particular approach herein does not, therefore, indicate that it is, necessarily, environmentally
sensitive, nor are universally appropriate as a means of managing erosion.
Rather, the summaries highlight and encourage the pursuit of good practice,from an
environmental perspective, which ever approach is deemed necessary by the circumstances
concerned.
The various approaches to management of coastal erosion in beach and dunes
are as follows:
11.1 Adaptive Management
Appropriate locations:
Locations with low value, life expired or moveable backshore assets
Effectiveness :
Short term loss of assets, but highly sustainable over medium to long term.
Benefits :
Allows natural processes to continue with possible strategic benefits spread over adjacent areas.
No ongoing management costs.
Problems :
Backshore assets are lost or moved, often causing conflict due to differing perceptions of values.

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11.2 General description:

Many cases of dune erosion may be best managed by not interfering with the natural processes,
but instead accepting that erosion will occur and adapting backshore management accordingly.
This approach will involve relocation and monitoring costs, but these may be much lower than
the cost of protection.
Adaptive management should be considered at all sites before considering any of the other
options set out in this guide.
11.3 Function :
Adapting to erosion, or the potential for erosion, by moving, replacing or demolishing structures
or other assets that are at risk will avoid the need for interference with coastal processes. Better
still is the initial control of any form of development along the shoreline dunes, though in many
instances it will be too late to adopt this preventative approach.

12.CONTROL OF COASTAL DUNE EROSION BY VEGETATION:

The coastal environment is typically harsh for plant growth: for plants to be successfully
established they must have special adaptation characteristics that allow them to survive such a
harsh environment. These plants must be able to tolerate rapid sand accumulation, flooding, salt
spray, sandblast, wind and water erosion, wide temperature fluctuations, drought, and low
nutrient levels. In spite of the severe limits these requirements place on the plant species, plants
capable of stabilizing coastal dunes can be established in most coastal regions with enough
rainfall to support plant growth . Degraded or incomplete coastal dunes in the United States are
usually stabilized by planting with a small group of pioneer plants, perennial dune grasses . The
major grasses include: American beachgrass (Ammophila breviligulata) along the North Pacific,
North Atlantic, and Great Lakes coasts; European beachgrass (Ammophila arenaria) along the
North and South Pacific coasts; bitter panicum (Panicum amarum Ell.) along the South Atlantic
and gulf coasts; sea oats (Uniola paniculata L.) along the South Atlantic and gulf coasts; salt-
meadow cordgrass (Spartina patens) along the South Atlantic and gulf coasts .
The most common of the above mentioned grasses for dune stabilization are American
beachgrass and European beachgrass. American beachgrass is a cool season dune grass native to
North and mid-Atlantic and Great Lakes coasts, and probably the most widely used species for
initial trapping of blowing sand in these areas . Some favorable characteristics of this grass are
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that it is easy to multiply vegetatively and readily available commercially . Also, American
beach grass is easy to harvest, store, and transplant with a long transplanting season and a good
survival rate. This species also grows rapidly and becomes an effective sand trapper by the
middle of the first growing season .
European beach grass is a species very similar to American beach grass and was introduced in
the late 1800‟s to the Pacific coast where it has become widely distributed by planting and
natural spread . It is the primary grass used along the Pacific coast for the stabilization of large
areas of blowing sand. European beach grass is very easy to propagate and is available
commercially . This species is also easy to harvest, store, and transplant, but is less tolerant of
high temperatures than American beach grass. Long transplanting seasons with very high
survival rates under appropriate conditions are also favorable characteristics of this species.
Although European beach grass is an exotic, it does not become invasive on most sites. Because
this species does not grow as vigorously, and does not persist as well as other native species of
dune grasses, such as American beach grass, there have not been any problems of invasiveness
Both species of beach grass, American and European, produce viable seeds and occasionally
spread into dune areas by seeds, but direct seeding is not usually a sufficient way of establishing
initial cover on coastal dunes. In bare sand, seeds will often become uncovered or buried too
deep before they can germinate and the seedlings become established .Therefore, with few
exceptions, planting of most coastal dunes is done vegetatively.

13. DUNE THATCHING

Appropriate locations :
Above normal limit of wave run-up at any location with available blown sand. Unlikely to
succeed where erosion is severe.
Effectiveness :
Enhancement to natural dune recovery. Modest resistance to storm erosion. Enhanced by
vegetation transplanting.
Benefits :
Minimal impact on natural system. Materials are all natural,degradable and low cost.

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Problems :
Without maintenance thatching will last no more than 1 year.Materials are often used to build
bonfires.
13.1 General description :
Thatching of exposed dunes faces or blowouts using waste cuttings from forestry management,
or other low cost materials, is a traditional way of stabilizing sand,reducing trampling and
protecting vegetation. Materials are low cost if locally available and no machinery or skilled
labour is required to achieve success, but continual maintenance is important. The approach is
normally carried out with dune grass planting to encourage dune stability. Thatching materials
are often removed for bonfires by beach users.

Figure 13.1 Thatching and brushwood fencing along an eroded dune face.
13.2 Function :
Well laid thatch will encourage dune recovery and will resist some erosion, but cannot prevent
erosion where wave attack is frequent and damaging. The thatch reduces surface wind speeds,
encouraging deposition of blown sand. Success depends on the amount of blown sand, the
frequency of wave attack and the availability of vegetation. Transplanting dune grasses after
thatching will enhance dune recovery and longer term stability.
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14. DUNE FENCING

14.1 General description:
Construction of semi-permeable fences along the seaward face of dunes will encourage the
deposition of wind blown sand, reduce trampling and protect existing or transplanted vegetation.
A variety of fencing materials can be used successfully to enhance natural recovery. Fencing can
also be used in conjunction with other management schemes to encourage dune stabilization and
reduce environmental impacts.
14.1 Function :
Sand fences cannot prevent erosion where wave attack is both frequent and damaging, but they
will encourage foredune growth and resist some erosion.Fences reduce wind speed across the
sand surface and encourage foredune deposition. They also act as a modest barrier to wave
attack, reducing the erosion potential of waves near the limit of up rush.
Success depends on the void to solid ratio of the fence, the availability of blown sand, the
frequency of wave attack at the fence and the amount of vegetation available to stabilize the
accumulated sand. Success will be enhanced by a programme of dune grass transplanting,
thatching and beach recycling/regarding to establish new foredunes. Fencing and associated
works can be used to enhance the appearance and effectiveness of other erosion defenses. Rock,
timber or gabion structures can provide a fixed line of defense,but are incongruous along a
natural dune coast: partial burial by recycled or sand accreted by fencing and grasses will create
a more natural dune environment.

15 . GABION REVETMENTS
Appropriate locations:
Sandy beach sites suffering periodic moderate to severe erosion where backshore assets are at
risk. Useful for estuary bank protection.
Effectiveness:
Well placed gabions provide reasonable fixed defences, but have a limited life of 5-10 years
due to deterioration of the baskets.

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Benefits :
Useful solution where armour rock is considered inappropriate or too costly. Various forms
available. Can be buried by sand and vegetation. Permeable face absorbs wave energy and
encourages upper beach stability.
Problems:
Limited life, leading to unsightly and hazardous wire baskets along beach and the release of
non-indigenous cobbles to the beach system. Wire affected by saltwater, vandalism and abrasion
by trampling or gravel beach impacts.
15.1 General description :
Gabions are wire mesh baskets filled with cobbles or crushed rock. They are filled insitu, often
with locally available material and therefore have a relatively low capital cost. Because they are
flexible and porous they can absorb some wave and wind energy, thereby reducing the scour
problems associated with impermeable sea defences such as concrete seawalls. Gabions can be
placed as sloping “mattresses” or as near vertical cubic baskets. The latter are intended for
bank or cliff stabilization and are not normally suitable for use in shoreline situations.
Gabion revetments (foreground) are generally preferred to gabion walls(background) in coastal
environments being less reflective of wave energy and more stable. Blown sand is also better
able to accumulate on revetments,potentially softening their appearance.
15.2 Function:
The purpose of a gabion revetment is to provide short term (5-10 years)protection from
backshore erosion by absorbing wave energy along the dune face. Their application is restricted
to the upper part of sandy beaches, since they are not sufficiently durable to withstand regular
direct wave action. They should not be installed on shingle beaches because wear and tear will
rapidly cause damage to the baskets. As they are porous structures they will tend to trap
windblown sand and allow the growth of vegetation under favourable conditions.

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16. ARTIFICIAL HEADLAND

16.1 General description :

Artificial headlands are rock structures built along the toe of eroding dunes to protect strategic
points, allowing natural processes to continue along the remaining frontage. This is significantly
cheaper than protecting a whole frontage and can provide temporary or long term protection to
specific assets at risk. Temporary headlands can be formed of gabions or sand bags, but life
expectancy will normally be between 1 and 5 years.

Figure 16.1 Rock headland protecting a golf course tee.

16.2 Function :
Artificial headlands stabilize discrete lengths of the dune face while allowing the intervening
stretches to erode naturally, forming an increasingly embayed shoreline. As the shoreline
becomes more indented so the wave energy will be dissipated over a longer frontage and
ultimately a more stable plan shape can develop. Stability will depend on the length and spacing
of the headlands. Short structures with long gaps will provide local protection but may not allow
a stable plan shape to develop. If ongoing erosion is severe the headlands may need to be
extended or relocated to prevent outflanking or structural failure, although they will continue to
provide some protection as nearshore breakwaters The embayment between headlands will not
become independent units as sand will be transported by wind, waves and currents along the

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foreshore to seaward of the structures. If gravel is present the headlands may restrict longshore
movement along the upper beach; this can be useful to control losses if renourishment or
recycling is undertaken.

17. NEARSHORE BREAKWATERS

.
17.1 General description :
Nearshore breakwaters are segmented, shore parallel structures built along the upper beach at
approximately high water mark. They are normally built of rock,but can be formed of concrete
armour units. At maximum tide levels their crests are still visible, but they may be separated
from the shoreline. The gaps allow some wave energy to reach the upper beach and even the
dune face.These structures are distinguished from Artificial Reefs that are built further down the
foreshore and are submerged at high tide
17.2 Functions
Breakwaters reduce the energy of waves reaching the shoreline, but do not completely isolate
dunes from the natural beach processes. The structures act as a direct barrier to waves, but at
very high water levels they allow some overtopping. The gaps between segmented structures
allow some wave energy to reach the upper beach and dune face, but this is dissipated by
refraction and diffraction. Erosion may continue in the lee of the gaps leading to formation of an
embayed shoreline as sand moves into the shelter of the structures.
Sand build up in the lee of the structures (salients) may grow seawards sufficiently to connect
with the structure, forming a “tombolo”.

Figure 17.2 Nearshore breakwaters on the upper foreshore in the Dornoch Firth.

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18. GROYNES
18.1 General description:
Groynes are cross-shore structures designed to reduce longshore transport on open beaches or to
deflect nearshore currents within an estuary. On an open beach they are normally built as a series
to influence a long section of shoreline that has been nourished or is managed by recycling. In an
estuary they may be single structures.
Oak is often favoured as the construction material, but timber or gabions can be used for
temporary structures of varying life expectancies (timber: 10-25 years,gabions: 1-5 years).
Groynes are often used in combination with revetments to provide a high level of erosion
protection.
18.2 Function :
Groynes reduce longshore transport by trapping beach material and causing the beach orientation
to change relative to the dominant wave directions. They mainly influence bed load transport and
are most effective on shingle or gravel beaches. Sand is carried in temporary suspension during
higher energy wave or current conditions and will therefore tend to be carried over or around any
crossshore structures. Groynes can also be used successfully in estuaries to alter
nearshore tidal flow patterns.Rock groynes have the advantages of simple construction, long-
term durability and ability to absorb some wave energy due to their semi-permeable
nature.Wooden groynes are less durable and tend to reflect, rather than absorb energy.Gabions
can be useful as temporary groynes but have a short life expectancy.Groynes along a duned
beach must have at least a short “T” section of revetment at their landward end to prevent
outflanking during storm events. The revetment will be less obtrusive if it is normally buried by
the foredunes.
Beach recycling or nourishment is normally required to maximise the effectiveness of groynes.
On their own, they will cause down drift erosion of beach material is held within the groyne
bays.
.

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Figure 18.2 Recently built rock groyne at estuary mouth, constructed in association with
beach renourishment of adjacent foreshore.

19. ROCK REVETMENTS

19.1 General description:

Rock revetments may be used to control erosion by armouring the dune face.They dissipate the
energy of storm waves and prevent further recession of the engineered structures protecting
long lengths of shoreline, or roughly placed riprap protecting short sections of severely eroded
dunes.Though offering long-term security, the landscape impact and damage to habitat are
considerable.
19.2 Function:
Rock revetments are widely used in areas with important backshore asset subject to severe and
ongoing erosion where it is not cost effective or environmentally acceptable to provide full
protection using seawalls .The function of permeable revetments is to reduce the erosive power
of the waves by means of wave energy dissipation in the interstices of the revetment.Permeable
revetments can also be built from gabions timber) or concrete armour units. Concrete units are
normally too costly for use as dune protection, but maybe appropriate where high value back
shore assets must be protected and armour rock is difficult to obtain. They are often considered
to be more unattractive than rock.Revetments may not prevent on going shoreline recession
unless they are maintained, and, if necessary, extended. If the foreshore continues to erode, the

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rock revetment may slump down, becoming less effective as a defence structure,but will not fail
completely.

Figure 19.2 Major rock armour revetment in front of dune system.

20. IMPERMEABLE REVETMENTS AND SEAWALLS

Appropriate locations :
Exposed frontages with extensive and high value backshore assets.
Effectiveness :
Provides good medium term protection, but continued erosion will cause long term failure
(30-50 year life expectancy).
Benefits :
Fixed line of defences allowing development up to shoreline .Allows amenity facilities along
backshore and easy access to beach.

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Problems:
Continued erosion may cause undermining and structural failure. Complete disruption of
natural beach-dune processes.
20.1 General description :
Impermeable revetments are continuous sloping defence structures of concrete or stone block
work, asphalt or mass concrete. Revetments are built along the dune face, preferably above the
run-up limit of waves under normal conditions. Where frequent wave attack is anticipated, the
revetment may be topped by a vertical or recurved wall to reduce overtopping. Seawalls are near
vertical structures of concrete, masonry or sheet piles, designed to withstand severe wave attack.
Their use was popular in the past but they are now normally considered to be costly, detrimental
to the stability of beaches and unsuitable for erosion management along a dune shoreline.
20.2 Function :
The rock armour was placed after beach lowering exposed the toe of the revetment. The good
medium term protection of such structures has to be balanced against considerable landscape
impact and habitat damage.Impermeable revetments provide a fixed line of defence for frontages
with high value backshore assets. They are intended to withstand storm wave attack over a life
expectancy of Revetments will severely disrupt natural beach-dune interactions, and should
not be used on frontages valued for natural heritage. Ongoing beach erosion may result in
undermining of the revetment toe, leading eventually to structural failure or the need for repairs
and extensions. 30 to 50 years. Amenity facilities such as promenades, slipways and beach
access steps can be built into revetment. Revetments will severely disrupt natural beach-dune
interactions, and should not be used on frontages valued for natural heritage. Ongoing beach
erosion may result in undermining of the revetment toe, leading eventually to structural
failure or the need for repairs and extensions.

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Figure 20.2 Concrete and stone seawall.

21. BEACH DRAINAGE

Appropriate locations
Low tidal range sand beach sites with a high amenity value,low to moderate wave energy
Effectiveness
Increases upper beach width and therefore dune stability,variable life expectancy.
Benefits: Non-intrusive technique resulting in wider, drier beach
Problems: Storm erosion of beach is likely to damage the system
21.1 General description
Beach drains comprise perforated land drain pipes buried below the upper beach surface, and
connected to a pump and discharge. The concept is based on the principle that sand will tend to
accrete if the beach surface is permeable due to an artificially lowered water table. The system is
largely buried and therefore has no visual impact.
21.2 Function
Mild upper beach and dune erosion can be controlled by beach drains. The system actively
lowers the water table in the swash zone, thereby enhancing the wave absorption capacity of the
beach, reducing sand fluidisation and encouraging sand deposition. The deposited sand forms an
upper beach berm protects the dune face during storm events that might otherwise cause erosion.

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22. CONCLUSION
 Although there are several techniques used to control erosion of coastal sand dunes,
revegetating the sites is probably the best alternative.
 This method is the least expensive, most durable, most aesthetically pleasing, and only
self-repairing technique available.
 There are several species of plants to choose from for planting a coastal dune, but the
objectives of the planting should be considered before deciding which species is best for
the purpose.
 There are also many factors, such as soil moisture, salinity and nutrient status of the
soil,that may determine whether or not the stabilization project will be a success.
 The success of the stabilization is also dependent on when and how the plants were
introduced to the site (i.e. date of planting, spacing, method of planting, etc.).

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REFERENCES

1.Bruun.p (1962):‟Sea-level rise as a cause of shore erosion‟, Journal of Waterways and

Harbours Divisions ,pp.117-130.

2.Davies A.G. and Villaret. C( 1999):‟Eulerian drift induced by progressive waves above rippled
and very rough bed‟,Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol.104, pp. 1465-1488.

3. Erikson. L and Hanson.H( 2004):’An analytical model to predict dune erosion due to wave
impact‟, Vol. 51, pp. 675-696.

4. Reniers A.H.and Thornton.E.B,( 2004):’Morphodynamic modelling of an embayed beach

under wave group forcing‟,Journal of Geophysical Research,Vol.109,pp.1132-1254.

5.Virgil. B( 1967):‟ Sand Dune Stabilization Along the North Atlantic Coast’,Journal of Soil and
Water Conservation, Vol.22, pp.143-146.

6. Yager (2001):‟ Evaluation of Sand Fence and Vegetation for Dune Building Following
Overwash by Hurricane Opal on Santa Rosa‟, Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 17, pp.123-174.

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