SMALL-SCALE

PAPERMAKING
Introduction

Paper making is a good example of how small

industry can be developed to make use of local
resources and cater for local markets while keeping
capital investment down. This is especially so in
countries like India where machinery and
equipment is produced in-country.

When considering papermaking, there are many

factors to take into account in deciding on the
scale, the type of product, the raw materials, the
investment and the required skill levels. In Figure 1: Range of handmade paper,
addition, there are equally as many non-technical Bangladesh. Zul / Practical Action
considerations such as environmental issues,
marketing and competition, consumer expectations
and economics. Together, all these issues will help
you decide on the viability of the operation.

Before starting a papermaking enterprise, it is necessary to examine what is currently

available on the market and to consider whether it is possible to offer a product which will
compete for quality and price. The papers available may be an imported product from the
high technology industry. Unfortunately, such imports have conditioned the reactions of the
consumers who now believe that writing paper must be ultra white and of a certain texture
etc. In practice, it is very difficult for the average person to distinguish quite large
differences in the whiteness of papers except by direct comparison. Nevertheless, the larger
buyers of paper often specify a certain 'brightness' number, without really understanding what
it means. This alone can preclude a local product from the market place as it is frequently
not possible to achieve quite such high standards in a small operation. It is therefore
essential to consider consumer preferences at a very early stage. The price of the local
product may need to be considerably lower to compensate for a (perceived) lower quality.

The market size should also be considered and the proposed output of the operation along
with the availability of adequate raw material on a regular basis. Together, these effectively
dictate the technology to be employed and this in turn determines the cost of the venture.

Having decided on a size for the operation, the next problem faced is that of finding suitable
equipment. There is no difficulty for lager operations making 1000 tonnes of paper per day
or more but for the 5 tonne per day plant it is more difficult to find equipment. There are
producers of smaller paper production machinery and associated equipment in India. Hand
papermaking less equipment. It has enjoyed a major revival over the years, using new and
innovative approaches it can produce unique textures and qualities. In addition, the versatility
of paper in its wet form has led artists to experiment with paper-making as an art medium,
creating two- and three-dimensional images of textural richness and diversity.

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Small-scale papermaking Practical Action

It will be obvious from the above that the whole subject of papermaking is far more complex
than it would first appear. For the best chances of success, a lot of careful study is needed for
starting. Since the subject is so complex and the options are many, no sizable commercial
venture should be embarked upon without expert guidance from a specialist consultant
experienced in small-scale operations.

Services
When considering purchasing or renting premises for setting up a paper-making facility, care
should be taken to ensure that there are adequate services provided at the premises, or that
these services can be easily accessed.

One of the main points to consider is the availability of an adequate water supply. The
commercial processing of raw material through to finished paper can consume as much as 50
tonnes of water for each tonne of paper produced. If this quantity of water is not available,
there is little point in pursuing the project further. Although efficiencies in water consumption
are improving, there will always be a need for relatively large quantities of water during the
paper making process.

The next consideration is adequate power at the site. Papermaking is also an energy intensive
industry, especially when the process is mechanised. This energy can come from a variety of
sources such as electricity, wood, oil, gas or coal. This energy is used to provide much of the
heat energy required. Crop residues, such as bagasse or rice husks can also be used as fuel.
An electrical supply is required in most circumstances to power motors, pumps, lighting, etc.
This can be supplied from the mains where the mains is accessible, from a diesel generator
set, or from a renewable energy source (such as hydro-power or wind power). Steam raising for
the drying process can be carried out using a variety of technologies; oil-fired boiler, steam
engine, combined heat and power plants. Careful costing of the available options can bring
considerable savings. The energy demand for processing of reclaimed paper is much less that
for virgin wood.

In order to understand what might or might not be possible in papermaking it is first

necessary to have knowledge of the technicalities of the process. The basic process of
making paper involves two stages: the breaking up of raw material (which contains cellulose*
fibre) in water to form a pulp (i.e. a suspension of fibres*), and the formation of sheet paper
by spreading this suspension on a porous surface, and drying, often under pressure.

This Technical Brief only covers small-scale papermaking technologies for application in
developing countries. For this purpose we will define scale in papermaking as shown in Table
1 below.

Category Output (tonnes of paper per day – t.p.d.)

Large scale More than 100 t.p.d.
Medium scale Between 30 and 100 t.p.d.
Small scale Less than 30 t.p.d., including hand-made paper
Table 1: Definition of scale in papermaking
Source: Small-scale papermaking, ITDG Publishing.

Typically, a hand-made paper producer will manufacture only a few tonnes of paper per year
often for a highly specialised market. Mechanised plants, on the other hand, only become
economically viable when dealing with an output above several tonnes per day.

In India, where paper making machinery is manufactured indigenously, and hence costs are
kept lower, mechanised paper making on a small scale is very common. These mills provide
higher levels of employment, not only in the mill, but amongst associated industries, such as
waste paper collection and machinery manufacture. Smaller mills are more flexible in their
acceptance of raw materials.

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Small-scale papermaking Practical Action

The product range is also more flexible in small paper making plants, with the ability to cater
for a variety of demands, but, sometimes, with a slightly lower quality than that of the larger
plants.

Types, characteristics and physical properties of paper

Paper comes in an enormous variety of shapes, sizes, qualities, grades, colours and finishes.
Some of the typical characteristics used to determine paper quality are given here. The types
of tests that will be carried out on a batch of new paper depend upon the use for the paper.

ƒ Weight in grams per square metre (referred to as ƒ Brightness / shade

gsm or grammage) ƒ Porosity
ƒ Thickness or calliper (measured in microns) ƒ Smoothness / gloss
ƒ Density or bulk (a function of the previous two ƒ Oil-resistance
qualities) ƒ Moisture absorption
ƒ Tensile strength ƒ Moisture content
ƒ Burst ƒ Optical properties
ƒ Folding (adjustable using mineral fillers)

The quality of paper is often controlled by the National Standards organisation in the country
concerned. It is always worth consulting these Standards well in advance if contemplating
setting up a paper manufacturing facility.

Delivery of raw materials

For economic production of paper there must be a secure supply of suitable raw material at a
reasonable price. Fortunately, there are many fibres which are well suited to paper making. In
tropical developing countries, where wood is often in short supply there are a number of other
sources of fibre, often by-products of the agriculture or textile industries.

It is important to ensure that there is sufficient storage capacity for the raw material. This is
particularly important where seasonally available raw materials, such as straw or bagasse*, are
used and a large supply will have to be stored for later use.

Raw material
The raw material for all papers is cellulose fibre which comes from
a wide range of natural materials. The large scale producers rely
almost entirely on fibre from timber although, especially in India,
other materials such as bamboo, straws and grasses are also used.
The cellulose fibre can also be extracted from such things as waste
cotton rags, banana pseudostem, bagasse, - in fact almost anything
which has grown naturally. However, the quality of fibres varies a
great deal depending on the natural material from which it is
collected. The quality, usually assessed according to the length of
the individual fibres, is extremely important to the quality of the Figure 2: Mulberry branches
paper which can be made. A high proportion of long fibres is used for paper making,
essential for reasonable paper quality, regardless of scale or Bangladesh. Photo: Zul /
method of production. Practical Action.

Below are some examples.

Raw Material Source Suitability

Straw (e.g. from Between 5 and 10% Short fibred (1.5mm), it is often mixed with
wheat, barley or rice) of all straw which is other pulp to provide a suitable pulp stock for
produced is burned. a variety of uses.
Bagasse* From sugar cane Slightly longer fibre than straw. Suitable for
after the sugar has high quality writing and printing paper.
been extracted.
Maize stalks Remaining after The high moisture content and need for
maize harvest. collection make maize stalks suitable only for

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Small-scale papermaking Practical Action

very small-scale production. Properties

similar to straw.
Bamboo Grown for use. Fibre length of 2.7mm, suitable for all types
of paper making without addition of other
fibre. Supply is often limited.
Cotton Cuttings, lint and Cotton is a high value fabric and is therefore
fluff from cotton only used for specialist papers. Has a fibre
mills. length of 25 32mm.
Rags Collected Often require sorting and bleaching. Common
(from cotton material) writing paper.
Flax A residue from the Long fibres make this material suitable for
manufacture of linen. high quality paper.
Hemp and sisal From old ropes and 6mm fibre length, processing similar to that
tow from ropemaking of cotton.
factories.
Jute From old sacks and Jute does not bleach well and is therefore
hessian. used for its strength rather than for high
quality grades
Water Hyacinth Weed Paper not having adequate strength
Jute and Water Unique textured paper
Hyacinth
Mulberry Bark Excellent, silky, transparent papers of
different kinds
Jute and Hemp A reasonable good quality paper.
Table 2: Raw materials commonly used for paper production

Recycling waste paper

Using waste paper is the easiest way into papermaking as
all the difficult first stages have been done. There is no
need for chemical digestion, bleaching and complex
screening operations. The waste may only require re-
pulping before being reformed as 'new' paper. Compared
with producing a tonne of paper from virgin wood pulp, the
production of one tonne of paper from discarded paper may
use half as much energy and water.
Figure 3: Water Hyacinth used for
The clay originally added to the paper to make it glossy will paper making, Bangladesh. Photo:
help to separate the ink from the paper during recycling. Zul / Practical Action.

There are limitations to recycling that need to be

considered. Paper can be recycled only 5 to 8 times before
the fibres become too short and weak to be reused. It is
therefore essential to use as high a grade of waste as
possible as the starting point. From both pulp quality and
ink points of view, computer waste is a very useful raw
material for the recycler. Old newspapers are commonly
used to make tissue and cardboard, while magazines are
often recycled into newsprint.
Figure 4: Jute used for paper
Waste paper will carry some form of printing which, if not making, Bangladesh. Photo: Zul /
Practical Action.
removed, will cause the product to be discoloured. The
process of removing the print, called de-inking, is often, not
worthwhile for the small-scale operator, involving as it does, even more, expensive equipment.
It is a better policy to concentrate on unprinted materials if these can be obtained.
Alternatively, paper with as little print as possible should be selected. When the final product
is used for packaging it is sometimes acceptable to mask the discolouration due to ink by
tinting the pulp to produce a coloured paper. One of the major parts of recycling is the
collection, sorting, baling, and transportation of waste paper.

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Small-scale papermaking Practical Action

The next step is re-pulping. Industrial production involves disintegrating the bails in a hydro
pulper, where they are reduced to individual fibres. Chemicals are added so that ink particles,
coatings and additives, and extremely small contaminants such as fillers start to separate
from the paper. Depending on the required level of improvement, the pulp is sent through
several stages, where heat, chemicals, and mechanical action may be used to further improve
the pulp. Finally, the pulp mixture enters a flotation device, where calcium soap and other
chemicals are added. Air bubbles in the mixture float the remaining ink and contaminants to
the surface as a scum, where it is skimmed away.

The pulp is sent to the stock preparation area, where it is treated and loaded into the
flowbox* of a paper machine. From this point, the pulp is treated just the same as if it had
been freshly made from any other raw material rather than recycled.

Papermaking
The process of making paper is based
on wet cellulose fibres binding
together in a random fashion when
dried under restraint. The process of
paper usually involves the initial
separation of the cellulose fibres to
form a wet pulp, some form of
treatment, such as beating and
refining, while in the pulped state, to
enhance the quality of the final
product, then forming of the sheet
paper by hand moulding or by paper
making machine, and drying. Some
further processing is often carried out Figure 5: Women stripping mulberry and cutting jute
before or during drying to acquire the for pulp, Bangladesh. Photo: Zul /Practical Action.
desired finish. The process is similar,
whatever the raw material (or mixture of raw materials), and at whatever scale of paper
production, but the complexity of the technology involved will vary considerably.

Small scale preparation of materials

In a small scale operation the raw materials, such
as rags, are sorted manually to remove buttons,
plastic, synthetic fibres and other foreign
materials. Then given shaken vigorous to remove
the dust and dirt. The rags are sorted and chopped
into small uniform sized pieces.

Straw preparation requires the straw to be cleaned

to remove dust and then cut into short lengths.

Bagasse will have been reduced to a suitable size

at the sugar mill, but the pith will need to be Figure 6: Zohrabanu & Amina boiling
removed. Wood will be chipped to an appropriate mulberry branches for pulp. Bangladesh.
Photo: Zul / Practical Action.
size. Specialised equipment is required for this
kind of preparation. The material will then usually
be transported to the pulping area on a conveyor
belt or by hand.

Mulberry bark is prepared by cutting the branches

into lengths measuring 6 to 8 inches. The bark is
removed from the stem with a knife and the
outer green / grey skin is removed from the bark.
The bark is then beaten with a wooden hammer by
placing it on a wooden block to obtain fibres. Figure 7: Mulberry pulp. Bangladesh.
Photo: Zul / Practical Action.
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Small-scale papermaking Practical Action

If the bark is already dried then it needs to be soaked in water for 24 hours before pulping.

Use only the long stems of water hyacinth and discard the roots and leaves. The stems should
measure 6 to 12 inches. The stems should be cut into small pieces measuring 2 to 4 inches
and then left in the sun in the open for 2 to 3 days to reduce the water content before
pulping.

The next step is to weigh the raw material to be pulped to establish the quantity of water and
chemicals to be used.

Pulping process
Digestion is the process of removing lignin and other components of the wood from the
cellulose fibres which will be used to make paper. Lignin is the "glue" which holds the wood
together; it rapidly decomposes and discolours paper if it is left in the pulp (as with
mechanical pulping).

With mechanical pulping the raw material is broken down into its individual fibres by grinding
(such as newsprint, which is usually made from groundwood* pulp with little or no chemical
treatment). This process is not wholly satisfactory, as the fibre are broken into smaller pieces
and relatively little lignin is released, resulting in a poor quality, ‘woody’ paper. The
mechanical process is also energy intensive.

Industrial extraction of the fibres is usually done by chemical processes using caustic soda to
dissolve away the unwanted material leaving only the useful papermaking fibres. The process
uses equipment to boil the material, under high pressure, so that rapid processing can take
place. This equipment, the 'digester', must be built by experts, as improvised versions could
be extremely dangerous

This stage gives rise to potential problems areas for the paper producer:

• The equipment is expensive.

• The chemicals are expensive and often difficult to obtain.
• The effluent from the process is hazardous and difficult to dispose of.

Hand made paper uses labour intensive preparation of the materials that require less
equipment.

Chemical pulping produces a high quality product, although the type of chemical used will
determine the properties of the final product:
• Sodium hydroxide (Caustic soda), sodium carbonate (soda ash) or sodium sulphate
and calcium oxide (lime) will produce a pulp with coarse, strong fibres (known as
Kraft) suitable for strong boxes.
• Ammonia or calcium sulphate will produce a finer fibre suitable for high quality
printing and writing paper.

Boiling caustic soda is a very unpleasant chemical.

Raw Material Caustic Soda (gm) Water (litre)

Jute (dry) 20-30 10
Jute (raw) 10-15 10
Mulberry Bark (dry) 10-15 10
Mulberry Bark (raw) 5-7.5 10
Water Hyacinth (sun dried) 10-15 2

The resulting solution is poured into a hemispherical pan of cast iron which functions as the
pulper or digester. The weighed amount of raw material is then added.

The prepared stock is fed into the top of a digester and mixed with the cooking chemicals,
which are called "white liquor" at this point. Digestion may be carried out on a batch or a

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Small-scale papermaking Practical Action

continuous basis. For small-scale mills of up to, say, 30 t.p.d batch cooking is preferred.
Batch digesters are able to cope with a variety of stock feeds, for example straw, baggase,
cotton and wood, in the same mill. As the stock and liquor move down through the digester,
the lignin and other components are dissolved, and the cellulose fibres are released as pulp.

In manual operations a pan containing raw material can be placed on a fire. The cooking
times for the manual operation are outlined below. The contents are occasionally stirred with
a wooden stick.

Raw Material Cooking time in hours

Jute (dry) 2-3
Jute (raw) 1-2
Mulberry Bark (dry) 1-2
Mulberry Bark (raw) 1 or less
Water Hyacinth (sun dried) 1 or more

The end point is determined by observation of the fibre based on the experience of the
operator. The contents will now be grey or dark brown. The content is allowed to cool.

The pulp is then rinsed, and the spent chemicals (now known as "black liquor") are separated
and recycled. The cooked mass is placed on a screen of nylon and bamboo frame and cold
water is passed over the material. The rinsing is complete when the pH is close to 7. At this
point, the "brownstock" pulp is free of lignin, but is off white and too dark to use for some
types of paper.

Bleaching and refining

The next step is to bleach the pulp by treating it with
chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone, peroxide, or any of several
other treatments. A typical mill uses multiple stages of
bleaching, often with different treatments in each step, to
produce a bright white pulp. Chlorine bleaching generally
provides the best performance with the least damage to the
fibres, but concerns about dioxins and other by-products
have led the industry to move towards more environmentally
friendly alternatives.

The bleached pulp is thoroughly washed until the bleaching

agent is removed. The waste waster will be acidic with a pH
of around 3-4.

Beating
At this point, the individual cellulose fibres are still fairly
hollow and stiff, so they must be broken down somewhat to
help them stick to one another in the paper web. This is
accomplished by "beating" the pulp in the refiners, vessels
with a series of rotating serrated metal disks. The pulp will Figure 8: Honnathara. D
be beaten for various lengths of time depending on its Karunawathi using a beater. Photo:
origin and the type of paper product that will be made from Zul / Practical Action.
it. At the end of the process, the fibres will be flattened and
frayed, ready to bond together in a sheet of paper.

Stock preparation
The bleached pulp is now ready for paper-making and is made into a suspension in water in a
trapezoidal shaped vat, usually 1 to 2% pulp. A number of chemicals can be added at this
stage to change the properties of the paper, including sizing chemicals and additives.

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Small-scale papermaking Practical Action

Sizing reduces this absorbency to lessen or prevent bleeding and feathering of watery media.
Sizing also protects the fibre from oily media as well as dirt & pollution. In addition, sizing
affects finish, printability, smoothness, and surface bond strength.

Below are some of the chemical additives used in the small-scale paper making industry but
many other chemicals are used for dying, tinting, cleaning and quality improvement.

Chemical Application
Caustic soda (NaOH) Used in the cooking or digestion* process in small mills.
Lime (CaOH) Used for the cooking of low quality materials such as jute or old
rags.
Ammonia and calcium Other chemicals used for the digestion of raw materials to form a
sulphate pulp.
Chlorine Used for bleaching paper. Chlorine is losing favour due to
environmental pressures and is being replaced by other agents,
such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), ozone or enzymes.
Hypochlorite Also used for bleaching paper.
Alum For pH correction, which is necessary for many of the finishing
processes.
Rosin Used for sizing* paper. Normally used in conjunction with alum as
a ‘sizing system’.
Alkile ketene dimer Now used as a sizing agent in place of the alum and rosin system.
Starch To improve stiffness of paper and board.
China clay /chalk A filler is used to improve opacity, brightness, quality and finish of
paper. Up to 20% clay is used for some grades of paper. Fillers are
often cheaper than fibre and used liberally.
Talc Can be used instead of clay where the where the pH is close to
neutral. Also used to reduce ‘stickiness’ of pulp.
Table 3: Additives used during production of paper

Forming
There are two methods of sheet formation:
Dipping method (for fine/thin paper). The pulp is
diluted with water and put into a masonry trough or
vat. The lifting mould (mesh on a wooden frame) is
then dipped into the trough, shaken evenly and lifted
out with the pulp on it. The consistency of the pulp in
the tank should be kept constant.

Lifting method (all paper and card). A fixed measure of

the pulp is poured evenly onto a mould, which is
Figure 9: Mrs Jayawathie Yahampath
clamped between two wooden deckles (frames) in a
pouring the pulp, Honnathara, Sri
water tank and dipped. The mould is then raised,
Lanka. Photo: Zul / Practical Action.
using a lever mechanism, to drain the excess water.

The frames are immersed and lifted out vertically,

trapping the fibres on the mesh. The thickness is
controlled, mainly, by the concentration of the pulp.
Although apparently simple, the process is dependent
on a great deal of operator skill. Hand forming is, of
course, not very fast and for commercial manufacture
it is usual to employ one of the two main types of
machine developed for the purpose. Both machines
use a metal gauze to collect the fibres, one in the
form of an endless, horizontal belt onto which is
poured the pulp, the other in the form of a large drum
Figure 10: Forming using the dipping
rotating in a vat of pulp. In both cases, a continuous
method with a bamboo frame. Photo:
sheet of paper is formed then removed for drying. Zul / Practical Action.
Neither of these systems lends themselves to the very

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Small-scale papermaking Practical Action

small-scale production of paper but versions of both can be found for the production of 5
tonnes per day upwards. A drum-type machine for the production of boards at the rate of 0.5
tonnes per day is produced in India. The selection of the machine type depends upon the
type of paper to be produced and the required output.

Couching is carried out after the sheet formation is completed, the wet paper is transferred
onto a cloth/felt sheet and a stack of interleaved sheets is built up.

Paper making equipment - technical considerations

For the person looking to produce very small amounts of paper by hand, for use in a limited
market, the problems are not quite so severe. It is possible to improvise all the equipment
needed to recycle small amounts of paper. Time spent experimenting with the various parts
of the basic process will quickly lead to an understanding of the principles and will enable
more adventurous steps to be taken. For a very small operation, air drying should be an
adequate option.

In order to move up the production scale, it is necessary to employ a little more equipment.
Semi-manual (or semi-automatic) lifting devices have been developed which allow the paper
to be formed with greater consistency and less individual skill. These devices lift the frame
from the pulp vat by a system of levers which ensures a smooth lift and maintains the frame
in a horizontal plane throughout the operation.

Many developing countries now manufacture papermaking plant indigenously, making cost
savings in manufacture and also in import duties. There are also suppliers in industrialised
countries that sell second hand equipment.

The table below shows the variety of equipment that is needed for a small hand made paper
making process. Much of the machinery required for a mechanised production facility is
sophisticated and expensive. Table 2 shows some examples of the equipment that is used for
small-scale paper manufacture.

Machine name Function

Pulper An open-topped vessel with impeller which reduces the digested or
mechanically reduced stock to a pulp.
Breaker Similar in function to the pulper but with blades mounted on a roller
inside a bath. Only suitable for batch operation.
Beater / refiner Similar to the breaker in appearance but with a beating action for
speciality papers. See fig. 2 below.
Washer For washing the pulp prior to paper formation.
Refining equipment For the final treatment of pulp before being sent to the Fourdrinier
machine.
De-flaking equipment Used in the preparation of reclaimed paper, these machines are
inexpensive and suitable for use in small mills.
Screen Situated just prior to the headbox of the paper machine, the screen
removes undesirable particles and ensures a uniform suspension of
fibres.
Cleaners Remove sand or grit from the paper stock by centrifugal action.
Fourdrinier machine Used for the formation of the sheet paper. This is the most common
type of paper machine
Headbox or flow-box The container (similar to a hopper) that feeds the pulp into the paper
machine. On smaller machines they usually operate under the
pressure of gravity.
Press Used to expel water mechanically from the freshly formed paper.
Often use hydraulic rams to provide the pressure.
Dryer Commonly, a series of steam heated rotating cylinders which help
remove the final 50 – 60% of water which still remains after
pressing. Solar drying is another option when producing handmade
paper.
Reeling, winding and Handling equipment used for final treatment of paper.

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Small-scale papermaking Practical Action

sheeting equipment,
Size press Machine press for adding starch to the formed sheet paper.
Cutting machine Used for the cutting of paper into sheets.
Table 4: Machinery used for small-scale papermaking

Pressing
The stack of hand made paper is usually squeezed
in a screw press operated by hand while the
mechanized systems use heavy rollers.

A hydraulic press is used to remove the excess

water from the sheets. Pressing reduces the
bulkiness of the paper i.e. the sheets become more
compact. This improves the physical properties of
the paper and facilitates drying.

Drying Figure 11:. E D Karunawathi and Shanthi

Once the paper has been formed, it has to be dried. Dassanayake pressing to remove water.
In order to do this it must first be removed, Photo: Zul / Practical Action.
undamaged, from the gauze. In the case of hand
formed paper, this is done by placing the frame,
face down onto a sheet of felt to which the paper
sticks. Another felt is placed on top of the paper,
followed by another paper sheet and so on until a
stack has been built up.

After pressing between 50 and 65% of moisture

remains in the sheets.

The sheets are dried either by hanging them in open

areas of sunlight to remove the rest of the moisture Figure 12: Honnathara. E D Karunawathi
but this requires a lot of space because each sheet using a screw-press to remove excess water.
must be kept away from the others, otherwise they Photo: Zul / Practical Action.
will stick together. After a period of natural drying,
during which the paper develops some strength,
it is possible to hang up the sheets in an
enclosed space and supply some form of
additional heat
and air flow to
complete the
drying as quickly
as possible.

Alternatively
drying equipment
Figure 13: Honnathara. Indra Padmini can be used.
Gunawardane hanging paper to dry in Sri Solar dryers can
Lanka. Photo: Zul / Practical Action. speed up this
process and
reduce the amount of space needed. Coloured paper is
sometimes dried in the shade to avoid the bleaching effect of
the sun. The mechanised production, because it produces
paper continuously, demands artificial drying. This is usually
achieved by passing the paper through a series of heated
rollers from which it emerges dry and ready for reeling.
Wherever artificial drying is required it involves cost. A great Figure 14: Indra Padmini
deal of energy is required to remove all the water from paper loading paper into the dryer,
and energy is expensive. (modified cashew dryer). Photo:
Zul / Practical Action.

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Small-scale papermaking Practical Action

Cleaning and sizing

Small dirt particles and other foreign matter are removed manually with a sharp instrument.
The cleaned sheets are given a coating with starch to improve the physical properties of the
paper and prevent feathering. This is called sizing and can be done manually with a brush or
by the dipping method, where the sheets are immersed in a tub of sizing chemicals.

Calendering
The sheets are placed between metallic plates
and passed through spring loaded rollers in a
calendering machine. This smoothes the paper
and enhances the gloss.

Cutting
The sheets are neatly cut to the required size
using a cutting machine.

Effluent treatment and disposal is an important

topic which needs careful attention. The effluent
from a paper mill can contain thousands of Figure 15: Jayawathi Yahampath and
different chemical species, which, if discharged Shanthi Dassanayake calendering the dry
directly into the environment, would cause untold paper, Sri Lanka. Photo: Zul / Practical Action.
damage. In medium and large-scale plants
specialised recovery equipment is used to reclaim chemicals for reuse or for incineration to
provide energy. This is not cost effective in smaller plants and so some form of treatment
and/or disposal is required. Biological treatment plants, such as the anaerobic digester, are
sometimes used to treat the effluent. This method has the added benefit of producing
methane through digestion of the organic matter in the effluent, which can be used to provide
as much as 30 % of the mills energy requirement. The remaining sludge can then be
disposed of on the land.

Although there are difficulties in setting up a small paper making operation, they should be
no more serious than with any other industrial venture. There are strong arguments in favour
of the small-scale as opposed to the recent Western tendency towards ever-larger plants in the
search for 'economies of scale'. Small-scale operations can offer a degree of flexibility
impossible to achieve with a large mill. An additional benefit derives from the fact that, for
small-scale production, the machinery can be run at relatively low speeds and does not,
therefore, need to be complicated, either in its construction or its control, operation and
maintenance. This offers an opportunity for developing local skills to run and maintain an
industry which, at a large scale, would be heavily dependent on imported technology and
personnel.

Glossary of terms
Cellulose – the material from which all plants, such as trees, wheat stalks, rice-stalks and
sugarcane are made.
Fibre – the long, thread-like wisps from which
paper is made.
Groundwood – pulp obtained by subjecting
wood to grindstones in the presence of water,
also known as mechanical pulp.
Flowbox – prepared stock is placed in the
flowbox which controls the flow of the pulp
through the ‘slice’ onto the ‘wire’
Digestion – cooking of ram fibrous materials
to produce pulp.
Size – liquid added to paper to control ink
penetration.
Bagasse – the fibre remaining when sugar
Figure 16:. Shainoor and Zoshna making cards
juices has been extracted from sugar cane.
from handmade paper, Bangladesh. Photo: Zul /
Furnish – pulp that has been bleached and Practical Action.

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Small-scale papermaking Practical Action

refined, rinsed and diluted with water, and fillers such as clay or talc may be added.
Slice – the opening through which pulp flow onto the ‘wire’. Flow can be under gravity or
pressurised.
Wire - a moving continuous belt of wire or, more commonly nowadays, plastic mesh.

Further reading and information

• Small-scale Papermaking IT Publications, (First published as ILO Technical

Memorandum No 1) A technical handbook to assist small-scale producers with
alternative production techniques - to help them choose and apply those techniques
which are most appropriate to local socio-economic conditions
• Small-Scale Handmade Paper-Making Technology ITDG Bangladesh, 2000 This
booklet presents the process of handmade paper making and the associated
technology based on the experiences of Udyog project.
• Paper Technology and the Third World Becker J, GTZ, Germany.
• How to Make Your Own Recycled Paper by Malcolm Valentine ISBN 0 85532 670
• Creative Handmade Paper: How to Make Paper from Recycled and Natural Materials
David Watson ISBN 0 85532 730 8
• Towards Sustainable Development: Handmade paper by TARA, Verma S,
Development Alternatives, August 1996, An article on handmade paper being
produced by eco-friendly means.
• Use Water Hyacinth!: A Practical Handbook Of Uses For The Water Hyacinth From
Across The World Lindsey K, Hirt H, Action for Natural Medicines (Anamed). This
booklet shows the many uses of water hyacinth, and gives a summary of equipment
and techniques used for processing. Chapters include information on the uses of this
weed in agriculture, as a fertiliser and as animal feed, for handicratfs, including rope
furniture and paper, and as a fuel, in the form of briquettes, biogas and other forms.
• Plant Fibers for Papermaking Bell, Lillian.
A guide to making paper from natural plant fibres. Includes botanical names,
cooking, beating, and sheet forming. SB, 132 pp.
• Pulp Technology and Treatment for Paper, 2nd Edition, d'A. Clark, James,
The book for anyone who really wants to understand the process of papermaking. It is
a clear, comprehensible explanation of paper chemistry for non-chemists. There are
accurate discussions of cotton and flax properties. HB, 85 pp.
• Hand Made Books: An Introduction to Bookbinding Rob Shepherd,
Aimed at the amateur with a limited budget, he clearly explains how to make both
soft and hard bound bindings for journals, scrap books, portfolios, and Japanese
bindings.

Useful addresses

Development Alternatives Edwin Amies and Son Ltd.

B-32 TARA Crescent 33 Amsbury Road
Qutab Institutional Area Coxheath
New Delhi - 110016 Maidstone
India Kent ME17 4DP
Tel: + 91 (0)11 696 7938 United Kingdom
Fax: + 91 (0)11 686 6031 Tel/Fax: +44 1622 745758
E-mail: [email protected] Suppliers of hand moulds and deckles for
handmade paper making.

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Small-scale papermaking Practical Action

Small Industry Research Institute (SIRI)

PO Box 2106, 4/43 Roop Nagar
Delhi 110 007, India.
Tel: +91 (0)11291 81 17
Fax: +91 (0)11 391 08 05
Consultancy specialising in small business and
Intermediate Technology's.

Further Reading

Appropriate Paper Based Technologies Practical Action Technical Brief

Appropriate Paper Based Technology (APT) Bevill Packer, Practical Action Publishing

This Technical Brief was updated by Neil Noble based on the handmade paper
project in Bangladesh. The project ended in 1998. A local NGO called SEDS was
supported in setting up the Paper Mill and in marketing, quality control, and
management. Practical Action-Bangladesh withdrew from the project after the
partner NGO developed sufficient capacity to run and manage the operation
independently. Practical Action-Bangladesh produced a book on the project which
provide useful technical information and some costs Small Scale Handmade
Paper Making Technology.

Practical Action
The Schumacher Centre
Bourton-on-Dunsmore
Rugby, Warwickshire, CV23 9QZ
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)1926 634400
Fax: +44 (0)1926 634401
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/

Practical Action is a development charity with a difference. We know the simplest ideas can have the
most profound, life-changing effect on poor people across the world. For over 40 years, we have been
working closely with some of the world’s poorest people - using simple technology to fight poverty and
transform their lives for the better. We currently work in 15 countries in Africa, South Asia and Latin
America.

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