CK-12 General Chemistry

Kevin Pyatt, Ph.D.

Donald Calbreath, Ph.D.
Dana Desonie, Ph.D.
Ck12 Science

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AUTHORS
Kevin Pyatt, Ph.D.
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Donald Calbreath, Ph.D.
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Dana Desonie, Ph.D.
Ck12 Science

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Donald Calbreath, Ph.D.
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Contents www.ck12.org

Contents

1 Introduction to Chemistry 1
1.1 What is Chemistry? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 The Scientific Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 Matter and Change 18

2.1 Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Classification of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Changes in Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3 Measurement 40
3.1 Units of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Unit Conversions, Error, and Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4 Atomic Structure 64
4.1 Evolution of the Atomic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.2 Structure of the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

5 Atoms to Molecules 79

6 Ions 82

7 Stoichiometry 88
7.1 Isotopes and Atomic Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7.2 The Mole Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.3 Mole Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.4 Avogadro’s Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

8 Chemical Reactions 109

8.1 Chemical Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8.2 Chemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.3 Types of Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

9 Limiting Reactant and Percent Yield 137

10 Stoichiometric Calculations 146

11 The Properties of Gases 149

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11.1 Gas Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

11.2 Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
11.3 Gas Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
11.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

12 Gas Stoichiometry 172

13 Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 175

14 Glossary 178
14.1 A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
14.2 B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
14.3 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
14.4 D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
14.5 E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
14.6 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
14.7 G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
14.8 H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
14.9 I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
14.10 K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
14.11 L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
14.12 M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
14.13 N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
14.14 O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
14.15 P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
14.16 Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
14.17 R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
14.18 S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
14.19 T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
14.20 U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
14.21 V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
14.22 W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
14.23 Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Introduction to Chemistry

C HAPTER
1 Introduction to Chemistry
Chapter Outline
1.1 W HAT IS C HEMISTRY ?
1.2 T HE S CIENTIFIC M ETHOD
1.3 R EFERENCES

Diabetes mellitus is a disease characterized by the body’s inability to regulate glucose levels. Glucose (a component
of table sugar) is needed to provide biochemical energy for all the cells of the body. When this process is disrupted,
the body begins to break down fat and protein to provide the needed energy, which can eventually lead to death.
Diabetes is mediated by a protein called insulin. A key piece of our understanding of diabetes came when Frederick
Sanger, a British biochemist, carried out experiments to determine the structure of the insulin molecule. Sanger
(shown in the opening image) used basic chemistry techniques and reactions and took twelve years to complete his
research. Today, automated instruments based on his approach can perform the same analysis in a matter of days.
Sanger was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1958 for his insulin research. The chemical processes that won
Sanger the Nobel Prize is pictured on the right in the opening image. In this chapter, we will look at the history of
chemistry, see the many areas of our lives that are touched by chemistry, and develop a basic understanding of what
is involved in the process of scientific discovery.
Sanger image: Courtesy o f the National Institutes o f Health. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Frederick_Sanger2. j pg. Public Domain.

Molecule: User:Sponk/Wikimedia Commons. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sanger_peptide_end group_analysis.svg. Public Domain.

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1.1. What is Chemistry? www.ck12.org

1.1 What is Chemistry?

Lesson Objectives

• Define the term “chemistry.”

• Describe the activities of alchemists and how they contributed to the modern science of chemistry.
• List some of the key scientists from the early history of chemistry along with their primary contributions to
the field.
• List various modern items that have been developed through the study of chemistry.

Lesson Vocabulary

• chemistry: The science of the properties, reaction, composition, and structures of matter.
• matter: Anything that has mass and takes up space.
• alchemist: A practitioner of the Medieval science of alchemy, which aimed mainly to transform everyday
metals into gold.
• philosopher’s stone: A substance that could cause the transmutation of lead into gold.

A Brief History of Chemistry

What is Chemistry?

If we look up the word “chemistry” in the dictionary, we’ll find something like this: “The science of the composition,
structure, properties, and reactions of matter, especially of atomic and molecular systems” (Free Online Dictionary).
This definition is accurate, but it does not give us a good picture of the scope of chemistry or any practical aspects
of the field.
Chemistry touches every area of our lives. The medicines we take, the food we eat, the clothes we wear –all these
materials and more are, in some way or another, a product of chemistry. Later on in this chapter, we will look in
detail at some of the ways that chemistry contributes to our lives.

Where Did Chemistry Come From?

Although the systematic study of chemistry is relatively new, chemical techniques have been used for thousands of
years. Some civilizations kept good records of these techniques, which give us direct information about what earlier
people knew. Fields of study such as archaeology provide additional information. Legends and folklore are also
useful tools to learn about the chemical knowledge of previous cultures.
Thousands of years ago, the ancient Egyptians used chemical practices to develop techniques for producing perfumes
and dyes. Studies of objects found in Egyptian tombs show that materials for coloring fabrics were known as far
back as 2600 B.C.

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Another area of chemistry that was highly developed by the early Egyptians was metallurgy. Beginning in about 3400
B.C., records show a highly developed technology for refining copper, gold, iron, and other metals. Although the
reasons these techniques worked were not fully understood, the refiners were able to produce high-quality materials
that were used in jewelry, decorations, and money.
Glass production also appears to have been first developed by the Egyptians (see Figure 1.1). A number of tomb
paintings show glass-blowing and the manufacturing of glass products. The glass was often colored, suggesting an
understanding of the use of dyes for decoration.

FIGURE 1.1
This ancient Egyptian glass jar is over 3000 years old.

Various types of medicines were also discovered by many ancient people. Records from civilizations around the
world show that certain plants were used for healing specific disorders and for dealing with pain. The earliest
medical “textbook” consisted of hundreds of clay tablets found in Mesopotamia, dating from about 2600 B.C. These
tablets had information about thousands of plants and plant materials that had beneficial effects. An Egyptian papyrus
from around 1550 B.C had over 800 prescriptions and 700 natural materials that were used for medical treatment
(see Figure 1.2). The famous Greek physician Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.) wrote about using lemon juice as a
laxative and an extract from the belladonna plant as an anesthetic. Indian writings from around 900 B.C. describe
the preparations of over 300 different medicines. Traditional Chinese medicine has records from 350 B.C. that
describe over 240 medicinal preparations and 150 drug combinations used to treat various ailments. Oral traditions
from both North and South America also describe preparations used for healing. Some South American tribes used
the venom from specific frogs (usually very brightly colored ones) for poisons. The chemical properties of these
substances was not understood at the time, but chemical techniques were often used to isolate and purify various
useful materials.

The Rise and Fall of the Alchemists

One area of technology present in all of the societies we have mentioned was metallurgy. Properly refined metals
could be made into useful tools that could last a long time. Weapons could stay sharp longer with improved metals.
Additionally, precious metals such as gold and silver could be refined and used in jewelry or as money. Because
it was fairly rare, gold was considered to be very valuable and became a common means of paying for goods and
services.
We don’t know exactly when humans began mining for gold. Items made from gold have been found in Bulgarian
graves that are over 7000 years old. Archaeological studies show clear evidence of gold mining in many parts
of the world from over 4000 years ago. During the time of the Roman Empire, the Romans had developed very
sophisticated methods for extracting gold from the earth.
However, mining for gold is a slow, dirty, and dangerous process. Additionally, not everyone owns a gold mine –in

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1.1. What is Chemistry? www.ck12.org

FIGURE 1.2
Pictures of herbal medicines. The Arabic
text is from around 1330 A.D.

both the ancient Egyptian society and during the Roman Empire, the gold mines were the property of the state and
did not belong to any one individual or group. As a result, there were few ways for most people to legally get any
gold for themselves.
The alchemists were a varied group of scholars and charlatans (Figure 1.3). Two of the ultimate goals of alchemy
were to create the Philosopher’s Stone (which is a substance that could cause the transmutation of lead into gold)
and the Elixir of Life (which would bestow immortality on the person who possessed it). The origin of the term
“alchemy” is uncertain, and the roots of this word are related to a number of Greek, Arabic, and ancient Egyptian
words. Three major branches of alchemy are known (Chinese, Indian, and European), and all three have certain
factors in common. We will not focus on the philosophical or religious aspects of alchemy, but we will look briefly
at the techniques developed by European alchemists that ultimately influenced the development of the science of
chemistry.

FIGURE 1.3
An alchemist at work on his laboratory.

Many of the specific approaches that alchemists used when they tried changing lead into gold are vague and unclear.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Introduction to Chemistry

Each alchemist had his own methods of recording data, and the processes were kept secret so that others could not
profit from them. Different scholars developed their own set of symbols as they recorded the information they came
up with (see an example in Figure 1.4). Also, many alchemists were not very honest; it was not uncommon for an
alchemist to take money from a nobleman by claiming to be able to make gold from lead and then to leave town
in the middle of the night. Sometimes the nobleman would detect the fraud and have the alchemist hung. By the
1300s, several European rulers had declared alchemy to be illegal and set out strict punishments for those practicing
the alchemical arts.

FIGURE 1.4
An alchemical procedure and symbols.

However, despite this secrecy several contributions were made to modern-day chemistry. Early acids and bases were
discovered, and glassware for running chemical reactions was developed. Alchemy helped improve the study of
metallurgy and the extraction of metals from ores. More systematic approaches to research were being developed,
although the idea of orderly scientific experimentation was not yet well-established. The groundwork was being laid
for the development of chemistry as a foundational science.
The alchemists were never successful in changing lead into gold. Remarkably, modern nuclear physics can ac-
complish this task. If lead is subjected to nuclear bombardment in a particle accelerator, a small amount of gold
can eventually be obtained. However, the cost of this procedure is far more than the value of the gold that can be
obtained, so the dream of the alchemists has never (and will never) come true.

Events in the History of Chemistry

The history of chemistry is an interesting and challenging one. As we have already seen, very early chemists often
were motivated mainly by the achievement of a specific goal or product. The manufacturing of perfume or soaps
did not require a high level of theory, just a good recipe and careful attention to detail. Since there was no standard
way of naming materials (and no periodic table that everyone could agree on), it was often difficult to figure out
exactly what a particular individual was using. Nevertheless, the science of chemistry gradually developed over the
centuries.
Major progress was made in putting chemistry on a solid foundation when Robert Boyle (1637-1691) began his
research in chemistry. He developed basic ideas that allowed the behavior of gases to be described mathematically.
Boyle also helped formulate the idea that small particles could combine to form molecules, which was expanded by
John Dalton into an atomic theory a number of years later.
The field of chemistry began to develop rapidly in the 1700s, mainly through the discovery and isolation of specific
materials. Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) isolated and characterized several gases, including oxygen, carbon monox-
ide, and nitrous oxide. It was later discovered that nitrous oxide (“laughing gas”) worked as a general anesthetic, and
it was first used for that purpose in 1844 during a tooth extraction. Other gases discovered during that time included
chlorine, by C.W. Scheele (1742-1786), and nitrogen, by Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794). Lavoisier is considered by
many scholars to be the “father of chemistry.”
Chemistry in the 1800s continued the discovery of new compounds, but a more theoretical foundation also began

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to develop. John Dalton (1766-1844) put forth his atomic theory in 1807. These ideas allowed scientists to think
about chemistry in a much more systematic way. It was also during this time that Avogadro (1776-1856) laid the
groundwork for a more quantitative approach to chemistry by calculating the number of particles present in a given
amount of a gas. Greater effort was put forth in studying chemical reactions and seeing what new materials could be
produced. Following the invention of the battery by Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), the field of electrochemistry was
developed through major contributions by Humphry Davy (1778-1829) and Michael Faraday (1791-1867). Other
areas of the discipline, including both theoretical ideas and their practical applications, also progressed rapidly.
It would take a very large book to cover every development in the history of chemistry, even if we started only at
the beginning of the twentieth century. The history of specific areas will be explored as certain topics are introduced
in later chapters. One major area of expansion was in the study of the chemistry of living processes. Research on
photosynthesis in plants, the discovery and characterization of enzymes as biochemical catalysts, the elucidation
of the structures of biomolecules such as insulin and DNA, and numerous other scientific efforts gave rise to an
explosion of information in the field of biochemistry.
The practical aspects of chemistry are numerous as well. The work of Volta, Davy, and Faraday eventually led to
the development of batteries that provided a source of electricity to power a number of devices. Charles Goodyear
(1800-1860) discovered the process of vulcanization, which produced a stable rubber product that is used in the
tires of all modern vehicles. Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) pioneered the use of heat sterilization to eliminate unwanted
microorganisms in wine and milk. Alfred Nobel (1833-1896) invented dynamite. After his death, the fortune he
made from this product was used to fund the Nobel Prizes in science and the humanities. J.W Hyatt (1837-1920)
developed the first plastic and Leo Baekeland (1863-1944) developed the first synthetic resin, which are widely used
for inexpensive and sturdy dinnerware.

Examples of Modern Chemistry

From the time we get up in the morning until the time we go to bed at night, chemistry touches our lives in many
ways. What we eat, what we wear, how we get around, those cool electronic gadgets we can’t live without –chemistry
has contributed in some way to the making of each of these things. Let’s take a look at several areas where chemistry
has an impact on how we live.

Clothing

Many of the fibers that compose the materials for our clothes are naturally occurring. Silk and cotton are examples
of natural fibers. Silk is produced by the silkworm, and cotton is grown as a plant. However, several chemical
processes are used to treat silk thread so that it is shrink-resistant and will repel water. Chemical dyes are frequently
used to color various fabrics. Cleaning requires special soaps or chemicals used to dry-clean materials. Cotton will
grow better if the boll weevil (an insect that kills the plant) is eliminated with the use of specific insecticides. Ironing
of cotton is made easier by the use of chemicals that produce a permanent press in the material.
Other fabrics are human-made, such as nylon, orlon, polyester, and a number of other polymers. Many of these
materials are made from hydrocarbons found in petroleum products. Synthetic polymers are also used in shoes,
raingear, and camping items. The synthetic fabrics tend to be lighter than the natural ones and can be treated to make
them water-resistant and more durable.
Much protective apparel has its roots in chemical processes. KevlarT M is a tough polymer that is used for helmets
and body armor in combat situations. First used to replace steel in racing tires, KevlarT M is now found in bicycle
tires, sails, and even rope.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Introduction to Chemistry

FIGURE 1.5
U.S. Marine Corps body armor.

Transportation

Car bodies were at one time made primarily of sheet metal, which could be pounded out fairly easily in case of
a collision. Today, most bodies are plastic and need to be replaced when damaged. Plastic parts are easier to
manufacture and are lighter in weight than metal ones. Many of the engine components are made of special metals
to increase the lifetime of the engine and to make it more efficient.

FIGURE 1.6
A modern car engine.

Gasoline and oils are complex chemical mixtures designed to burn in a way that will efficiently produce energy while
emitting a minimal amount of air pollution. The refining of gasoline has improved engine performance but is much
more complicated than simply using the crude products extracted from oil wells, as was common in the late 1800s.
Most gasoline contained lead at one time, because this additive helped the engine run more smoothly. However, this
caused lead contamination in the environment, so new “unleaded” formulations were created that could be burned
smoothly without the addition of poisonous heavy metals. Oils for lubrication have special additives that reduce
engine wear. Some special fuel blends have also been created to generate more power in race car engines.

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1.1. What is Chemistry? www.ck12.org

Farming and Gardening

Three of the most important requirements for crop growth are water, nutrient-rich soil, and protection from predators
such as insects. Chemistry has made major contributions in all three of these areas. Water purification uses chemical
and physical techniques to remove salt and harmful contaminants that could pollute the soil. Through chemical
analysis of soil, farmers can see what nutrients the soil is lacking so these nutrients can be added. In the spring,
grocery stores, hardware stores, and gardening centers have high stacks of bags containing fertilizers and weed
killers that farmers can then use to enrich the soil and keep unwanted plants from using up the limited water and
nutrients in the soil. These same stores also provide a number of chemical sprays or solid treatments to ward off
insects that might otherwise snack on the plants.

FIGURE 1.7
A wheat harvest in the Palouse region of
Idaho.

Health Care

Major contributions to health care have been made by chemistry. The development of new drugs involves chemical
analysis and the synthesis of new compounds. Practically all of the drugs that you might see advertised on television
were designed and created by chemists. Clinical laboratory tests for things like high cholesterol or diabetes use a
wide variety of analytical chemical techniques and instruments. Chemistry also contributes to the preparation and
use of surgical materials such as stitches, artificial skin, and sterile materials.
Laboratory tests that at one time were only available in hospitals can now be found in your local drug store because
of developments in chemistry. For example, you can test your blood glucose using a simple portable device that
runs a chemical test on a blood sample (Figure 1.9). This allows a diabetic patient to monitor their blood glucose
more easily throughout the day, and regulate how much insulin to administer. Chemistry is also used to produce the
insulin drug and disposable syringe that administers the drug.

Lesson Summary

• Chemistry has a long and interesting history.

• All societies have used some facets of chemistry in the past, but it was only recently developed into a
systematic field of science.
• Although the alchemists never did achieve their goal of making gold from lead, they did give us some useful
chemical tools. *Modern chemistry contributes in many areas of our lives, making them easier, safer, and
healthier.

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FIGURE 1.8
A surgical relief mission.

FIGURE 1.9
A device for testing blood glucose levels at home.

Lesson Review Questions

1. How can we learn about chemistry knowledge in ancient societies? How do we get chemistry knowledge
today?
2. Why was the work of the alchemists important?
3. Read the label on a prepared food product (for example: bread, cereal, dessert). List all the ingredients in
the product. Look up each ingredient on the Internet and write down what that material is doing in the food
product.
4. Select your favorite hobby or activity. List all the items you use in that activity or hobby. For each item, find
out how chemistry has contributed to the creation or better operation of that item.

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1.1. What is Chemistry? www.ck12.org

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

• History of perfumes: http://www.perfumes.com/eng/history.htm

• Traditional herbal medicines: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol82/mono82-6A.pdf
• The origin and chemistry of petroleum: http://www.dpra.com/index.cfm/m/158
• National Institutes of Health web site dealing with chemistry and health: http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/ch
emhealth/

Points to Consider

How did people in ancient times know what to use for perfumes, soaps, metal refining, medicines, and other
applications of chemistry?

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Introduction to Chemistry

1.2 The Scientific Method

Lesson Objectives

• Describe the approaches used by the ancient Greek philosophers to understand the world around them.
• Define inductive and deductive reasoning.
• Name key individuals and groups who contributed to the science of chemistry.
• Describe the scientific method.
• Describe the rise and fall of the phlogiston theory.

Lesson Vocabulary

• inductive reasoning: Involves getting a collection of specific examples and drawing a general conclusion
from them.
• deductive reasoning: Takes a general principle and then draws a specific conclusion from the general concept.
• scientific method: A process consisting of making observations, developing a hypothesis, and testing that
hypothesis.
• phlogiston: The substance that is lost from a material when it is burned.

Check Your Understanding

Recalling Prior Knowledge

• How did ancient civilizations know what chemical processes to use?

How Do We Know What We Know?

Earth, Air, Fire, and Water

Humans have always wondered about the world around them. One of the questions of interest was (and still is)
what is this world made of? Among other definitions, chemistry has often been defined as the study of matter. What
matter consists of has been a source of debate over the centuries. One of the key arenas for this debate in the Western
world was Greek philosophy.
Philosophy literally means “love of wisdom.” The Greek philosophers held a great deal of influence in society’s
general knowledge and belies from about the seventh century to the first century B.C. As the Roman Empire became
more powerful, Greek ideas were gradually supplanted by Roman ones. However, many of the ideas carried over
into medieval Europe where they were reexamined along with the rise of modern scientific thought.

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1.2. The Scientific Method www.ck12.org

In ancient Greece, the basic approach to answering questions about the world was through discussion and debate.
There was very little gathering of information, and it was believed that the best way to answer fundamental questions
was through reasoning and talking. As a result, several ideas about matter were put forth, but these ideas could
not really be proven or disproven. For example, Thales of Miletus (~625-545 B.C.) believed that water was the
fundamental unit of matter, whereas Anaximenes (~585-525 B.C.) felt that air was the basic unit. Empedocles
(~490-430 B.C.) argued for the idea that matter was composed of earth, air, fire, and water. Each of these men had
reasons they could offer to support their theories, but there was no way to prove who was right.
The first major philosopher to gather data through observation was Aristotle (384-322 B.C., shown in Figure 1.10).
He recorded many observations about the weather, the life and behaviors of plants and animals, physical motions,
and a number of other topics. Aristotle could potentially be considered the first “real” scientist, because he made
systematic observations of nature before trying to understand what he was seeing.
Although Aristotle contributed greatly to Greek knowledge, not all of his observations led to correct theories.
Leucippus (~480-420 B.C.) and his student Democritus (~460-370 B.C.) proposed some theories about matter that
Aristotle later opposed. Since Aristotle’s influence was so great, others chose to reject these theories in favor of
Aristotle’s ideas. However, it turned out that Aristotle was wrong and Leucippus and Democritus were right, but
at the time there was no method for proving or disproving these opposing theories. It took almost 2000 years for
people to reconsider this issue since Aristotle was held in such high regard by scholars.

FIGURE 1.10
Aristotle

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Two approaches to logical thinking developed over the centuries. These two methods are inductive reasoning
and deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning involves making specific observations, and then drawing a general
conclusion. Deductive reasoning begins with a general principle and a prediction based on this principle; the
prediction is then tested, and a specific conclusion can then be drawn.
The first step in the process of inductive reasoning is making specific observations. In the periodic table of elements,
which we will discuss later, there is a group of metals with similar properties called the alkali metals. The alkali
metals include elements such as sodium and potassium. If I put sodium or potassium in water, I will observe a very
violent reaction every time. I draw a general conclusion from these observations: all alkali metals will react violently
with water.
In deductive reasoning, I start with a general principle. For example, say I know that acids turn a special material
called blue litmus paper red. I have a bottle of vinegar, which I believe is an acid, so I expect the litmus paper to
turn red when I immerse it in the vinegar. When I dip the litmus paper in the vinegar, it does turn red, so I conclude
that vinegar is in fact an acid. You can see that in order for deductive reasoning to lead to correct conclusions, the

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general principle you begin with must be true. I can only conclude that vinegar is an acid based on the accuracy of
the general principle that acids turn blue litmus paper red.
Inductive and deductive reasoning can be thought of as opposites. For inductive reasoning, we start with specific
observations and draw a general conclusion. For deductive reasoning, we start with a general principle and use this
principle to draw a specific conclusion.

The Idea of the Experiment

Inductive reasoning is at the heart of what we call the scientific method. In European culture, this approach was
developed mainly by Francis Bacon (1561-1626), a British scholar. He advocated the use of inductive reasoning in
every area of life, not just science. The scientific method as developed by Bacon and others involved several steps:

1. Ask a question - identify the problem to be considered.

2. Make observations - gather data that pertains to the question.
3. Propose an explanation (a hypothesis) for the observations.
4. Design and carry out ways to test the hypothesis.

Note that this should not be considered a “cookbook” for scientific research. Scientists do not sit down with their
daily “to do” list and write down these steps. The steps may not necessarily be followed in order, and testing a
given explanation often leads to new questions and observations that can result in changes to the original hypothesis.
However, this method does provide a general outline of how scientific research is usually done.
During the early days of the scientific enterprise (up to the nineteenth century), scientists generally worked as
individuals. They may have had an assistant to help with preparing materials, but their work was usually solitary.
Their results might be disseminated in a letter to friends or at a scientific society meeting. Today the practice of
science is very different. Research is carried out by teams of people, sometimes at a number of different locations.
The details of methods and the results of the experiments are published in scientific journals and books, as well as
being presented at local, national, or international meetings. Electronic publication on the Internet speeds up the
process of sharing information with others.
Before conclusions can be considered reliable, experiments and results must be replicated in other labs. In order for
other scientists to know that the information is correct, the experiments need to be done in other labs to obtain the
same results. Researchers in other labs may get ideas for new experiments that could confirm the original hypothesis.
On the other hand, they may see flaws in the original thinking and experiments that would suggest the hypothesis
was false. The modern scientific approach of carefully recording experimental procedures and data allows results to
be tested and replicated to that everyone can have confidence in the final results.
A good experiment must be carefully designed to test the hypothesis. Let’s think back to our example of inductive
reasoning in observing reactions with alkali metals and water. We believe that all alkali metals produce violent
reactions with water. To test this hypothesis, we must design an experiment in which we can observe the reactions
of each alkali metal with water. We will test each alkali metal: lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and
francium. In order for this experiment to produce consistent results, we should use the same amount of water and
same size sample of these metals each time a test is formed. Based on our hypothesis, we expect a violent reaction to
occur when any one of these metals is added to water. If a sample of lithium is added to our water and we observe a
small explosion, our hypothesis is strengthened. If lithium is added to our water and nothing happens, our hypothesis
must not be true. We can either modify our hypothesis to include this new data, or replace our hypothesis with a new
one.
When a hypothesis is confirmed repeatedly, it eventually becomes a theory. A theory is a general principle that
is offered to explain a natural phenomenon. A theory offers a description of why something happens. Although
theories, like hypotheses, can be disproved, it is more likely for a theory to be modified. However, while a hypotheses
is a suggested explanation of a phenomena, a theory is a proved explanation based off of many hypotheses and much
experimentation. Over time, theories evolve with new research and data, but are rarely discarded completely. A

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1.2. The Scientific Method www.ck12.org

law, on the other hand, is a statement that is always true, but does not include an explanation as to why. The law
of gravity says a rock will fall when dropped, but it does not explain why (gravitational theory is very complex and
incomplete at present). The kinetic-molecular theory of gases, on the other hand, tells us what happens when a gas
is heated in a closed container (the pressure increases), but also explains why (the motions of the gas molecules are
increased due to the change in temperature). Theories do not get “promoted” to laws, because laws do not answer
the “why” question.

Phlogiston - The Rise and Fall of a Theory

Early chemists spent a lot of time heating things and setting them on fire (on purpose, unlike some modern-day
chemistry students). They observed that flammable materials tended to weigh less after being burned. As more
materials were studied, this observation was found to be very consistent. A seemingly reasonable explanation for
this phenomenon was that some substance was lost from the material when it was burned. This substance was
named phlogiston from the Greek word jlogist´n (transliterated as phlogistón), which means “burning up.” The
phlogiston theory was first put forth in 1667 by the German physician and alchemist Johann Joachim Becher (1635-
1682, shown in Figure 1.11).

FIGURE 1.11
Johann Becher

Becher had taken the four ancient Greek elements (earth, air, fire, and water) and discarded fire and air. He expanded
the “earth” category to three groups, one of which was involved in burning. In 1703, George Stahl, a German
professor of medicine and chemistry, renamed this particular fraction of Becher’s earth as phlogiston.
What was the evidence that led to the development of this theory? One obvious experiment involved the burning of
wood. The ashes remaining after the fire weighed considerably less than that original wood sample. Therefore, it
seemed that phlogiston had been released during the burning process, leaving the “dephlogisticated” ashes behind.
If wood or a candle was burned in a closed container, the fire would soon be extinguished. This was taken by
supporters of the theory as evidence that air could only absorb so much phlogiston. Later, carbon dioxide gas was
discovered and studied. An experiment was performed in 1772 that exhausted all the air in a container. Further
burning of a candle and of phosphorus were then carried out in the container. After removing the carbon dioxide
with an absorbent, a gas was found that did not support life or combustion. This gas (which we now know as nitrogen
and which comprises about 78% of the atmosphere) was believed to be phlogiston.
So far, so good. We have observations - things lose weight when they burn. We have an explanation - the original
material loses phlogiston when it burns. What we don’t know is what phlogiston is or how much of it is in a given
material. But are there other experiments that lead us in a different direction?
Other scientists started to ask questions and run experiments. They noticed some results that seemed to contradict
what would be expected if the phlogiston theory was correct. If magnesium is heated, the product (a solid) weighs

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Introduction to Chemistry

more than the original magnesium metal. The explanation offered was that phlogiston had negative weight in this
case. Can the same material have both a positive weight and a negative weight? When mercuric oxide was heated
in the absence of any charcoal, it returned to its pure metal form. The phlogiston theory would require that charcoal
(thought to be essentially pure phlogiston) be present to provide the phlogiston for restoring the metal.
The French scientist Antoine Lavoisier (Figure 1.12) carried out studies on oxygen (which had originally been
discovered by Joseph Priestley, an ardent supporter of the phlogiston theory). Lavoisier found that when mercury
was heated, it would become mercuric oxide and gain weight. When the mercuric oxide was heated, it returned to
mercury and released a gas he identified as oxygen. He also carried out a number of experiments that conclusively
demonstrated the essential role of oxygen in combustion processes.

FIGURE 1.12
Antoine Lavoisier and his wife Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, who was also
a chemist and made contributions to the work of her husband.

FIGURE 1.13
The device used by Lavoisier to study the decomposition of mercuric
oxide.

Eventually the phlogiston theory was replaced by the oxygen-based combustion ideas developed by Lavoisier and
others. Today the theory is studied as an example of how to approach a scientific question and how one theory can
be supplanted by another theory that more closely fits the data. It should also be noted that the phlogiston idea took
time to develop, it took time to become accepted, and it took time for researchers to discard it in favor of a better
theory.

Lesson Summary

• The early Greek philosophers spent a great deal of time talking about nature, but they did little or no actual
exploration or investigation.
• Inductive reasoning means developing a general conclusion from a collection of observations.
• Deductive reasoning means making a specific statement based on a general principle.

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1.2. The Scientific Method www.ck12.org

• Scientific method is a process consisting of making observations, developing a hypothesis, and testing that
hypothesis.
• Phlogiston theory is the disproven idea that materials lost phlogiston when they burned.

Lesson Review Questions

1. What was a major shortcoming of the approach taken by Greek philosophers to understanding the material
world? that it takes multiple tries and tests to understand a research
he made multiple systematic observations before he even understand
2. How did Aristotle improve this approach? what he is seeing
inductive reasoning is making a general conclusion based from multiple observations;
3. Define “inductive reasoning” and give an example. an example for this is when a person is perceiving someone and they would make
conclusions about that person based from people that knows that person personally
4. Define “deductive reasoning” and give an example. I DONT HAVE TIME ANW deductive is making a statement based on a fact? an
5. What is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory? example of this is when you see a red food packaging you would immediately think
that it is spicy cuz a chili is red and red means spicy HUH
6. What is the difference between a theory and a law?
7. What was the major evidence that supported the phlogiston theory?
8. What was the major evidence that contradicted the phlogiston theory?

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

• Overview of the scientific method: http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_scientific_m

ethod.shtml
• Research using the scientific method: http://www.teachersdomain.org/asset/drey07_int_scprocess/
• Lavoisier video: http://www.schooltube.com/video/5a2cb561ceabe931f2b5/Antoine-Lavoisier-the-man
• Information about Lavoisier and phlogiston theory: http://cti.itc.virginia.edu/~meg3c/classes/tcc313/200Rpr
ojs/lavoisier2/home.html

Points to Consider

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes that matter can undergo.

• What is matter?
• Where do you encounter matter in your everyday life?
• What are the states of matter?
• Can matter be changed?

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Introduction to Chemistry

1.3 References

1. Jon Bodsworth. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Egyptian_glass_jar.jpg . The copyright holder of

this work allows anyone to use it for any purpose including unrestricted redistribution, commercial use, and
modification
2. Pedanius Dioscorides. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arabic_herbal_medicine_guidebook.jpg .
Public Domain
3. Joseph Leopold Ratinckx. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Leopold_Ratinckx_Der_Alche
mist.jpg . Public Domain
4. Kenelm Digby. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alchemy-Digby-RareSecrets.png . Public Domain
5. Courtesy of Sgt. Ethan E. Rocke, United States Marine Corps. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:M
odularTacticalVest.jpg . Public Domain
6. Flickr:dave_7. http://www.flickr.com/photos/daveseven/7601192842/ . CC BY 2.0
7. Courtesy of the United States Department of Agriculture. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wheat
_harvest.jpg . Public Domain
8. Courtesy of Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Matthew Jackson. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/File:Orif_surgery.jpg . Public Domain
9. Biswarup Ganguly. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blood_Glucose_Testing_-_Kolkata_2011-07-2
5_3975.JPG . CC BY 3.0
10. Photographer: User:Jastrow/Wikimedia Commons. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps
_Detail.jpg . Public Domain
11. . http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jjbecher.jpg . Public Domain
12. Jacques-Louis David. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_an
d_His_Wife.jpg . Public Domain
13. Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lavoisier_decomposition_air.png .
Public Domain

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 www.ck12.org

C HAPTER
2 Matter and Change
Chapter Outline
2.1 P ROPERTIES OF M ATTER
2.2 C LASSIFICATION OF M ATTER
2.3 C HANGES IN M ATTER
2.4 R EFERENCES

Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. Matter is everywhere. The air we breathe, the water we drink,
the food we eat, and the ground we walk on are all comprised of matter. Matter can take on a variety of different
forms which all have a variety of different properties. In this chapter, we will introduce the characteristics of matter
and study how these characteristics vary in different types of matter.
Image copyright A f rica Studio, 2014. www.shutterstock.com. Used under license f rom Shutterstock.com.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 2. Matter and Change

2.1 Properties of Matter

Lesson Objectives

• Classify properties of materials as extensive, intensive, chemical, or physical. Give examples of each.
• Describe the concepts of intensive and extensive properties and be able to describe these properties in a given
material.
• Describe the concepts of physical properties and chemical properties and be able to describe these properties
for a given material.
• Explain the concept of density as it relates to other physical properties of matter.

Lesson Vocabulary

• chemical properties: Properties that describe matter’s reactions with other substances.
• physical properties: Properties of matter that can be observed without changing the matter’s composition.
• intensive properties: Physical properties that are independent on the amount of a substance present.
• extensive properties: Physical properties that depend on the amount of a substance present.

Check Your Understanding

• What are some ways that you can distinguish different substances from each other?
– For example, what is different between sand and sugar?

Introduction

All substances have special properties by which they can be identified. For instance, substances have unique colors,
densities, and boiling points. They also behave in unique ways with other substances. For example, they may react
with air, water, or acids. In chemistry, we study these properties and use them to identify and categorize matter.

Chemical Properties

All types of matter exhibit chemical properties. Chemical properties are the properties that describe matter’s
reactions with other substances. We can determine these chemical properties by seeing what happens to a substance
when it is placed in the presence of the following:

• air

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2.1. Properties of Matter www.ck12.org

• water
• an acid
• a base
• other chemicals

Chemical properties indicate how the composition of a substance will change when exposed to various other sub-
stances. You can observe many chemical properties in the objects around you. For example, the metal frame of
a bicycle will become rusty over time. The process of the frame becoming rusty can be described by a chemical
property of iron, one of the metals in the frame. The iron will react with the oxygen in the air to form iron oxide, or
rust.

FIGURE 2.1
(A) Elemental iron. (B) Oxidized iron
plate. (C) Iron “burning.”

In the Figure 2.1 we can observe the difference in color between pure iron, which is a lustrous dark gray color, and
rusted iron, which is a cinnamon colored. We can also observe the reaction that takes place when iron is heated by a
flame, in which the hot air to reacts more rapidly with the pure iron. The changes that iron undergoes when exposed
to air show us some of iron’s chemical properties and help us to classify iron as specific type of matter.
Example 2.1
Which of the following would be examples of a chemical property?

A. Most metals will react with acids.

B. Water can be a solid, liquid, or a gas.
C. Water mixes well with ethanol.

Answer: A is an example of chemical properties. Statement B does not reflect chemical properties; these are physical
characteristics of water. The process described in answer C would not be a chemical property because no reaction
takes place. There are no changes in the composition of either the water or the ethanol as a result of the mixing, and
both components can be separated from one another using physical processes.

Physical Properties

Matter also exhibits physical properties. Physical properties are used to observe and describe matter. Physical
properties can be observed or measured without changing the composition of matter. These are properties such as
mass, weight, volume, and density. Density calculations will be discussed later on in chapter three, but for now just
remember that density is a physical property.

Intensive Properties

Physical properties that do not depend on the amount of substance present are called intensive properties. Intensive
properties do not change with changes of size, shape, or scale. Examples of intensive properties are as follows in the
Table 2.1.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 2. Matter and Change

TABLE 2.1:
Intensive Properties Example
color Aluminum metal is gray colored.
taste Lemon juice (citric acid) is sour.
melting point Aluminum has melting point of 660°C.
boiling point Water has a boiling point of 100°C.
density Water has a density of 1 g/mL.
luster Metals are lustrous (shiny).
hardness Diamond is the hardest substance known.

Extensive Properties

Physical properties that do depend on the amount of substance present are called extensive properties. Examples
of extensive properties include:

• Mass
• Volume
• Length

Example 2.2
Which of the following is an intensive property of a box of crackers?

A. Calories per serving.

B. Total grams.
C. Total number of crackers.
D. Total calories.

Answer: A. Calories per serving. Total grams, total crackers, and total number of calories are extensive properties.
A larger amount of crackers would have more grams, crackers, and total calories but the same number of calories
per serving.
Example 2.3
Which of the following is an extensive property?

A. The color of charcoal is black.

B. Gold is shiny.
C. The volume of orange juice is 25 mL.

Answer: C. The volume of orange juice is 25 mL. Charcoal’s black color and gold’s luster are intensive properties,
and are not dependent on how much charcoal or gold is present. However if you had more or less orange juice, its
volume would not stay the same. So, this is an extensive property.

Lesson Summary

• Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.

• The properties of matter can be classified as either chemical or physical.
• Chemical properties describe the reactions that can occur when matter is treated with other substances, such
as how a substance reacts with air or with an acid.

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2.1. Properties of Matter www.ck12.org

• Physical properties, such as mass, volume, density, and color, can be observed without changing the identity
of the matter.
• We can further categorize the physical properties of matter as either intensive or extensive.
• Intensive properties do not depend on the amount of the substance present. Some examples of intensive
properties are color, taste, and melting point.
• Extensive properties vary according to the amount of matter present. Examples of extensive properties include
mass, volume, and length.

Lesson Review Questions

1. Compare and contrast physical properties and chemical properties.

2. Which of these is a chemical property?
1. Oxygen is a gas at 25°C.
2. Helium is very nonreactive.
3. Ice melts at 0°C.
4. Sodium is a soft, shiny metal.
3. Indicate whether each of the following is a chemical property or a physical property. If it is a physical property,
indicate whether it is an intensive or extensive property.
1. Water boils at 100°C.
2. Diamonds are the hardest known substance.
3. Salt is capable of dissolving in water.
4. Vinegar reacts with baking soda.
5. Most metals are lustrous.
6. Most metals react with acids.
7. A given sample of lead weighs 4.5 g.
8. The length of a piece of aluminum foil is 12.2 cm.
9. Gold conducts electricity.

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

• Examples of laboratory techniques used for separating mixtures: http://sciencepark.etacude.com/projects/

Points to Consider

• How could you categorize types of matter based on differing chemical and physical properties?

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www.ck12.org Chapter 2. Matter and Change

2.2 Classification of Matter

Lesson Objectives

• Distinguish between gases, liquids, and solids. Explain how these states differ at the molecular level.
• Classify samples of matter as pure substances, homogeneous mixtures, heterogeneous mixtures, compounds,
and elements.
• Use sketches to show how elements, compounds, and mixtures differ at the molecular level.
• Describe six different techniques for separating mixtures.
• Relate the names of elements to their international element symbols.
• Name the major groups and regions on the periodic table and identify elements belonging to these groups.
• Distinguish between metals, nonmetals, and metalloids using the periodic table.

Lesson Vocabulary

• pure substances: Have a constant composition and can only be changed by chemical reactions.
• elements: Substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical or physical means.
• compounds: Substances that can be broken down into their individual elements, but only through chemical
processes.
• mixtures: A combination of two or more pure substances.
• homogeneous mixtures: A mixture with uniform composition throughout.
• heterogeneous mixtures: A mixture with visibly distinguishable components, exist primarily in the solid and
liquid states.

Check Your Understanding

• Give some examples of chemical properties and physical properties of matter.

• What would be some chemical and physical properties of the following substances:
– a glass of water
– aluminum foil
– argon

Introduction

As we studied in our last lesson, matter can be described by its physical and chemical properties. We have seen
examples of how matter exhibits specific physical and chemical properties, which can be used to distinguish one
type of matter from another. In this lesson, we are going to use these properties to categorize the various forms of
matter.

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2.2. Classification of Matter www.ck12.org

States of Matter

Matter typically exists in one of three states: solid, liquid, or gas. The state of a given substance is a physical
property. Some substances exist as gases at room temperature (such as oxygen and carbon dioxide), while others
(like water and mercury metal) exist as liquids. Most metals exist as solids at room temperature. All substances can
exist in any of these three states.
Water is a very common substance that we frequently encounter in all three states of matter, as seen in Figure 2.2.
When water is in the solid state, we call it ice, while water in the gaseous state is referred to as steam or water vapor.
The physical state of matter is a physical property because the identity of a pure substance does not change when it
is melted, frozen, or boiled.

FIGURE 2.2
Water is the same substance in any of
its three states. (A) A frozen waterfall in
Hungary. (B) The Nile River in Egypt. (C)
A steam powered train in Wales.

Solid

A solid is a form of matter that has a definite shape and volume. The shape of a solid does not change if it is
transferred from one container to another. The particles of a solid are packed tightly together in fixed positions,
usually in an orderly arrangement. Solids are almost completely incompressible, meaning that solids cannot be
squeezed into a smaller volume. When a solid is heated or cooled, it expands or contracts only slightly.

Liquid

A liquid is a form of matter that has a definite volume, but an indefinite shape. As water is poured from one container
into another, it adopts the shape of its new container. However, the volume of the water does not change, because
the water molecules are still relatively close to one another in the liquid state. Unlike a solid, the arrangement of
particles in a liquid is not rigid and orderly. Liquids are also incompressible.

Gas

A gas is a form of matter that has neither a definite shape nor a definite volume. A gas takes up the shape and volume
of its container. This is because the particles of a gas are very far apart from one another compared to the particles
that make up solids and liquids. Gases are easily compressed because of the large spaces in between gas particles.
Gas particles are often invisible, but they can be detected in various ways, such as the light emitted when an electric
current is passed through a sample of a gas (Figure 2.3).

Molecular View of Solids, Liquids, and Gases

We are quite familiar with the properties of solids, liquids, and gases from our everyday experience. These properties
are fundamentally based on differences in the arrangement of atoms or molecules at the microscopic level. Figure

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www.ck12.org Chapter 2. Matter and Change

FIGURE 2.3
Sodium vapor lamps glow with a distinc-
tive yellow color.

2.4 shows the differences between the ways in which particles appear in each of these three states. Remember, any
substance can be present as a gas, liquid, or solid when placed under specific conditions.

FIGURE 2.4
The particles of a gas are very far apart
compared to the particles of a liquid or a
solid.

As Figure 2.4 shows, the distance between particles is much smaller for the solid and liquid states than for the gas
state. In the solid state, particles are fixed in place, while particles are more free to move in the liquid and gas states.
The particles in the solid and liquid states “stick together,” but in the gas state, they move freely about the container.
In general, it requires energy to separate individual particles. If we want to make a solid adopt a liquid form, we
can add energy in the form of heat, increasing the temperature of the substance. Conversely, if we want to convert
a substance from a gas to a liquid or from a liquid to a solid, we remove energy from the system and decrease the
temperature. Pressure also plays an important role in changes of state, which will be discussed later on. We will
study these difference in greater detail in the chapter States of Matter.

Pure Substances

When studying the different states that matter exhibits, we have been looking at pure substances. Pure substances
have a constant composition and can only be changed through chemical reactions. Constant composition indicates
that a sample of a pure substance always contains the same elements in the same proportions. There are two main
types of pure substances:

• elements: Substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical or physical means.
• compounds: Substances that can be broken down into elements through chemical means.

Figure 2.5 shows pure substances in the form of elements and compounds.

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2.2. Classification of Matter www.ck12.org

FIGURE 2.5
Pure substances: (left) the element sulfur
and (right) the compound water.

The image on the left shows elemental sulfur in the solid state. The image on the right shows water in its liquid form.
Sulfur is a pure element, and water is a compound comprised of the elements hydrogen and oxygen. Both of these
substances have a constant composition, but water can be broken down into its elements, whereas sulfur cannot be
decomposed into a simpler substance. Water can be broken down into its elements by passing electricity through a
salt solution.

Periodic Table of Elements

Chemists have classified and organized all of the known elements into what is called the periodic table. All known
substances are made of some combination of these elements. The periodic table is a tool that we use to help identify
and describe the composition of a given substance. All pure substances which cannot be broken down further, which
we have called elements, are displayed in the periodic table. Figure 2.6 shows our modern periodic table. We will
study the periodic table in more detail in the chapter The Periodic Table.

Mixtures

When two or more pure substances are combined together, a mixture is formed. Unlike pure substances, mixtures
have a variable composition. Variable composition indicates that the relative proportions of the mixtures components
may vary, and they can be separated by physical methods. There are two main types of mixtures.

Homogeneous Mixtures

A homogeneous mixture is one in which the composition is uniform throughout the mixture. A glass of salt water
is a homogeneous mixture because the dissolved salt is evenly distributed throughout the entire sample. It is often
easy to confuse a homogeneous mixture with a pure substance because they are both uniform, and it can be difficult
to tell which type you have by the naked eye. The difference is that the composition of the pure substance is always
the same, while the composition of a homogeneous mixture can vary. For example, you may dissolve a small amount
or a large amount of salt into a given sample of water. Although the ratio of salt to water will differ, the mixtures
will both be homogeneous. However, pure water will always have the same ratio of elements that make it a pure
substance (two hydrogen atoms per oxygen atom).
Wine, air, and gunpowder are other examples of common homogeneous mixtures (Figure 2.7). Their exact compo-
sitions can vary, making them mixtures rather than pure substances. Wine is a liquid mixture of water, ethanol, and a

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www.ck12.org Chapter 2. Matter and Change

FIGURE 2.6
The modern periodic table.

variety of other dissolved substances. Air is a mixture of nitrogen gas (78%), oxygen gas (21%), and small amounts
of various other gases. Gunpowder is a solid mixture comprised of potassium nitrate (75%), charcoal (15%) and
sulfur (10%).

FIGURE 2.7
Examples of homogenous mixtures: wine
and gunpowder.

In the Figure 2.7, we see that the components of these mixtures cannot be distinguished from one another. However,
the substances comprising these mixtures can be separated through physical means.

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2.2. Classification of Matter www.ck12.org

Heterogeneous Mixtures

Heterogeneous mixtures have visibly distinguishable parts. These mixtures will typically exist in the solid or liquid
states, but not the gas state. Gas state heterogeneous mixtures are not possible because gas particles freely mix and
disperse. Heterogeneous mixtures are quite common. For example, oil-and-vinegar salad dressing is a heterogeneous
mixture that is in the liquid state. Its composition varies and typically includes olive oil mixed with red vinegar. An
example of a solid heterogeneous mixture is soil. Soil is primarily comprised of organic and inorganic material,
including substances like decaying plants and animals, minerals, water, and air. The composition of soil varies
greatly from one location to another. Figure 2.8 shows these mixtures.

FIGURE 2.8
Examples of heterogeneous mixtures:
(left) oil and vinegar and (right) soil.

The substances that comprise heterogeneous mixtures can also be separated by physical means. We will discuss
separation techniques in the following lesson.

Lesson Summary

• Matter exhibits specific physical and chemical properties.

• Matter can exist in one of three states: solid, liquid, or gas.
• In the solid state, particles are fixed in place relative to one another. In the liquid and gas states, individual
particles are free to move.
• Under the right pressure conditions, lowering the temperature of a substance in the gas state causes the
substance to liquefy. The opposite effect occurs if temperature is increased.
• Under the right pressure conditions, lowering the temperature of a substance in the liquid state causes the
substance to solidify. The opposite effect occurs if the temperature is increased.
• Pure substances have a constant composition and can only be changed by chemical reactions. They can be
classified as either elements or compounds.
• Elements are substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical or physical means.
Compounds, however, can be broken down further through chemical, but not physical, means.
• The periodic table is a tool that we use to help identify and describe the composition of a given substance. The
table is an arrangement of elements based on their physical and chemical properties.
• Homogeneous or heterogeneous mixtures are formed when two or more pure substances are combined. A
homogeneous mixture has a uniform distribution throughout the sample, whereas a heterogeneous mixture
has visibly distinguishable components.

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Lesson Review Questions

1. Compare and contrast the three states of matter. Try to describe similarities and differences apparent at a
microscopic level as well as at the observable level between these states of matter.
2. Which of the following would be an example of a pure substance?

a. plastic
b. milk
c. 100% ethanol
d. cake flour

3. Which of the following would be an example of an element?

a. water
b. orange juice
c. steel
d. iron

4. Which of the following would be an example of a compound?

a. water
b. sulfur
c. aluminum
d. brass

5. Compare and contrast a pure substance with a mixture and give an example.
6. Which of the following statements is true?

a. The periodic table is a list of various compounds found throughout the world.
b. The periodic table is randomly organized.
c. The periodic table has been the same for 50 years.
d. The periodic table is an organized assembly of the various elements that have been discovered.

7. Classify the following as a homogeneous mixture, a heterogeneous mixture, or neither.

a. powdered sugar
b. mayonnaise
c. scrambled egg
d. air
e. soda pop
f. concrete
g. apple juice
h. glass
i. steel
j. copper

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

• Examples of laboratory techniques used for separating mixtures can be found at Science Park: http://scien
cepark.etacude.com/projects/

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2.2. Classification of Matter www.ck12.org

Points to Consider

• As we saw, compounds can be broken down into their elemental components. How might you go about
breaking down a compound into its elements?
• The components that comprise homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures can be separated out by physical
means. How might you go about separating out components of a soil mixture?

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www.ck12.org Chapter 2. Matter and Change

2.3 Changes in Matter

Lesson Objectives

• Describe methods for separating mixtures, such as chromatography, distillation, fractional distillation, evapo-
ration, and filtration.
• Given a specific mixture, propose methods by which the mixture’s components could be isolated.
• Identify the chemical properties of a substance.
• Describe chemical changes and differentiate them from physical changes.
• Use various visual clues to identify whether a chemical reaction is taking place.

Lesson Vocabulary

• chemical change: A change during which the chemical identity of a substance is altered. Chemical changes
are often accompanied by a change in color, temperature, or odor, or the production of a gas or precipitate.
• physical change: A change in which the physical form and properties of a substance change.
• chromatography: The separation of a mixture by passing it through a medium in which the components move
at different rates.
• distillation: A purification process in which the components of a liquid mixture are vaporized and then
condensed and isolated.
• evaporation: A technique used to separate out homogeneous mixtures in which one or more solids are
dissolved in a liquid.
• filtration: A method used to separate mixtures in which some of the particles are large enough in size to be
captured with a porous material while others are not.
• chemical property: The ability of a substance to undergo a specific chemical change.

Check Your Understanding

• Compare and contrast chemical properties and physical properties.

• Give examples of physical properties and chemical properties.
• Compare and contrast the following pairs of terms: element and compound; pure substance and mixture.

Introduction

In the previous lesson, we discussed pure substances and mixtures. We indicated that the components of a mixture
could be separated by physical means, but the components of a pure substance could not. Pure substances can only
be broken down further through chemical means. In this lesson, we list several methods for separating mixtures. We
will also be looking at chemical changes which alter the chemical identity of a substance, and how to recognize
when a chemical change is taking place.

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2.3. Changes in Matter www.ck12.org

Physical Change

Any time the physical properties of a substance are changed, we can say the substance has undergone a physical
change. All substances undergo physical changes where there is a change in the form of the substance but not in
its chemical composition. For instance, the grinding of granular sugar into powdered sugar is a physical change.
Similarly, dissolving sugar in water is a physical change. We can also use physical changes to separate mixtures into
their components. There are a variety of methods used, and the best procedure depends largely on the nature of the
mixture. Depending on the states of matter involved, the relative sizes of the mixtures components, and whether the
mixture is homogeneous or heterogeneous will determine the necessary separation technique.

Methods for Separating Mixtures

Chromatography

Chromatography is the separation of a mixture by passing it through a medium in which the components move
at different rates. Mixtures that are solutions (such as salt water), suspensions (such as sand mixed with water),
or even vapors can be separated in this way. Paper chromatography is a type of chromatography that can be used
for separating and identifying mixtures in which one or more components are colored, especially pigments. The
following video shows paper chromatography being used to separate out the dyes present in a variety of water-
soluble inks: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ac9vALSoxbY (0:43).

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: http://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/65294

In this video, we see several different dyes that have been placed on paper through which water was absorbed.
Dyes, such as the ink in colored markers, are usually a mixture of several different colored compounds. The dyes in
water-soluble inks dissolve easily in water, while permanent inks dissolve more readily in organic solvents such as
ethanol.

Distillation

Distillation is an effective method to separate mixtures comprised of two or more pure liquids. Distillation is a
purification process in which the components of a liquid mixture are vaporized (transformed from liquid to gas) and
then condensed (transformed from gas back to liquid) and isolated. In a simple distillation, a mixture is gradually

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www.ck12.org Chapter 2. Matter and Change

heated. The solution with the lowest boiling point will change into a gas first. This gas, or vapor, then passes through
a cooled tube (a condenser) where it condenses back into its liquid state. This condensed liquid is called the distillate.
Figure 2.9 illustrates this.

FIGURE 2.9
In this figure, we see several important
pieces of equipment. There is a heat
source and a flask containing the liquid to
be distilled. At the center of the set-up is
the condenser. The distillate is collected
in a flask. There are other more compli-
cated assemblies for distillation that can
also be used, especially to separate mix-
tures which are comprised of pure liquids
with boiling points that are close to one
another.

When a mixture contains several components with similar boiling points, the one-step distillation may not give
a pure substance in the receiving vessel. Therefore, more elaborate methods are used to completely separate a
mixtures components. Distillation is an especially effective physical technique in separating out a homogeneous
mixture comprised of two or more pure liquids, such as alcohol and water.

Evaporation

Evaporation is a technique used to separate out homogeneous mixtures in which one or more solids are dissolved
in a liquid. Typically, the mixture is heated until all of the liquid has vaporized, leaving behind the dissolved solids
(Figure 2.10). The vapor can also be captured and recondensed into a liquid if desired.

FIGURE 2.10
Evaporation

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2.3. Changes in Matter www.ck12.org

This method can only be used to separate volatile liquid components (those which will evaporate at low temperatures)
from nonvolatile solid components (those which will not evaporate at low temperatures). If there is more than one
liquid or solid component, that portion of the mixture cannot be isolated purely.

Filtration

Filtration can be used to separate mixtures in which the some of the particles are large enough in size to be captured
with a porous material while others are not. Particle sizes can vary considerably. For instance, stream water is a
mixture that contains naturally occurring biological organisms like bacteria, viruses, and protozoans. Some water
filters can filter out bacteria, the length of which is on the order of 1 micrometer. Other mixtures, like wet soil,
contain relatively large particles that can be filtered out using something like a coffee filter.

Chemical Change

Much of the field of chemistry is devoted to the study of chemical changes. A chemical change, also referred to as
a chemical reaction, is one in which the chemical identity of a substance is altered. We witness chemical changes
every day. For example, the burning of wood or the rusting of iron are chemical changes. The burning of wood is a
process in which cellulose molecules break down into water and carbon dioxide. The rusting of iron is a process in
which elemental iron combines with oxygen (from air or water) to produce iron oxide (Figure 2.11).

FIGURE 2.11
Rust (iron oxide) forms on an unprotected
iron surface.

As the rust forms on the surface of the iron, it flakes off to expose more iron, which will continue to rust. Rust
is clearly a substance that is different from iron. Rusting is an example of a chemical change. Some chemical
changes are not as obvious but are still hugely important. For example, photosynthesis and cellular respiration are
chemical changes that we could not live without. Chemical changes involve the combination, decomposition, or
rearrangement of elements and compounds to form new substances.
A chemical property describes the ability of a substance to undergo a specific chemical change. A chemical
property of iron is that it is capable of combining with oxygen to form iron oxide, the chemical name of rust. A more
general term for rusting and other similar processes is corrosion. Other terms that are commonly used in descriptions
of chemical changes are burn, rot, explode, decompose, and ferment. Chemical properties are very useful as a way
of identifying substances. However, unlike physical properties, chemical properties can only be observed as the
substance is in the process of being changed into a different substance.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 2. Matter and Change

Recognizing Chemical Changes

How can you tell if a chemical change is taking place? Certain visual clues indicate that a chemical change is likely
(but not necessarily) occurring, including the following examples:

1. A change of color occurs.

2. A gas is produced.
3. A solid product called a precipitate is produced.
4. A change of energy is apparent, due to a change in temperature or the appearance of light such as a flame.

Mercury(II) oxide is a red solid. When it is heated to a temperature above 500 C, it easily decomposes into mercury
and oxygen gas. The red color of the reactant, mercury oxide, is gradually replaced by the silver color of the product,
mercury. The color change is one sign that this reaction is occurring. Watch this decomposition take place at http
://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Y1alDuXm6A (1:12).

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: http://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/59229

When zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid, the reaction bubbles vigorously as hydrogen gas is produced (Figure 2.12).
The production of a gas is also an indication that a chemical reaction may be occurring.
When a colorless solution of lead(II) nitrate is added to a colorless solution of potassium iodide, a yellow solid
called a precipitate is instantly produced (Figure 2.13). A precipitate is a solid product that forms from a reaction
and settles out of a liquid mixture. The formation of a precipitate may also indicate the occurrence of a chemical
reaction.
All chemical changes involve a transfer of energy. When zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid, the test tube becomes
very warm as energy is released during the reaction. Some other reactions absorb energy. While energy changes are
a potential sign of a chemical reaction, care must be taken to ensure that a chemical reaction is indeed taking place.
Physical changes may also involve a transfer of energy. A solid absorbs energy when it melts, and the condensation
of a gas releases energy. The only way to be certain that a chemical reaction has occurred is to test the composition
of the substances after the change has taken place to see if they are different from the starting substances.

Lesson Summary

• Matter can undergo chemical and physical changes.

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2.3. Changes in Matter www.ck12.org

FIGURE 2.12
Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid to pro-
duce bubbles of hydrogen gas.

FIGURE 2.13
A yellow precipitate of solid lead(II) io-
dide forms immediately when solutions of
lead(II) nitrate and potassium iodide are
mixed.

• Mixtures can be separated through physical changes, including techniques such as chromatography, distilla-
tion, evaporation, and filtration. Physical changes do not alter the nature of the substance, they simply alter
the form.
• Pure substances, such as compounds, can be separated through chemical changes. Chemical changes change
the chemical composition of a substance and can only occur through a chemical reaction.
• Four clues to a possible chemical reaction include a color change, the production of a gas, the formation of a
precipitate, and an observable transfer of energy.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 2. Matter and Change

Lesson Review Questions

1. Can elements be broken down further into other pure substances?

2. For each of the following mixtures, describe how you might separate out the components using one of the
techniques discussed in this chapter.

a. separating dyes in inks

b. separating sand from water
c. separating ethanol from water
d. separating water from ink
e. separating salt from water

3. A candle is a mixture of substances that, when burned, breaks down primarily into carbon dioxide and water.
How might you test for the presence of water that is produced when a candle is burned?
4. Carbonated beverages contain carbon dioxide gas that is dissolved in solution. Do you think a carbonated
beverage is a mixture or a pure substance? Explain.
5. The Figure 2.14 shows two different mixtures. The mixture on the left is comprised of muddy water, while
the mixture on the right is a mixture of sugar and water. Describe how you might go about separating out the
components of each of these mixtures.

FIGURE 2.14
(left) Muddy water. (right) Sugar water.

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

• School Science Lessons: http://www.uq.edu.au/_School_Science_Lessons/topic10.html

• Examples of laboratory techniques used for separating mixtures at Science Park: http://sciencepark.etacude.c
om/projects/

37
2.3. Changes in Matter www.ck12.org

Points to Consider

• We have thus far assumed that elements cannot be broken down further into constituent parts. Is this com-
pletely true?
• What do you suppose elements are comprised of and how might you be able to distinguish or measure the
components of an element?

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www.ck12.org Chapter 2. Matter and Change

2.4 References

1. (A) Hi-Res Images of Chemical Elements; (B) Jordan McCullough; (C) Jo Naylor. (A) http://images-of-
elements.com/iron.php; (B) http://www.flickr.com/photos/ambientideas/3297063530/; (C) http://www.flickr
.com/photos/pandora_6666/3454172058/ . (A) CC BY 3.0; (B) CC BY 2.0; (C) CC BY 2.0
2. (A) Rodrigo; (B) Christine und David Schmitt (Flickr:cheesy42); (C) Steven Whateley. (A) http://commo
ns.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lillafured_icedwaterfall_wman.jpg; (B) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File
:Nile_river_at_Luxor_2007.jpg; (C) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Steam_Train.JPG . (A) CC BY
2.5; (B) CC BY 2.0; (C) Public Domain
3. User:Proton02/Wikimedia Commons. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LPS_Lamp_35W_running.jpg
. Public Domain
4. Christopher Auyeung. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0
5. Sulfur: Hi-Res Images of Chemical Elements; Water: Claire Cessford. Sulfur: http://commons.wikimedia
.org/wiki/File:Sulfur_%2816_S%29.jpg; Water: http://www.flickr.com/photos/35137234@N06/4230612281/
. Sulfur: CC BY 3.0; Water: CC BY 2.0
6. User:Cepheus/Wikimedia Commons. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Periodic_table.svg . Public
Domain
7. Wine: George Hodan; Gunpowder: Oliver H.. Wine: http://www.publicdomainpictures.net/view-image.php
?image=35183&picture=glass-of-red-wine; Gunpowder: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spk-RZ.jpg
. Public Domain
8. Oil/vinegar: Kat (Flickr:tyger_lyllie); Soil: Petr Kratochvil. Oil/vinegar: http://www.flickr.com/photos/ty
ger_lyllie/3350276971/; Soil: http://www.publicdomainpictures.net/view-image.php?image=13200&picture
=soil-texture . Oil/vinegar: CC BY 2.0; Soil: Public Domain
9. Pearson Scott Foresman. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Distillation_%28PSF%29.png . Public
Domain
10. Laura Guerin. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0
11. Duff Axsom (Flickr:duff_sf). http://www.flickr.com/photos/sfbear/472100458/ . CC BY 2.0
12. User:Chemicalinterest/Wikimedia Commons. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zn_reaction_with_-
HCl.JPG . Public Domain
13. Paige Powers (Flickr:paigggeyy). http://www.flickr.com/photos/paigggeyy/5533819494/ . CC BY 2.0
14. Muddy water: Image copyright Alena Brozova, 2014; Sugar water: Image copyright m.bonotto, 2014. http
://www.shutterstock.com . Used under licenses from Shutterstock.com

39
 www.ck12.org

C HAPTER
3 Measurement
Chapter Outline
3.1 U NITS OF M EASUREMENT
3.2 U NIT C ONVERSIONS , E RROR , AND U NCERTAINTY
3.3 R EFERENCES

When we think of measurement, a couple of things may come to mind. We may think of numbers, or we may think
about instruments or equipment. The scale shown above, for instance, is an example of a common instrument that
is used in measurement. In this case, the scale is measuring the weight of citrus fruit. Adjacent to the fruit is a
1 kilogram weight. If we were getting fruit at the market, we would likely purchase fruit in weight equivalents,
like a kilogram or a pound, or some fraction of these equivalents. Measurement, in this example, allows us to
measure quantities of fruit in a reliable fashion. Can you think of other food items you might measure? You might
measure the temperature of a casserole, or the volume of milk used in a recipe, or the weight of dough in a pizza.
Measurements depend on estimates, like estimating the weight of fruit. These estimates depend on reference points
or equivalents, like one kilogram or a fraction of a kilogram. We also use measurement frequently in our study of the
chemical world. Much of our modern understanding of chemistry is based on our ability to measure various physical
quantities of chemical species.
Image copyright Dimitar Sotirov, 2014. www.shutterstock.com. Used under license f rom Shutterstock.com.

40
www.ck12.org Chapter 3. Measurement

3.1 Units of Measurement

Lesson Objectives

• Distinguish between a quantity, a unit, and a measurement standard.

• Distinguish between base units and derived units.
• Perform calculations using the SI system of measurement, with the use of appropriate prefixes.
• Name the SI units for length, mass, time, volume, and density.
• Describe the concepts of magnitude and scale and how they relate to measurement.
• Use scientific notation to report very small and very large numbers.
• Be able to perform calculations with numbers that are reported in scientific notation.

Lesson Vocabulary

• Systeme International (SI): A common metric system of units of measurement used by scientists.
• base unit: A measurement that has its own independent scale and cannot be expressed in terms of other base
units.
• derived unit: A measurement that is a combination of base units.
• conversion factor: A factor used in solving problems in which a certain measurement must be expressed with
different units.
• dimensional analysis: A technique that uses the units (dimensions) of the measurement in order to express
quantities in the appropriate units.
• scientific notation: A way to express very large and very small numbers as the product of two numbers: a
coefficient and the number 10 raised to a power.

Check your Understanding

1. What will it cost to carpet a room if the room is 10 feet wide and 12 feet long? The carpet costs $12.51 per
square yard.

1. $166.80
2. $175.90
3. $184.30
4. $189.90
5. $19.20

2. What is the volume in cubic centimeters of the following cylinder, given that the lengths are expressed in
centimeters?

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3.1. Units of Measurement www.ck12.org

3.
1. 210.91 cm3
2. 226.20 cm3
3. 75.36 cm3
4. 904.32 cm3
5. 28.26 cm3
4. Kathy has three pieces of material. The first piece is 1 yd. 2 ft. 6 in. long, the second piece is 2 yd. 1 ft. 5 in.
long, and the third piece is 4 yd. 2 ft. 8 in. long. How much material does Kathy have?
1. 7 yd. 1 ft. 8 in.
2. 8 yd. 4 ft. 4 in.
3. 8 yd. 11 in.
4. 9 yd. 7 in.
5. 10 yd.

Introduction

We make measurements all the time in our daily lives without even realizing it. When we walk, we visually
measure the proximity of objects in our environment. When we pick up an item, we measure its weight and adjust
our muscular response according to our initial estimates. Measurements are observations of a quantitative nature
that are taken by some form of equipment. Some equipment, like our five senses, can give us very approximate
measurements, while other technology, like a scale, provides more exact measurements. Many types of instruments
are used to measure and study our chemical world. Some of the common quantities we measure in chemistry are
distance (length), volume, mass, time, velocity, temperature, density, pressure, amount, concentration, energy, and
electric charge. In this chapter, we will investigate how various methods of measurement are used to study the
chemical nature of matter.

Measurement and Numbers

Measurement is a fundamental aspect of science and chemistry. Our understanding of the chemical world would
not be possible if we did not compare, contrast, categorize, and analyze our observations to obtain the information
we have about chemical substances. Let’s consider water as an example. Many of the qualitative (non-numerical)
properties of water, including its taste, smell, texture, and color, can be observed using our senses. We can also
measure quantitative (numerical) properties of water by using equipment. For example, we can use a thermometer
to measure water’s boiling point in degrees Celsius or a measuring cup to measure the volume of a given liquid.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 3. Measurement

There can be different units that are used to measure the same physical quantity. For example, temperature can be
expressed in degrees Fahrenheit ( F), degrees Celsius ( C), or degrees Kelvin (K). No one set of units is more correct
than the other. However, as we begin measuring, calculating, and sharing measurements, we will want a standard
set of values that we and others can use. An international governing body has developed a metric system of units of
measurement for scientists called the Système International (SI). Some of these units are listed in Table 3.1.

TABLE 3.1: SI Base Units

Physical Quantity Name of SI Unit Abbreviation
mass kilogram kg
length meter m
time second s or sec
temperature Kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
electric current ampere A
luminous intensity candela cd

Base Units vs. Derived Units

With the base units listed in the Table 3.1, we can describe many physical details of a given chemical substance.
Base units are measurements that have their own independent scale and cannot be expressed in terms of other base
units. All other measurement quantities, such as volume, force, and energy, can be derived from these seven base
units. For instance, volume is calculated by multiplying together three different lengths (height, width, and depth).
We call these combinations of base units derived units. Some examples of derived units are listed in Table 3.2.

TABLE 3.2: SI Derived Units

Physical Quantity Name of SI Unit Abbreviation
area square meter m2
volume cubic meter m3
speed, velocity meter per second m/s
acceleration meter per second squared m/s2
force Newton (mass ⇥ acceleration) N (kg m/s2 )
mass density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
energy joule (force ⇥ distance) J (kg m2 /s2 )

Magnitude and Scale

When we think about the physical quantities that are measured in chemistry, we must also consider the concepts
of magnitude and scale. The following video introduces these concepts: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0fKBh
vDjuy0 (9:01).

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MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: http://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/65295

As the video suggests, chemistry is a discipline in which we study things that are very, very small. We measure
things like the size of an atom, which is approximately 1/10000000000 of a meter. Because individual atoms are so
small, the substances that we can actually see and study, even something as small as a drop of rain, are comprised
of an incredibly large number of atoms. There are literally thousands of billions of billions of particles in a drop
of water. In both of these examples, we expressed size in terms of fractions or multiples of the number 10. When
describing very small or very large physical quantities, we use prefixes to write the unit as a power of 10. Table 3.3
displays most of these prefixes.

TABLE 3.3: Commonly Used SI Prefixes

Prefix Meaning Abbreviation Numeric value Exponential
Notation
exa- billion E 10000000000000000001018
peta- thousand trillion P 1000000000000000 1015
tera- trillion T 1000000000000 1012
giga- billion G 1000000000 109
mega- million M 1000000 106
kilo- thousand k 1000 103
hecto- hundred h 100 102
deka- ten da 10 10
n/a one n/a 1 100
deci- one tenth d 0.1 10 1
centi- hundredth c 0.01 10 2
milli- thousandth m 0.001 10 3
micro- millionth µ 0.000001 10 6
nano- billionth n 0.000000001 10 9
pico- trillionth p 0.000000000001 10 12
femto- quadrillionth f 0.000000000000001 10 15
atto- quintillionth a 10 18
0.000000000000000001

The Relative Size of Things

We can express the relative size of things with which we are familiar. For instance, the Figure 3.1 shows the height
of a human as measured in meters, or 100 scale. We see a dust mite, measured in micrometers - 10 6 scale; and a
virus, measured in nanometers - 10 9 scale. These are examples of length related to relative size and scale.

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FIGURE 3.1
Relative size and scale of things.

Dimensional Analysis

Conversion factors are used in solving problems in which a certain measurement must be expressed in different
units. When a given measurement is multiplied by an appropriate conversion factor, the numerical value changes,
but the actual size of the quantity measured remains the same. Dimensional analysis is a technique that uses the
units (dimensions) of the measurement in order to correctly convert between units to solve problems. Dimensional
analysis is best illustrated with an example.
Example 3.3
How many seconds are in a day?
Step 1: List the known conversion factors.

• 1 day = 24 hours
• 1 hour = 60 minutes
• 1 minute = 60 seconds

Step 2: Use the conversion factors as fractions to convert the given units to the desired units.
The known quantities above represent the conversion factors that we will use. The first conversion factor will have
day in the denominator so that the “day” unit will cancel. The second conversion factor will then have hours in the
denominator, while the third conversion factor will have minutes in the denominator. As a result, the unit of the last
numerator will be seconds and that will be the units for the answer.

1 d ⇥ 24 h ⇥ 60 min ⇥ 60 s = 86, 400 s

1d 1h 1 min

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In this technique, we are essentially “multiplying by 1” several times. For example, because 1 day is equal to 24
hours, a fraction in which one of these values is in the numerator and the other is in the denominator will be equal to
1. Because multiplying by 1 does not change the value of a number, the final value is equivalent to the original one.

Dimensional Analysis and the Metric System

The metric system’s many prefixes allow quantities to be expressed in many different units. Dimensional analysis is
useful to convert from one metric system unit to another.
Example 3.4
A particular experiment requires 120 mL of a solution. The teacher knows that he will need to make enough solution
for 40 experiments to be performed throughout the day. How many liters of solution should he prepare?
Step 1: Perform the calculation.

120 mL ⇥ 40 = 4800 mL

Step 2: Use a metric conversion factor (1 L = 1000 mL) to convert the given units to the desired units.

1L
4800 mL ⇥ = 4.8 L
1000 mL

Note that the conversion factor is arranged so that the mL unit is in the denominator. It therefore cancels out, leaving
L as the remaining unit in the answer.
Some metric conversion problems are most easily solved by breaking them down into more than one step. When
both the given unit and the desired unit have prefixes, one can first convert to the simple (unprefixed) unit, followed
by a conversion to the desired unit. An example will illustrate this method.
Example 3.5
Convert 4.3 cm to µm.
Step 1: List the known conversion factors.

• 1 m = 100 cm
• 1 m = 106 µm

Step 2: Use the conversion factors as fractions to convert the given units to the desired units.

1⇢
4.3 cm ⇥ 100 m ⇥ 106 µm = 43, 000 µm
cm 1⇢m ⇢

Each conversion factor is written so that unit of the denominator cancels with the unit of the numerator of the
previous factor.

Scientific Notation

Scientific notation is a way to express numbers as the product of two numbers: a coefficient and the number 10
raised to a power. A coefficient is a numerical value that comes before the multiplying number, in this case the
number 10 raised to a power. As an example, the distance from Earth to the Sun is about 150,000,000,000 meters -
a very large distance indeed. In scientific notation, the distance is written as 1.5 ⇥ 1011 m. The coefficient is 1.5 and
must be a number greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10. The power of 10, or exponent, is 11. See Figure 3.2
for two more examples of scientific notation. Scientific notation is sometimes referred to as exponential notation.

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FIGURE 3.2
The Sun is very large and very distant, so solar data is better expressed in
scientific notation. The mass of the Sun is 2.0 ⇥ 1030 kg and its diameter
is 1.4 ⇥ 109 m.

Very small numbers can also be expressed using scientific notation. The mass of an electron in decimal notation
is 0.000000000000000000000000000911 grams. In scientific notation, the mass is expressed as 9.11 ⇥ 10 28 g.
Notice that the value of the exponent is chosen so that the coefficient is between 1 and 10.
Example 3.4
A common mosquito weights approximately 0.0000025 kg. Write the mosquito’s weight in scientific notation.
In scientific notation we will write this quantity as a coefficient multiplied by 10 raised to some power.
Step 1: Our coefficient must be a number between 1 and 10. From 0.0000025 kg, we determine the coefficient to be
2.5.
Step 2: The quantity 0.0000025 kg is less than 1, so 10 must be raised to a negative exponent. The decimal place
must be moved to the right by 6 places to write the coefficient 2.5, so we will write 10 6 as our power of 10
Step 3: Coefficient + Power of 10. This gives us 2.5 ⇥ 10 6 kg. Remember, our units in this case have not changed,
we are just changing the way we are writing the numerical value.

Adding and Subtracting

There are times when we will want to add or subtract numbers that are expressed in scientific notation. We will
approach such calculations in one of two ways.
Same Base Units
Example 3.5
1.235 ⇥ 103 meters + 3.45 ⇥ 102 meters
Step 1: Convert numbers to regular notation.
1235 meters + 345 meters
Step 2: Add.

1235 meters
+ 345 meters
1580 meters

Step 3: Convert back to scientific notation (depending on the result, this is not always necessary).
1.580 ⇥ 103 m
We would follow the same steps for subtraction, as well as for numbers with negative exponents.

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Different Base Units

Example 3.6
1.5 ⇥ 102 liters 3.45 ⇥ 102 deciliters
Step 1: Convert numbers to regular notation.
150 liters 345 deciliters
Step 2: Decide on which unit you want the final answer to be expressed as and convert the numbers to this unit.
✓ ◆
1L
345 ⇢⇢⇥
dL = 34.5 L
10 ⇢⇢
dL
Step 3: Subtract.
150 L 34.5 L = 115.5 L
Step 4: Convert to scientific notation.
1.155 ⇥ 102 L

Multiplying and Dividing

Same Base Units

Example 3.7
(4.65 ⇥ 103 meters) ⇥ (3.56 ⇥ 102 meters)
Step 1: Group the coefficients and the exponential terms together.
(4.65 ⇥ 3.56) ⇥ (103 ⇥ 102 ) meters ⇥ meters
Step 2: Multiply coefficients and add the exponents.
(16.55) ⇥ (105 ) meters2
Step 3: Change to scientific notation. Remember that the coefficient must be a number between 1 and 10.
1.655 ⇥ 106 m2
Note that when two values are multiplied together, the units are multiplied as well. This is different than the case for
addition and subtraction, where the units for the answer are the same as the units for each of the starting values.
Different Base Units
The procedure here is the same, except that a conversion is made so that both values are expressed in the same units.
Example 3.8
(4.65 ⇥ 10 4 liters) ⇥ (3.56 ⇥ 102 milliliters)
Step 1: Convert to a common unit.
In this case, we chose the common unit to be milliliters.
✓ ◆
4 1000 mL
4.65 ⇥ 10 ◆ L⇥ = 4.65 ⇥ 10 1 mL
1◆L
Step 2: Group the coefficients and the exponential terms together.
(4.65 ⇥ 3.56) ⇥ (10 1 ⇥ 102 ) mL2
Step 3: Multiply coefficients and add the exponents.
(16.55) ⇥ (101 ) = 165.5 mL2
Step 4: Change to scientific notation.

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1.655 ⇥ 102 mL2

Lesson Summary

• Measurement is the process of making an observation in terms of a numerical scale and recording the value.
• In chemistry, we measure things that range from extremely small to extremely large. Common quantities
measured include distance, mass, time, temperature, volume, density, pressure, amount, concentration, energy,
velocity, molarity, viscosity, and electric charge.
• Because chemistry deals with very large and very small physical quantities, we utilize powers of 10 to express
base units and derived units.
• Base units have independent scales and cannot be described by a combination of any other base units. Exam-
ples of base units used in chemistry are length, mass, temperature, and time.
• Derived units can be expressed as some combination of base units. Examples of derived units are area, volume,
and speed.
• The Systeme International (SI) is a standard metric system of units that is used by scientists.
• Dimensional analysis is a method of problem solving in which conversion factors are arranged so that a value
can be converted from one set of units to another.

Lesson Review Questions

1. Convert the following numbers to scientific notation.

a. 13,000,000
b. 4020.0
c. 0.00040
d. 0.0004002
2. Convert the following using conversion factors given in the table of Commonly Used SI Prefixes.
a. 126 kg to grams
b. 826 mL to L
c. 2.45 ⇥ 10 12 g to nanograms
d. 1.24 ⇥ 10 12 meters to picometers
3. Perform the following calculations, and write your final answer in scientific notation.
a. 1.06 ⇥ 103 kilograms + 8.6 ⇥ 1013 nanograms
b. 100.06 mL + 35 L
c. 3.56 ⇥ 105 cm + 1.23 ⇥ 102 m
4. Which SI unit and prefixes would be used to report the following
a. A person’s weight
b. The length of a ladybug
c. The volume of a large lake
d. The weight of a human hair
e. The width of a human hair
5. Calculate the number of seconds in the month of December.
6. How many donuts can you buy with $23.00 if they cost $3.00/dozen?
7. A light year is the distance light travels in one year. Sirius (the dog star), the brightest in the sky, is
approximately 8.6 light years from Earth. How far (in km) from Earth is it if light travels 3.0 ⇥ 108 m/s?

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Further Reading / Supplemental Links

• Robinson, A. (2007). The Story of Measurement. New York: Thames and Hudson.
• Mass of snowflake approximation: http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/JudyMoy.shtml

Points to Consider

• In this lesson we discussed base units and derived units. We saw that there are SI base and derived units. Can
you think of base units or derived units you are familiar with that are not SI units?
• What do you suppose might be the difference between a measurement and a number? How might they be the
same or different?

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3.2 Unit Conversions, Error, and Uncertainty

Lesson Objectives

• Differentiate between accuracy and precision as they relate to a given measurement.

• Describe the reliability of a measurement and how it can be expressed in terms of uncertainty.
• Distinguish between mass and weight and describe how mass and weight are determined.
• Understand the concept of volume and how it can be determined for various substances, including regularly
shaped and irregularly shaped solids.
• Define density and perform density calculations.
• Describe how many significant figures there are in a given measurement, and be able to perform measurement
calculations involving numbers with significant figures.

Lesson Vocabulary

• meniscus: The curved upper surface of a liquid in a tube.

• estimate: A process of referencing a physical quantity in terms of a calibration or reference point.
• uncertainty: All measurements have an uncertainty equal to one half of the smallest difference between
reference marks.
• accuracy: Describes how close an estimate is to a known standard.
• precision: Describes how close estimates are to one another.
• calibration: A method of setting or correcting a measuring device by matching it to known measurement
standards.
• percent uncertainty: The ratio of the uncertainty to the measured value, multiplied by one hundred.
• percent error: An expression of the accuracy of a measurement, standardized to how large the measurement
is.
• significant figures: Consist of all the certain digits in that measurement plus one uncertain or estimated digit.
• density: An expression of the mass of substance in terms of the volume occupied by the substance.
• mass: The quantity of inertia possessed by an object.
• weight: The gravitational force acting on a mass, as measured on a scale.
• Fahrenheit scale: The most commonly used scale in the United States, it defines the normal freezing point
and boiling point of water as 32 F and 212 F, respectively.
• Celsius scale: The most commonly used scale around the world, it defines the normal freezing point and
boiling point of water as 0 C and 100 C, respectively.
• Kelvin scale: Referred to as the absolute temperature scale, it defines absolute zero as the lowest theoretically
possible temperature.

Check Your Understanding

1. What will it cost to carpet a room if the room is 10 feet wide and 20 feet long, and the price of carpet is $2.36
per ft2 ?

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2. Which of the following is the larger amount: 2.35 ⇥ 102 L or 3.46 ⇥ 105 mL?
3. List two SI units that would be appropriate for measuring each of the following quantities: volume, weight,
and length.

Introduction

In the last lesson, we studied the concept of measurement and how numbers are used to express various physical
quantities. We studied scale and magnitude and investigated how to use scientific notation and SI units to report
numbers in an efficient and consistent manner. However, we have not yet studied how measurement takes place.
There are many different measurements we make in our investigations of the chemical world. Measurements such
as distance, volume, and mass are important values that are frequently used to describe the characteristics and
behavior of chemical species. To make measurements, we use instruments labeled with a known scale. However, it
is impossible for measurements to be exact. In this lesson, we are going to study how measurements are made as
well as the error and uncertainty involved in measurements.

Uncertainty

FIGURE 3.3

Figure 3.3 shows a graduated cylinder, which is an instrument that is used to measure volume. The graduated
cylinder gets its name because of the gradation or scaled lines drawn on its side. These serve as reference points that
correspond to known volumes. When we make a measurement using a graduated cylinder, we look at the meniscus,
or curved surface, of the liquid and estimate where the bottom of the meniscus is relative to the gradations. All
measurement devices have reference marks of some kind. Can you think of another example of a measurement
device with regular reference marks?
Example 3.9
Make an estimate of the volume that is shown in Figure 3.3.
Answer:
We see the bottom of the meniscus is at approximately 52.9 mL. We report this in mL because our cylinder is a 100
mL graduated cylinder, with mL reference marks. There are 9 equally spaced marks between the 50 mL and 60 mL

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lines, so each one must represent 1 mL. As we will see next, the space between these marks represents an area of
uncertainty with regard to the estimate.
When the volume in our previous example was reported to be 52.9 mL, the uncertainty associated with this estimate
also needed to be reported. For example, we know for certain that the true value for the volume must be between 52
mL and 53 mL. However, there is uncertainty regarding how close the value is to 52 or 53. We estimated the volume
to be 52.9, but some students may have reported 52.8 or 53.0. These would be accurate estimates because they
fall within the acceptable uncertainty of the device. All measurements have an uncertainty equal to one half of the
smallest difference between reference marks. For our graduated cylinder, there is 1 mL between consecutive marks,
so the uncertainty is one half of that value, 0.5 mL. To be rigorous about our certainty regarding this measured value,
the estimate of 52.9 mL should be reported as 52.9 ± 0.5 mL.

Accuracy

In measuring quantities we always aim for high accuracy. Estimates that fall within the range of uncertainty for a
given instrument are said to be accurate. In our previous example, all of the values between and including 52.4 mL
and 53.4 mL would be considered accurate. Estimates that fall outside this range are inaccurate. Accuracy describes
how close an estimate is to a known standard.

Precision

Precision describes how close estimates are to one another. Estimates that are relatively close to one another are
precise. Let’s assume that ten different students made an estimate of the volume shown in Figure 3.3, and the
values were: 52.9, 52.8, 52.9, 52.9, 53.3, 52.0, 52.8, 52.9, 53.0, 52.8. We can determine how precise these data by
analyzing how close they are to an average. The average could be the mean, median or mode. The most common
understanding of the average is the mean. This value is calculated by adding up all the numbers and then dividing
by the total number of values. Other terms that can refer to the average are the median and the mode. The median is
the middle value in a numerically ordered list of numbers. The mode is the value that occurs most often in a set of
numbers. If no number is repeated, there is no mode for the list. Here are the calculated averages:
52.9 + 52.8 + 52.9 + 52.9 + 53.3 + 52.0 + 52.8 + 52.9 + 53.0 + 52.8
Mean = = 52.8
10
Median = 52.0, 52.8, 52.8, 52.8, [52.9], 52.9, 52.9, 52.9, 53.0, 53.3 = 52.9
Mode = 52.0, 52.8, 52.8, 52.8, [52.9, 52.9, 52.9, 52.9], 53.0, 53.3 = 52.9
Based on this analysis, we see the value 52.8 was the mean, and 52.9 was the median and mode. Therefore, values
that are relatively close to these averages would be considered precise. We can also calculate the standard deviation
for these data, which is a more refined way of determining the precision of estimates. However, we will not concern
ourselves with standard deviation at this point.

Accuracy vs. Precision

As we just saw, accuracy describes how close a given set of data is to the “real” value, while precision describes how
close the data points are to one another. These concepts are illustrated in Figure 3.4.
Target A represents the best possible “data”. All of the data point points are clustered in the center, close to the
“actual” value and close to one another. This data is both accurate and precise. In target B, the set of data has
good accuracy overall if the points are averaged together. However, the three points are not very close to each other
making the imprecise. Target C, on the other hand, shows precise but inaccurate data. The three data points are close
together, making them precise, but are far from the center of the target, giving low accuracy. Target D represents the
worst possible “data”. The data points are far from the center of the target lacking any accuracy, as well as being far
apart from each other, lacking precision.

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FIGURE 3.4
Here we see three darts thrown at four
different targets. Accurate shots would be
those that were close to the bull’s-eye (the
inner circle). Precision would be the shots
that were close to one another.

Calibration

When using measuring devices, we often use a technique called calibration to increase the accuracy of our measure-
ments. Calibration is a method of setting or correcting a measuring device by matching it to known measurement
standards. To better understand calibration, we will look at the example of calibrating a thermometer. All ther-
mometers are slightly different in their temperature readings. One way to calibrate a thermometer is by using the
freezing point and boiling point of water (Figure 3.5). If we know that water freezes at 0 C and boils at 100 C,
we can calibrate our thermometer by measuring the temperature of ice water and of boiling water. We place the
thermometer in ice water and wait for the thermometer liquid to reach a stable height, then place a mark at this
height which represents 0 C. Then we place the thermometer in boiling water, and after waiting for the thermometer
liquid to reach a stable height, we place a mark at this height which represents 100 C. We can then place 100 equally
spaced divisions between our 0 and 100 C marks to each represent 1 C. Our thermometer has now been calibrated
using the known values for the freezing point and boiling point of water, and can be used to measure temperatures
of objects between 0 and 100 C.

FIGURE 3.5
A thermometer can be calibrated by mea-
suring the freezing point (0 C) and the
boiling point (100 C) of water. One hun-
dred equally spaced divisions can then be
made between 0 and 100 C.

Calibration is used to standardize a variety of measuring devices, including meter sticks, graduated cylinders, scales,
and thermometers. It is a good idea to calibrate any measuring equipment you use in an experiment to make sure the
data you are collecting is measured as accurately as possible.

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Percent Uncertainty

To express the uncertainty in a measurement, we can calculate percent uncertainty. Percent uncertainty is the ratio
of the uncertainty to the measured value, multiplied by one-hundred. For instance, the percent uncertainty associated
with the measurement of (52.9 ± 0.5 mL), would be
0.5
% uncertainty = ⇥ 100 = 0.95% ⇡ 1%
52.9
Example 3.10
Using our estimate of 52.9 mL, what would be the range of possible values for the true volume?
Answer
Upper estimate = 52.9 + 0.5 = 53.4 mL
Lower estimate = 52.9 - 0.5 = 52.4 mL
Assuming that our equipment is accurate, we can be confident that the true volume of the sample is somewhere in
between these two values.’

Percent Error

On the other hand, percent error is an expression of the accuracy of a measurement. There are various possible
sources of error that arise in measurement. For example, there can be error associated with the observation, like
misreading a graduated cylinder. There is error associated with the method or the procedure, like not drying a wet
solid before weighing. Error can also arise from the object being measured. For example, a pure solid may have a
residue fixed to it that affects its mass. There can also be errors that arise from the measurement instrument, like not
zeroing a balance, or improper calibration. Percent error is calculated as follows:
|Measured Accepted|
% error = ⇥ 100
Accepted
Example 3.11
Make an estimate of volume for the image shown in Figure 3.6, and answer the questions below.

FIGURE 3.6

Which of the following estimates would be accurate? Report your answer in terms of uncertainty.

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Which of the following sets of estimates would be most precise?

If a student reported a volume of 45.0 mL, calculate the percent error in his or her measurement if the actual volume
is exactly 43.0 mL.

Significant Figures

The significant figures in a measurement consist of all the certain digits in that measurement plus one uncertain or
estimated digit. In the graduated cylinder example from the previous section, the measured value was reported to
be 52.9 mL, which includes 3 significant figures. In a correctly reported measurement, the final digit is significant
but not certain. Insignificant digits are not reported. It would not be incorrect to report the volume as 52.923 mL,
because even the tenths place (the 9) is uncertain, so no reasonable estimate could be made for any of the following
digits.
When you look at a reported measurement, it is necessary to be able to count the number of significant figures. Table
3.4 details the rules for determining the number of significant figures in a reported measurement. For the examples
in the table, assume that the quantities are correctly reported values of a measured quantity.

TABLE 3.4: Significant Figure Rules

Rule Examples
1. All nonzero digits in a measurement are significant A. 237 has three significant figures.
B. 1.897 has four significant figures.
2. Zeros that appear between other nonzero digits are A. 39,004 has five significant figures.
always significant. B. 5.02 has three significant figures.
3. Zeros that appear in front of all of the nonzero A. 0.008 has one significant figure.
digits are called left-end zeros. Left-end zeros are never B. 0.000416 has three significant figures.
significant.
4. Zeros that appear after all nonzero digits are called A. 140 has two significant figures.
right-end zeros. Right-end zeros in a number that lacks B. 75,210 has four significant figures.
a decimal point are not significant.
5. Right-end zeros in a number with a decimal point are A. 620.0 has four significant figures.
significant. This is true whether the zeros occur before B. 19,000. has five significant figures
or after the decimal point.

It needs to be emphasized that just because a certain digit is not significant does not mean that it is not important or
that it can be left out. Though the zero in a measurement of 140 may not be significant, the value cannot simply be
reported as 14. An insignificant zero functions as a placeholder for the decimal point. When numbers are written
in scientific notation, this becomes more apparent. The measurement 140 can be written as 1.4 ⇥ 102 , with two
significant figures in the coefficient. A number with left-end zeros, such as 0.000416, can be written as 4.16 ⇥ 10 4 ,
which has 3 significant figures. In some cases, scientific notation is the only way to correctly indicate the correct
number of significant figures. In order to report a value of 15,000,000 with four significant figures, it would need to
be written as 1.500 ⇥ 107 . The right-end zeros after the 5 are significant. The original number of 15,000,000 only
has two significant figures.

Exact Quantities

When numbers are known exactly, the significant figure rules do not apply. This occurs when objects are counted
rather than measured. In your science classroom, there may be a total of 24 students. The actual value cannot be

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23.8 students, as there is no such thing as 8 tenths of a student. So the 24 is an exact quantity. Exact quantities
are considered to have an infinite number of significant figures; the importance of this concept will be seen later
when we begin looking at how significant figures are dealt with during calculations. Numbers in many conversion
factors, especially for simple unit conversions, are also exact quantities and have infinite significant figures. There
are exactly 100 centimeters in 1 meter and exactly 60 seconds in 1 minute. Those values are definitions and are not
the result of a measurement.

Adding and Subtracting Significant Figures

The sum or difference is determined by the smallest number of significant figures to the right of the decimal point in
any of the original numbers.
Example 3.13
89.332 + 1.1 = 90.432 round to 90.4
Example 3.14
2.097 0.12 = 1.977 round to 1.98

Multiplying and Dividing Significant Figures

The number of significant figures in the final product or quotient is equal to the number of significant figures in the
starting value that has the fewest significant figures.
Example 3.15
2.8 ⇥ 4.5039 = 12.61092 round to 13
Example 3.16
6.85 ÷ 112.04 = 0.0611388789 round to 0.0611
Example 3.17
For this example, the value 8 is known to be exact (so it has an infinite number of significant figures).
0.2786 ⇥ 8 = 2.229

Calculating Density

Imagine holding a tennis ball in one hand and an orange in the other. Why does the orange feel heavier than the
tennis ball, even though the two objects are about the same size? This can be explained with the concept of density.
Density is an expression of the mass of a substance in terms of the volume occupied by the substance. The equation
for density is:
mass
Density =
volume
m
D=
V
So, even though a tennis ball and an orange may be about the same volume, the orange contains more mass within
that volume than does the tennis ball. Therefore, the orange has a higher density. This is because the orange contains
mostly water and the tennis ball contains mostly air; as you might imagine, water is much heavier than air.
Density is typically reported in terms of gram per milliliter (g/mL) or the equivalent value, grams per cubic centime-
ter (g/cm3 ). Oftentimes, scientists compare the density of an object to the density of water which is 1 g/mL at room

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temperature (25 C). The densities of some common materials are listed in the Table 3.5.

TABLE 3.5:
Material Density (g/mL)
hydrogen 0.00009
oxygen 0.0014
water 1.0
aluminum 2.7
iron 7.9
gold 19.3

Mass vs. Weight

The terms mass and weight, while often used interchangeably, are technically different terms. Mass is the quantity
of inertia possessed by an object. Weight refers to the gravitational force acting on a mass, as measured on a
scale. On the surface of the earth, the numerical values of mass and the corresponding force of gravity (weight) are
approximately equivalent. For now, we will use the terms mass and weight interchangeably although mass is the
more appropriate scientific term.

Determining the Volume of Regularly Shaped Objects

In order to calculate density, we must know the volume the object occupies. We can calculate the volumes of some
regularly shaped objects using the following expressions in Table 3.6.

TABLE 3.6: Formulas for Calculating Volumes of Regularly Shaped Objects

Volume of a cube l ⇥w⇥h
4 3
Volume of a sphere pr
3
Volume of a cylinder pr2 h
1 2
Volume of a cone pr h
3

Determining the Volume of Irregularly Shaped Objects

If a solid is irregularly shaped, we can determine its volume by measuring the volume of water displaced by the solid.
For example, say you want to measure the volume of the toy dinosaur in Figure 3.7. After placing the dinosaur in
the water, the volume measured in the container increases by an amount that is equal to the total volume of the
dinosaur. Note that this method only works for solids that do not dissolve in water. If you tried to measure the
volume occupied by a pile of salt, the salt would dissolve in the water and this method would not work very well.

Temperature Scales

There are three temperature scales that are commonly used in measurement. Their units are F (degrees Fahrenheit),
C (degrees Celsius), and K (Kelvin). The Fahrenheit scale, which is the most commonly used scale in the United
States, defines the normal freezing point and boiling point of water as 32 F and 212 F, respectively. The Celsius
scale defines the normal freezing point and boiling point of water as 0 C and 100 C, respectively. The Celsius

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FIGURE 3.7
Displacement of water by irregular solid.

scale is commonly used in most countries across the globe. The Kelvin scale, which is also referred to as the
absolute temperature scale, defines absolute zero as the lowest theoretically possible temperature, which means that
temperatures expressed in Kelvin cannot be negative numbers. We will further study the origins of this temperature
scale in the chapter States of Matter.

Converting Temperature Scales

Regardless of the temperature scale used, it is important to be able to convert from one scale to another. Here are the
conversions we use.
F to C
T C = (T F 32) ⇥ 59
C to F
T F = 95 ⇥ (T C ) + 32
C to K
TK = T C + 273.15
K to C
T C = TK 273.15
Example 3.19
The melting point of mercury is -38.84 C. Convert this value to degrees Fahrenheit and degrees Kelvin.
Answer

9
TF = ⇥ ( 38.84 C) + 32
5
TF = 37.12 F
TK = 38.84 C + 273.15
TK = 234.75 K

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FIGURE 3.8

Lesson Summary

• Accuracy describes how close an estimate is to a known standard.

• Precision describes how close estimates are to one another.
• The accuracy of an estimate cannot be improved through calculation.
• Calibration is a technique used to standardize a measuring instrument and increase the accuracy of measure-
ments.
• Estimation, as used in measurement, is the process of referencing a physical quantity in terms of a calibration
or reference point. All measurement devices have reference marks of some kind.
• All measurements have an associated uncertainty. It is expressed as one-half of the smallest difference between
calibration marks. It can also be expressed as a percent.
• Percent error is an expression of the accuracy of a measurement, standardized to how large the measurement
is.
• Sources of error can originate from observation errors, methods or procedural errors, as well as errors associ-
ated with object that are measured. They can also originate from the measurement instrument itself.
• Significant figures are figures associated with uncertainty of a measurement.
• Density is an expression of the mass of substance in terms of the volume occupied by the substance.

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• Density is typically reported in terms of grams/mL (g/mL) or grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3 ).
• If a solid is irregularly shaped, we can determine its volume by measuring the volume of water that the solid
displaces.
• There are three temperature scales that are commonly used. Their units are F (degrees Fahrenheit), C
(degrees Celsius), and K (Kelvin).

Lesson Review Questions

Make an estimate of the length that is shown in Figure 3.9 and use this information to answer the following questions.

FIGURE 3.9

1. If the length in Figure 3.9 were estimated to be 11.65 cm ± 0.05, what would be the range of values that fall
within the acceptable uncertainty for this instrument?
2. Which of the following length estimates would be accurate for Figure 3.9?
1. 11.59
2. 11.71
3. 11.64
4. 12
3. Which of the following length estimates would be precise for the Figure 3.9?
1. 11.64, 11.65, 11.65
2. 11.60. 11.56, 11.45
3. 10.9, 12.2, 12
4. 11, 11.23, 11.234
4. A student measures the density of gold and finds it to be 18.3 g/mL. The accepted value from the Handbook
of Chemistry and Physics is 19.3 g/mL (Lide 1992-1993). What is the percent error of the student’s results?
5. How would you report 40.889 m3 to three significant figures using scientific notation?
6. Complete the Table 3.7.

TABLE 3.7:
F C K
A 57
B 37
C -40

7. What is the average mass of three objects whose individual masses are 10.3 g, 9.334 g, and 9.25 g?
8. Complete the following calculation and report the answer with the correct number of significant figures:

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(1.68)(7.874)(1.0000/55.85).
9. Solve the following equation for n and report the answer with the correct number of significant figures:
(11.2/760.0)(123.4) = n(0.0821)(298.3)

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

• Robinson, A. (2007). The Story of Measurement. New York: Thames and Hudson.
• Mass of snowflake approximation: http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/JudyMoy.shtml
• Online Temperature Converter: http://www.onlineconversion.com/temperature.htm
• Lide, D. R. (Ed.). (1992-1993). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (73rd ed.). Boca Raton, Florida:
CRC Press, Inc.

Points to Consider

• Compare and contrast the differences between a number and a measurement? What would be an example of a
number and an example of a measurement?
• One way to remember the formula for density, as well as how to rearrange variables within the density equation
is with the following formula triangle

• In this lesson we have seen that all measurements have an associated uncertainty. Yet, this does not imply
there are flaws in the process of measurement. How might you explain to someone the concept of uncertainty,
and how reconciling uncertainty in measurement actually makes the estimate more trustworthy, not less?

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3.3 References

1. Zachary Wilson and Laura Guerin. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0

2. Courtesy of NASA/SDO. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging_-
Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.jpg . Public Domain
3. Christopher Auyeung. CK12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0
4. Christopher Auyeung. CK12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0
5. Laura Guerin. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0
6. Christopher Auyeung. CK12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0
7. Christopher Auyeung. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0
8. Laura Guerin. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0
9. Christopher Auyeung. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0

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