CURRICULUM

Schubert (1987) defines curriculum as the contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned
activities, the desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform society.
Pratt (1980) defines curriculum as a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives,
content, learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth.
Goodlad and Su (1992) define curriculum as a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time
frame and place, a tool that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of planned activities
and includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of the school.
Grundy (1987) defines curriculum as a program of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will
attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives.
Hass (1987) provides a broader definition, stating that a curriculum includes 'all of the experiences that
individual learners have in a program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific
objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present professional
practice.’

DETERMINANTS OF CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION

Philosophical Determinants of Curriculum
Philosophy is not only a powerful determinant of aims of education, but is also equally a strong deciding factor
of contents and methods of education. The aims speak of 'why of education. The content speaks of 'what of
education. The methods, 'how of education.
Philosophical Components Include

 Principle of Philosophy of Education.

 National Goals.
 Schools of thought... Idealism, Naturalism, Pragmatism, Existentialism.
The characteristics of curriculum that is determined by the philosophical foundations of education are as
follows:

 It aims at the all-round development of the individual.

 It is based on the philosophy of the nation.
 It reflects the ideals and aspirations of the people.
 It inculcates the desired ideals of life in the youngsters.
 It helps in the development of proper philosophy of life.
 It is in accordance with the aspiration level of the individual.
 It enables the learners to learn the desirable cultural values, social norms, intellectual virtues, and moral
doctrine.
 It helps in the development of personal and national character.
Philosophical principles serving as determinants of curriculum are following:
Child centeredness (naturalistic philosophy)
■The naturalistic philosophical movement made curriculum child-centered.
■It was Jean-Jacques Rousseau, for the first time in the educational history of mankind subordinated curriculum
to the child.
■Froebel, another pioneer, felt that curriculum should be centered on the nature of the child.
■Prior to that, curriculum had been either subject- centered or teacher-centered. It narrowly conceived and
single-tracked. It was neither productive nor creative. It was mostly bookish and teacher-tailored. In child-
centered curriculum, the child is the center of the educative process. Hence, the curriculum, the methods of
teaching and the whole of school environment become the child-centered and child- oriented.
Need centeredness (pragmatic philosophy)

 The principle of need centeredness of curriculum gives the recognition of the interests of children in the
process of education.
 It was due to the impact of the pragmatic philosophy of education.
 It emphasized the importance of building the curriculum around the needs of children.
 Curriculum should not only reflect the present interests of children but should also involve larger
interests of the human race.
Activity centeredness (projects and basic curriculum)

 In the past, the curriculum was considered as the subject matter curriculum.
 According to Sir TP Nunn, the famous British educational philosopher, the curriculum should be thought
of in terms of activities, and experiences rather than pieces of 'knowledge to be acquired and facts to be
stored.
 Education to be imparted by means of educational activities and experiences organized by the pupils
themselves, which demand the active participation of the students. Under this principle, subjects are to
be studied as branches of knowledge but as creative and activizing activities.
 The project curriculum and the basic curriculum are the examples of the activity centered curricula.
 The principle of activity centeredness in curriculum is the contribution of Professor John Dewey, William
Kilpatrick, HH Horne and other pragmatic educational philosophers of the West and those like Mahatma
Gandhi of the East.
Sociological Determinants of Curriculum
Sociological approach to education demands that we should bear in mind the needs, requirements, imperatives,
and aspirations of the community for which the curriculum is being prepared. Schools are the song institutions
specially set-up for the transmission culture by society. Schools seek to discharge this function through the
curriculum.
Sociological considerations that development are:

 Core values and needs of Indian society

 Changing values of the people Demands of modernization
 Good family life, ways of life
 Faith, beliefs and attitude of people
 Cooperation Media explosion
 Population explosion
 Regional and national imbalance
 Economic efficiency
  Education for fellowship and leadership
 Creative and purposeful activities
 Knowledge, attitudes and beliefs.
The characteristics of the curriculum that is determined by sociological foundations of education are as
follows:

 It is framed in such a way so as to realize the social aims of the education.

 It makes education an effective media of social control It keeps in mind the social changes and reflects
the social needs of the community. It is dynamic, flexible and progressive.
 It transmits the ideals and values that society upholds and considers to be inherited by the new
generation.
 It is related to social interests and problems of the society. It enables the youngsters to participate
efficiently in social life.
 It inculcates in them respect for different vocations and professions and creates dignity of labor.
 It develops desirable social attitudes.
 It aids them in promoting the social progress.
 It is so framed as to develop each individual to the optimum possible level.
Sociological principles serving as determinants of a curriculum:

 Integratedness:
 All knowledge is considered as unitary.
 Subject matter boundaries are artificial boundaries created for the convenience of piecemeal learning,
Le., learning in parts.
 Logical integration of different activities and subjects to become a meaningful whole, is being
increasingly felt as a dire educational need.
 Life-centeredness:
 Education is of life, for life and by life.
 Life centered or community centered curricula reveal nothing but the socialized curricula.
 It enables the students to become socially efficient. economically sufficient, and intellectually alert.
The socialized curricula view education as the westment on human resources, which will be duly capitalized for
development of national resources in the long run.
Psychological Determinants of Curriculum
Psychological determinants of curriculum focus on standing psychology of a child. Various psychological
determinants are as follows:

 Knowledge of the nature of the learner and the learning process and the conditions facilitating optimum
learning.
 Knowledge of growth and development. Knowledge of intelligent development capacities.
 Interests of the learner.
 Curriculum to be child centered, learning experiences should be provided in accordance with the mental
development of learner, i.e., ability grouping.
Scientific Determinants
  Science and technology, information and technology. To achieve complete development of an individual
and to prepare for complete living, i.e., human activities.
 Self-preservation.
 Self-protection.
 Social and political protection.
 Proper utilization of leisure time.
Political Determinants

 To develop democratic values of social justice, equity, socialism, rights and duties, fraternity
Environmental Determinants
Pollution, earthquake, ozone layer depletion.
Historical Determinants
Country's historical background, culture, tradition.

The Tyler Model

Tyler explains that curriculum planning is A continuous, cyclical Process, an Instrument of Education that needs
to be fine-tuned.
The Tyler Model Is:
• One of the best-known models for curriculum development.
• Known for the special attention it gives to the planning phases.
• Deductive for it proceeds from the general (Examining the Needs Of Society,) to the specific (Specifying
Instructional Objectives).

Tyler’s Four Questions

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational learning experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

Model is consisting of four steps

1. Determine the school’s purposes (Aka Objectives)
2. Identify educational experiences related to purpose
3. Organize the experiences
4. Evaluate the purposes
Criticism of Tyler Model
• Narrowly interpreted objectives (Acceptable Verbs)
• Difficult and time-consuming construction of behavioral objectives curriculum restricted to a constricted range
of student skills and knowledge critical thinking
• Problem solving and value acquiring processes cannot be plainly declared in behavioral objectives (Prideaux,
2003)

Conclusion:
Curriculum is a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives, content, learning
activities, evaluation procedures and so forth.
Bibliography:
Sodhi, Comprehensive Textbook of Nursing Education, Jaypee Publishers, page no-309-315.
 THEORIES OF LEARNING
Learning is always in the active present, it has no past.
Learning is said to be equivalent to change, modification, development, improvement and adjustment. It is a
comprehensive term which leaves permanent impressions on individuals. Learning is central to our behavior as
we learn to speak, write, think and perceive. Our attitudes and emotional expressions are also learned
behaviors.
Efficiency in learning can be measured by three factors, namely accuracy, speed and retention. The meaning of
accuracy, speed and retention are given below:
Accuracy: How accurately do learners remember?
Speed: How soon do learners remember?
Retention: How long do learners remember?

Views of Experts on Learning

 Any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual and makes his/her behavior and
experiences different from what that would otherwise have been. -Woodworth RS
 Learning is a process that results in modification in behavior. -JF Travers

Theories of Learning
Learning is a permanent change in behavior due to experience or training. Learning can be defined as the
adaptation of behavior through practice, training, or experience. There are five theories which explain how
learning occurs. They are:
1. Behaviorism theory (including classical conditioning and operant conditioning)
2. Cognitive theory
3. Social learning theory
4. Constructivism
5. Humanist
Behaviorism
Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior. Behaviorists maintain
that all people have key instincts that drive them towards action. This can be factors such as hunger, the need
for sleep or thirst. When people experience these drive they act in particular ways to overcome their desires.
This concept can be applied to teachers and learners as teachers can reinforce the positive behavior of their
learners by rewarding them. The idea is that after being rewarded, the learner will repeat the actions and
thereby establish a suitable means of learning.
•Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. The most popular example is Pavlov's
observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food. Essentially, animals and people are biologically
wired so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response.

Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant
conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then
the response will become more probable in the future. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used
reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance.

Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is based on the premise that a physical event-termed a stimulus - that initially does not
elicit a particular response gradually acquires the capacity to elicit that response as a result of repeated pairing
with a stimulus that elicits a reaction. Conditioning is usually done by pairing the two stimuli, as in Pavlov's
classical experiments. Pavlov presented dogs with a ringing bell, followed by food. The food elicited salivation,
and after repeated bell-food pairings the bell also caused the dogs to salivate. In this experiment, the
unconditioned stimulus is the dog food as it produces an unconditioned response, saliva. The conditioned
stimulus is the ringing bell and it produces a conditioned response of the dog producing saliva.
The unconditioned stimulus (UCS): The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and
automatically triggers a response. For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may
immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus.
The unconditioned response (UCR): The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs
naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the
smell of food is the unconditioned response.
The conditioned stimulus (CS): The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming
associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. In our earlier
example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the sound of a whistle. While the
whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with the
smell, the sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the
conditioned stimulus.
The conditioned response (CR): It is important to note that classical conditioning involves placing a neutral
signal before a naturally occurring reflex. In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the
sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral
stimulus with the environmental stimulus (the presentation of food), the sound of the tone alone could produce
the salivation response.
Operant conditioning: Operant conditioning also called instrumental conditioning refers to the process that our
behavior produces certain consequences. If our actions have pleasant effects, then it will be more likely to
repeat them in the future. If, however, our actions have unpleasant effects, it will be less likely to repeat them in
the future. Thus, according to this theory, behavior is the function of Its consequences.
The famous Skinner box demonstrated operant conditioning by placing a rat in a box in which the pressing of a
small bar produces food. Skinner showed that the rat eventually learned to press the bar regularly to obtain
food. Besides reinforcement, punishment produces avoidance behavior, which appears to weaken learning but
not curtail it. In both types of conditioning, stimulus generalization occurs, i.e., the conditioned response may be
elicited by stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus but not used in the original training. Operant
conditioning emphasizes voluntary behaviors. Researchers call them 'operant behavior' because they operate on
the environment, they make the environment respond in ways that we want.

Skinner proposed a basic Stimulus-Response-Stimulus (S-R-S) relationship. In brief, the nature of the contingent
stimulus is believed to determine what happens to the response, whether it is reinforced or lost. In other words,
behavior is more likely to reoccur if it has been rewarded or reinforced. Similarly, a response is less likely to
occur again if its consequences have been aversive. These principles are referred to as the contingencies of
reinforcement which suggest that to understand learning, one must look for the change in behavior that
occurred and determine what consequences were responsible for the change (Skinner, 1969).

Application of behavioral theory of learning

Applying classical conditioning in the classroom: The key element in classical conditioning is 'ASSOCIATION'.
Therefore, teachers are encouraged to associate a variety of positive and pleasant events with learning and
classroom activities. For example, a teacher may:

 Use attractive learning aids

 Decorate the classrooms
 Encourage students to work in small groups for difficult learning tasks Greet the students and smile at
them, whenever the teacher enters the classroom
 Inform the students clearly and specifically the format of quizzes, tests, and examinations
 Make the students understand the rules of the classrooms
 Give ample time to students for preparing and completing the learning tasks.
Applying operant conditioning in the classroom: In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior produce
changes in the probability that the behavior Pill occur. Reinforcement and punishment are the 2 main concepts
in operant conditioning. The following are some examples on how operant conditioning can be applied in the
classrooms.

 Recognize and reinforce Use attractive learning aids

 Decorate the classrooms
 Encourage students to work in small groups for difficult learning tasks
 Greet the students and smile at them when he comes to the classroom Inform the students clearly and
specifically the format of quizzes, tests, and examinations
 Make the students understand the rules of the classrooms
 Give ample time to students for preparing and completing the learning tasks.

Cognitive Theory of Learning

According to the Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) model, the human learner processes the information,
just as computer does. When learning occurs, information is input from the environment, processed and stored
in memory, and output in the form of a learned capability.
Sensory memory: Sensory memory represents the first stage of information processing. Associated with the
senses (vision, hearing, etc.), it functions to hold information in memory very brief, just long enough for the
information to be further processed.
Selective attention: Selective attention refers to the learners' ability to select and process certain information
while simultaneously ignoring other information. The degree to which an individual can spread their attention
across two or more tasks (or sources of information) or focus on selected information within a single task
depends on four factors:
1. The meaning of the task or information to the Individual.
2. The similarity between competing tasks or sources of Information.
3. Task complexity or difficulty.
4. The individual's ability to control attention.
Pattern recognition: Pattern recognition refers to the process whereby environmental stimuli are recognized
as examples of concepts and principles already in sensory memory.
Short-term memory: Short-term memory (STM) functions as a temporary working memory where further
processing Is carried out to make information ready for long term storage or a response. At this stage, the
concepts of long- term memory (LTM) are activated for making sense of the Incoming information. STM or
working memory has been linked to consciousness.
Rehearsal and chunking: Rehearsal and chunking are two processes that may help individuals encode
information into long-term memory. Chunking is the grouping of ideas, letters, phrases, etc., into bits of
information to facilitate the encoding process.
Encoding: Encoding refers to the process of relating Incoming information to concepts and ideas already in long-
term memory in such a way that the new material is more memorable. Encoding serves to move information
from STM to LTM.
Long-term memory: Long-term memory (LTM) represents our permanent storehouse of information. Anything
that is to be remembered for a long time must be transferred from STM 10 LTM.
Retrieval: Using previous knowledge to make a response is known as retrieval. Previously learned information is
brought back to mind, either for the purposes of understanding some new input or for making a response
Stages of information processing model of human learning:
The first stage, involves paying attention to environmental stimuli; attention, then, is the key to learning. Thus, if
a student is not attending to what a teacher is saying it would be better to try the explanation at another time
when he is more receptive and attentive.
In the second stage, the information is processed by the senses. Here it becomes important to consider the
student's preferred mode of sensory processing (visual, auditory, or motor manipulation) and to ascertain
whether there are sensory deficits. Use of attractive audiovisual aids helps in better learning.
In the third stage, the information is transformed and incorporated (encoded) briefly into short-term memory.
after which it is either disregarded and forgotten or stored in long-term memory. Long-term memory involves
the organization of information by using a preferred strategy for storage (e.g. imagery, association, rehearsal, or
breaking the information into units). While long term memories are enduring, a central problem is retrieving the
stored information at a later time. Example, giving assignments to students, taking tests, revision helps in
retention of learning.

The last stage, involves the action or response that the individual makes on the basis of how information was
processed and stored. Education involves assessing how a learner attends to, processes, and stores the
information that is presented as well as finding ways to encourage the retention and retrieval processes.

Application of cognitive theory of learning in the classroom:

 Teachers can assess why students succeed or fail at the tasks that the teacher assigns
 Creation of conducive environment for students which will help in better learning
 Encourage students to expend input on schoolwork and to value achievement
 Teachers can talk with students about the important role that effort plays in school success, and they can
encourage students to evaluate their success and failures in relationship to the amount of effort they
expended Teachers should emphasize on evaluation and reevaluation of topic for better retention and
learning
 Finally, teachers can encourage students to develop learning rather than performance goals and to
expend effort to attain their goals.

Social Learning Theory

Also called observational learning, social learning theory, emphasizes the ability of an individual to learn by
observing others. An individual acquires new knowledge by observing what happens to his or her model. This is
popularly known as vicarious learning. A learner acquires knowledge and skills through vicarious learning.
Bandura formulated four principles of social learning
1. Attention: We cannot learn if we are not focused on the task. If we see something as being novel or different
in some way, we are more likely to make it the focus of their attention. Social contexts help to reinforce these
perceptions.
2. Retention: We learn by internalizing information in our memories. We recall that information later when we
are required to respond to a situation that is similar the situation within which we first learnt the information.
3. Reproduction. We reproduce previously learnt information (behavior, skills, knowledge) when required.
However, practice through mental and physical rehears al often improves our responses.
4. Motivation: We need to be motivated to do anything Open that motivation originates from our observation of
someone else being rewarded or punished for something they have done or said. This usually motivates us later
to do, or avoid doing, the same thing.

Reciprocal determination model: Bandura developed a reciprocal determination model that comprises three
factors: behavior, person, and environment. Behavior, environment and person factors interact to influence
learning. They influence and are influenced by each other. For example, a teacher's feedback (environment) can
lead students to set higher goals (person/cognitive) and these goals will motivate students to put more efforts
(behavior) in their studies.
Applying the social learning theory in education
Social modeling is a very powerful method of education. If children see positive consequences from a particular
type of behavior, they are more likely to repeat that behavior themselves.
Conversely, if negative consequences are the result, they are less likely to perform that behavior.
Innovative content often captures students' attention, and can stand out in the memory. Students are more
motivated to pay attention, if they see others around them also paying attention. Another less obvious
application of this theory is to encourage students to develop their individual self-efficacy through confidence
building and constructive feedback, a concept that is rooted in social learning theory. The social learning theory
focuses on how people learn by observing and imitating others.
To motivate learning using this approach, a teacher may:

 Use high-achieving and successful peers as models Model positive behaviors himself
 Use vicarious reinforcement, that is, make sure students see that positive behaviors will lead to positive
consequences
 Demonstrate and teach good behaviors.

Constructivism Learning Theory

Constructivist learning environments offer the potential for locating learning in the context of real-life situations
and problems. They offer a rationale for curriculum integration that connects learning to the workplace.
Learning is facilitated through the design of classroom activities that guide students to work collaboratively with
others, set their own sequences and pace of work, and actively engage in problem-solving, critical thinking, and
negotiation. Constructivism embraces a 'top- down' rather than a 'bottom-up' instructional methodology. This
means that, rather than teach all of the details that lead to a main idea, students discover the main idea and
then derive the details. In constructivism, students are encouraged to learn the main ideas on their own through
discovery learning. Examples include learning about compound words by playing with word strips, learning
about addition and subtraction through the use of manipulatives, or learning about capacity through
experimentation with different sizes of objects.

Humanist Theory of Learning

Humanism is approach that believes learning as a personal act to fulfil one's potential. Maslow, Roger are key
components of Humanism. It focuses on the human freedom, dignity, and potential. According to Huitt (2001), a
central assumption of Humanism is that people act with intentionality and values. Humanism believe that it is
necessary to study the person as a whole, especially as an individual grows and develops over lifespan. It follows
that the study of the self, motivation, and goals are areas of particular interest. In humanism, learning is student
centered and personalized, and educator role is that of a facilitator. Affective and cognitive needs are key, and
goal is to develop self-actualized people in a cooperative and supportive environment.
Conclusion:
At last, we conclude that any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual and makes his/her
behavior and experiences different from what that would otherwise have been.
Bibliography:
Sodhi, Comprehensive Textbook of Nursing Education, Jaypee Publishers, page no-37-44.