2 Electrical and Electronic

Components

There are several basic electrical components that are

commonly found in the circuits. These components are
the fundamental building blocks of electrical and
electronic circuits, and can be found in great numbers
on control panels, printed circuit boards, etc. They can
be used and combined with each other in many different
ways to form a new circuit. It is useful to know a bit
about how they work, and this chapter will help you
in recognising some of what you see on those
boards, and understanding the fundamentals of
circuit schematics.
Electrical control system includes the components
that are assembled to form a circuit as shown in
Fig. 2.1. Components which are assembled in the
control panel must have a specific rating.
Each component has its data sheet on which
details of a component are mentioned.
Before assembling the electrical circuit,
the technician should have detailed
knowledge of each component and its
identification. Technicians should be able
to distinguish the components physically.
There are some common components which
are used in almost every control system, such
Fig. 2.1 Basic circuit components as, resistor, capacitor, integrated circuit,

Chap 2.indd 40 05-Nov-21 4:25:36 PM

 light emitting diode, etc. Technicians must know
the characteristics of each component, dependence
of each component on different parameters, basic
construction of each component,etc.

Resistor
Resistor is a fundamental component of an
electrical and electronic device as shown in
Fig. 2.2. In simple words, a resistor opposes the
movement of electric charge. This opposition
is called resistance. It has two-ends. Resistor
Fig. 2.2 Resistor
controls the current flow, and it also drops the
voltage across it, thus lowers the voltage levels within
circuits. High-power resistors are used to dissipate
electrical power. Resistors can have fixed resistance
value. This fixed resistance value can change slightly,
only when there is change in temperature, time or
Fig. 2.3(a): Basic structure of
operating voltage. Resistors whose values can be an axial resistor
changed are called variable resistors. These variable
resistors can be used to control different parameters.
For example, in a radio circuit, variable resistor is used
as a volume control component.

Colour Coded Resistors (Axial Resistors)

Axial resistors are cylindrical in shape with leads Fig. 2.3(b): Colour code band
extending at each end. Axial resistor is colour coded. of an axial resistor
The basic shape of axial resistor is shown in Fig. 2.3(a).
Whereas, axial resistor in colour coded form with 4 or 5 Colour Number
bands is shown in Fig. 2.3(b). black 0
In Fig. 2.3 (b), in case of 4-band resistor, first two brown 1
bands represent significant digit, third band represents red 2
multiplier and the fourth band represents tolerance. orange 3
In case of 5-band resistor, first three bands represent yellow 4
significant digit, fourth band represents multiplier and green 5
the fifth band represents tolerance.
blue 6
Resistors are colour coded, mainly because of the
difficulties of writing a value on the side of the resistor violet 7
and the many errors that would occur. grey 8
Each colour represents a number according to the white 9
scheme in Fig. 2.4. Fig. 2.4: Colour code

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 Specification of four‑band resistor
1. The resistor is read in a way that the three colour
bands are on the left of the resistor and the single
band is to the right.
2. The first band on a resistor is interpreted as the
first number of the resistor value. For the resistor
shown in Fig. 2.5, the first band is yellow, so the
first number is 4.
3. The second band gives the second number. This
is a violet band, making the second digit 7.
4. The third band is called the multiplier and denotes
the number of zeros, in this case 0 range which is 3.
5. So the value of the resistor is 47000Ω or 47kΩ.
6. The fourth colour gives the tolerance.
7. The tolerance gives the upper and lower value of
the resistor, take the example in Fig. 2.7 for a
100Ω resistor:
First Number – Yellow Number of zeros– Orange

Second Number – Violet

Tolerance – Gold
Second Number Fig. 2.6: Four-band resistor

Fig. 2.5: Four-band resistor specification

Allowed Allowed
Tolerance Colour Stated
upper value lower value
+/-1% Brown 100 Ω 101 Ω 99 Ω
+/-2% Red 100 Ω 102 Ω 98 Ω
+/-5% Gold 100 Ω 105 Ω 95 Ω
+/-10% Silver 100 Ω 50 Ω 90 Ω
Fig. 2.7: Tolerance value

Calculation of resistor value

Read the colour bands from left to right. The colours on
the first 2 or 3 bands correspond to numbers from 0 to
9, which represent the significant digits of the resistor’s
ohmic value, the last band gives the multiplier (as shown
in Fig. 2.8). For example, a 4‑band resistor with brown,

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 brown, yellow and gold bands is rated at
11 × 104 or 110 kilo-ohms with 0.1
tolerances. The code is as follows:
(a) Brown: 1 significant digit
(b) Brown: 1 significant digit
(c) Yellow: Multiplier of 104
(d) Gold: Tolerance of 1/10
(e) Silver: Tolerance of 1/100
The last colour band represents the
tolerance value of resistor. To calculate
the tolerance value of the resistor, read
the colour on the last colour band, which
is on the farthest right. This represents the
tolerance of the resistor. If there is no colour
band, the tolerance is 20 per cent as shown
in Fig. 2.8. Most resistors have either no
band, a silver band or a gold band, but you
may find resistors with other colours.
Fig. 2.8: Colour coding chart of resistor

Practical Exercises
Activity 1
Calculation of resistance value of a resistor
Material required
Colour coded resistors, alphanumerically coded resistors.
Procedure
Step 1: Calculation of resistance for the colour coded resistor.
The following procedure can be used for reading the resistance
value of colour-coded resistor.
Resistors are the fundamental components of electrical and
electronics industry. A resistor opposes the flow of current
in the circuit. The amount of opposition is measured in ohm.
Ohmic value is mostly printed on the resistor in the form of
code. In surface mount resistors, ohmic value is printed on
the surface, whereas, in carbon film resistors, ohmic value is
printed in the form of bands of colour code. By learning the
codes, along with using a helpful mnemonic device, one can
identify the resistors easily.
There are two methods for manually reading and identifying
the value of a resistor. These are:
(a) colour coded resistors (axial resistors).
(b) alphanumerically coded resistors (surface mounted
resistors).

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 Notes Step 2: Calculation of resistance for alphanumeric coded
resistor.
Follow the given procedure for reading the resistance value of
surface mount resistor using alphanumeric code:
Surface mounted resistors are rectangular in shape as shown
in Fig. 2.9(a). Surface mounted resistors have leads, which
are coming out from the resistor, these leads are used for
mounting the resistor on the printed circuit board. Some
surface mounted resistors use plates on the bottom of the
resistor.
The first two or three numbers printed on the surface
mounted resistor represents significant digits and the last
digit represents the number of zeroes that should follow. For
example, as shown in Fig. 2.9 (b), a resistor reading 1252
indicates a value 125200 ohm. For determining the tolerance
value, use the letter at the end of the code.
Compare the letter at the end of the code with the tolerance
it represents.

ohms
Fig. 2.9(b): Alphanumeric code
Fig. 2.9(a): Surface of surface mounted resistor
mounted resistor

Assignment
Calculate the value of resistors by using colour code.

Fig. 2.10(a): Brown-black-yellow-yellow

Fig. 2.10(b): Yellow-violet-red-yellow

Fig. 2.10(c): Red-red-brown-yellow

Fig. 2.10(d): Orange-white-orange-yellow

Fig. 2.10(e): Green-blue-red-yellow

Note: When numbers of resistors are combined together to connect

in series or parallel or both, relation between voltage, current and
resistance can be derived using ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s voltage law and
Kirchhoff’s current law.

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 Practical Exercises
Activity 2 Series connection of
By analysing series circuit, calculate the resistance, current, resistors:
power dissipation and power in the circuit. R equivalent = R1 + R2 +
R3+…..
Material required Series key idea: Current
Battery 12V, resistor of R1 = 1.00 Ω, R2 = 6.00 Ω, and is the same in each
R3 = 13.0 Ω, connecting wires, two multimeters (voltage and resistor by current law.
current measurement).
Procedure
Fig. 2.12(a): Series connection
• Suppose the voltage output of the battery in Fig. 2.11
of resistors
is 12.0 V, and the resistances are connected in series.
• The total resistance is simply the sum of the individual Parallel connection of
resistances, as given by the equation: resistors:
• RS=R1+R2+R3=1.00 Ω+6.00 Ω+13.0 Ω=20.0 Ω 1/R equivalent =1/ R1 +
1/R2 +1/ R3+…..
• The current is found using Ohm’s law, V = IR. Entering
Parallel key idea: Voltage
the value of the applied voltage and the total resistance
is the same in each
yields the current for the circuit:
resistor by voltage law.

Fig. 2.12(b): Parallel

connection of resistors

Fig. 2.11: Series circuit

I=V/RS=12.0 V/20.0 Ω=0.60 A

The voltage or IR drop in a resistor is given by Ohm’s law.
Entering the current and the value of the first resistance
yields
V1 = IR1 = (0.600A) (1.0 Ω) = 0.600 V.
Similarly,
V2 = IR2 = (0.600A) (6.0 Ω) = 3.60 V
and
V3 = IR3 = (0.600A) (13.0 Ω) = 7.80 V.
The three IR drops add to 12.0 V, as predicted:
V1 + V2 + V3 = (0.600 + 3.60 + 7.80) V = 12.0 V.
The easiest way to calculate power in watts (W) dissipated by Joule’s law states that
a resistor in a DC circuit is to use Joule’s law, P = IV, where the heat produced by an
P is electric power. In this case, each resistor has the same electric current ‘I’
full current flowing through it. By substituting Ohm’s law flowing through a
V = IR into Joule’s law, we get the power dissipated by the resistance ‘R’ for a time
first resistor as ‘t’ is proportional to I2Rt.
P1 = I2R1 = (0.600 A)2(1.00 Ω) = 0.360 W.

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 Notes Similarly,
P2 = I2R2 = (0.600 A)2(6.00 Ω) = 2.16 W.
and
P3 = I2R3 = (0.600 A)2(13.0 Ω) = 4.68 W.
• Power can also be calculated using either P = IV or
P=V2R, where V is the voltage drop across the resistor
(not the full voltage of the source). The same values will
be obtained.
• The easiest way to calculate power output of the source
is to use P = IV, where V is the source voltage. This gives
P = (0.600 A)(12.0 V) = 7.20 W.
Note, coincidentally, that the total power dissipated by the
resistors is also 7.20 W, the same as the power put out by the
source. That is,
P1 + P2 + P3 = (0.360 + 2.16 + 4.68) W = 7.20 W.
Power is energy per unit time (watts), and so conservation of
energy requires the power output of the source to be equal to
the total power dissipated by the resistors.

Activity 3
By analysing parallel circuit, calculate the resistance, current,
power dissipation and power in the circuit.
Material required
Battery 12V, resistor of R1 = 1.00 Ω, R2 = 6.00 Ω, and
R3 = 13.0 Ω, connecting wires, two multimeters (voltage and
current measurement).
Procedure
Let the voltage output of the battery and resistances in the
parallel connection in Fig. 2.13 are V = 12.0 V, R1 = 1.00 Ω,
R2 = 6.00 Ω, and R3 = 13.0 Ω.

Fig. 2.13: Parallel circuit

The total resistance for a parallel combination of resistors is
found using the equation below. Entering known values gives
1/RP=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3=1/1 Ω+1/6Ω+1/13Ω
Thus,
1/RP=1Ω+0.1667 Ω+0.07692 Ω=1.2436 Ω
We must invert this to find the total resistance RP. This
will yield:
RP=1/1.2436 = 0.8041 Ω
The total resistance with the correct number of significant
digits is RP= 0.804 Ω
RP is, as predicted, less than the smallest individual resistance.

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 The total current can be found from Ohm’s law, substituting P = Power
Rp for the total resistance. This gives: V = Voltage
I=V/Rp=12.0 V/0.8041 Ω=14.92 A R = Resistance
Current I for each device is much larger than that for the I = Current
same devices connected in series (see the previous example). A
= V
2
P R
circuit with parallel connections has a smaller total resistance
Or
than the resistors connected in series. (Voltage)2
The individual currents are easily calculated using Ohm’s Power =
Resistance
law, since each resistor gets the full voltage. Thus,
I1=V/R1=12.0 V1.00 Ω=12.0 A
Similarly,
I2=V/R2 =12.0 V6.00 Ω=2.00 A
and
I = V/R3=12.0 V13.0 Ω=0.92 A
The total current is the sum of the individual currents:
I1 + I2 + I3 = 14.92 A.
This is consistent with conservation of charge.
The power dissipated by each resistor can be found using
any of the equations relating power to current, voltage, and
resistance, since all three are known. Let us use P=V2 R,
since each resistor gets full voltage. Thus,
P1= V2/R1= (12.0 V) (21.00 Ω) = 144 W
Similarly, Factors affecting the
P2 = V2/R2 = (12.0 V) 26.00 Ω = 24.0 W resistance values
and of a wire
P3 = V2/R3 = (12.0 V) 213.0 Ω = 11.1 W
The power dissipated by each resistor is considerably higher Copper
in parallel than when connected in a series to the same
voltage source.
Aluminium
The total power can also be calculated in several ways.
Choosing P = IV, and entering the total current, yields:
P = IV = (14.92 A) (12.0 V) = 179 W. Fig.2.14: Material used for
Total power dissipated by the resistors is also 179 W. wire
P1 + P2 + P3 = 144 W + 24.0 W + 11.1 W = 179 W.
This is consistent with the law of conservation of energy.

Assignment
Fig.2.15: Thickness of wire
Calculate the value of equivalent resistance in parallel and
series, where value of resistors are R1= 10 and R2 = 20 ohms. Length

Capacitor Fig.2.16: Length of wire

The word capacitor specifies the capacity. It represents

the capacity to store energy. In a capacitor, energy is
stored in the form of electric field. Capacitors have Fig.2.17: Temperature of wire
two parallel sections, between which energy is stored.

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 Gang Capacitor It consists of two metallic conducting
Electrolytic
Capacitor sections (plates) separated by an
insulator (dielectric material) as shown in
Disc Capacitor Fig. 2.18. Metallic conductors can be
made up of aluminium, copper, etc. A
dielectric can be ceramic, mica, electrolyte,
air, paper, gang capacitor, etc. It stores
the charges on its metallic plates, this
will generate the electric field between the
plates. In this way it stores energy in the
Polyester Capacitor form of electric field.
Fig. 2.18: Types of Capacitor Capacitor is one of the fundamental
components of electrical and electronic
4700μf is the devices. The parameters of capacitor are the
maximum 10 volt is the maximum maximum voltage it can withstand without
capacitance value operating voltage
damage, charge storage capacity, polarity
of terminals, i.e., positive and negative
terminals, as shown in Fig. 2.19.
Mathematically,
Q= C × V
Fig. 2.19: Electrolytic capacitor
representing parameters Where, Q= Charge in coulomb
such as maximum operating C= Capacitance in farad
voltage
V= Voltage in volt
Smaller units of capacitance are mili farad (mF),
Micro farad (µF), Nano farad (nF), Pico farad (pF).
Example: When 250V is applied across the capacitor of
capacitance value 10 μF, the amount of charge stored
by it is given as:
Q=C×V
Q = 10 × 10 – 6 × 250
Q = 2.5 mC

Assignments

A. Calculate the following for a capacitor.

1. Determine the voltage across a 1000 pF capacitor to
charge it with 2C.
2. The charge on the plates of a capacitor is 6 mC when
the potential between them is 2.4 kV. Determine the
capacitance of the capacitor.
3. For how long must a charging current of 2 A be fed to a
5 F capacitor to raise the potential difference between
its plates by 500 V? (Hint: I=Q/t)

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 4. A direct current of 10 A flows into a previously
uncharged 5 μF capacitor for 1 mS. Determine the
potential difference between the plates.(Hint: I=Q/t)
B. Browse the internet for the different types of capacitors
and fill the specifications of each.

Capacitor Picture Capacitor Name

Name…………………………....
Voltage range………………….
Capacitance value................

Fig. 2.20

Name…………………………...
Voltage range………………….
Capacitance value................

Fig. 2.21
Name…………………………....
Voltage range………………….
Capacitance value................

Fig. 2.22

Name…………………………....
Voltage range………………….
Capacitance value................

Fig. 2.23

Inductor
Inductor is an electrical component in an electric circuit
which possesses inductance. Inductor is constructed,
when a (conductor) material is wound on the magnetic
material. Inductor is like a coil as shown in Fig. 2.24.
When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field
is created around the wire. This way we can say that
the inductor stores the energy in the form of a magnetic
field along the coil. If the current flowing through an Fig. 2.24: Inductor

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 Notes inductor changes, a changing magnetic field appears
across wires. This changing magnetic field develops
(induces) a voltage across the two ends of the wires.
Inductor opposes the change in the electric current
passing through it. This property of opposition is known
as inductance.
Inductor Picture Name of inductor

Fig. 2.25: Air gap inductor

Fig. 2.26 Ferrite core inductor

Fig.2.27: SMT inductor

Semiconductor
Semiconductor is a solid substance that exhibits
conductivity between insulators and metals. Electronic
devices are made up of semiconductor material. Silicon
and germanium are widely used semiconductors in the
industry. Semiconductor materials are of the following
two types.

Intrinsic (pure)
It is a pure form of semiconductor. The word pure
specifies that this semiconductor does not contain any
other impure atom. For example, pure form of silicon
contains only the atoms of silicon; no other impure atom

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 is present in the silicon. Absence of any impure atom
results in less conductivity of semiconducting material.
To improve the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor,
impure atom needs to be added.

Extrinsic (impure)
When impure atoms are added in the intrinsic
semiconductor, then that is called an extrinsic
semiconductor. Extrinsic semiconductors are classified
as N-type and P-type semiconductor. For example,
presence of impure atoms (e.g., Arsenic (As)) in the pure
silicon semiconductor. The process of adding an impure
atom in a semiconductor is called doping. Doping
increases the conductivity of a semiconductor.
Since, the atomic number of silicon is 14; electronic
configuration of silicon is 2, 8 and 4. Thus, silicon
has 4 electrons in the outermost
shell. In order to increase the Semiconductor

conductivity, free carriers are

added. As silicon has 4 electrons
in its outermost shell, it is better
to add an impure atom having Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
or
or
valence (number of atoms in the Pure Semiconductor Impure Semiconductor
outermost shell) of either 5 (penta)
or 3 (tri). The atoms which have
five electrons in their outermost
shell are known as pentavalent. P-type N-type
Semiconductor Semiconductor
The atoms which have three
electrons in their outermost shell Fig. 2.28: Classification of semiconductor
are known as trivalent.
• When pentavalent impurity atom is added, an
extrinsic semiconductor is formed which is known
as N-type semiconductor.
• When trivalent impurity atom is added, an
extrinsic semiconductor is formed which is known
as P-type semiconductor. Fig. 2.29: Diode symbol

Diode
When two semiconductors, i.e., P-type semiconductor
and N-type semiconductor are combined to form a new
component, it is known as diode. ‘Di’ means two, thus
Fig. 2.30: Diode

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 Diode Circuit Symbol diode has two terminals as shown in Figures
2.29, 2.30 and 2.31.
Diode can be used in switching application.
Diode passes current only in one direction.
The P-side is called anode and the N-side is
Anode Cathode called cathode. When the anode and cathode
Diode Physical Appearance of a PN-junction diode are connected to
external voltage source, such that the positive
end of a battery is connected to the anode and
negative end of the battery is connected to the
Anode Cathode
cathode, diode is said to be forward biased.
Fig. 2.31: Terminals of diode
We can also say that diode will act as a closed
switch (it will be turned “ON”). In a forward
Resistor biased condition, diode will pass the current
through it.
P N
When the P-side of diode is connected to the
negative terminal of the battery and N-side of
+ –
the diode is connected to the positive terminal
Fig. 2.32: Current will flow in this circuit of the battery, the diode is said to be reverse
biased or we can say that the diode will act
as an open switch (it will be turned “OFF”). In
Resistor reverse biased condition, diode will not pass
N P the current through it.
If the anode of PN diode is connected to the
positive terminal of a battery and the cathode of
+ – the diode is connected to the negative terminal
Fig. 2.33: Current will not flow in this circuit of a battery, the diode is said to be in forward
bias and current will flow through the diode.
If the anode of PN diode is connected to the negative
terminal of the battery and the cathode of the diode is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery, the
diode is said to be in reverse bias and current will not
flow through the diode.

Transistor
Transistor is a three layered semiconducting device.
A hole is the absence
These three layers have three terminals — emitter, base
of an electron in a
particular place in an and collector. The place where the two layers touch
atom. Although, it is each other is called a junction. The junction where the
not a physical particle emitter and base touch each other is called emitter base
in the same sense as an
junction. The junction where the collector and base
electron.
touch each other is called collector base junction.
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 Transistor will act as a switch or can be Base

used for amplification. It is controlled by an

electrical signal. Transistor can also be used C
for enhancing the applied signal strength. Emitter Collector
To understand the functioning of a Current Flow

transistor, we can relate it to the water +

supply system in our home. A storage tank B
–
which is kept at the roof of the building
is similar to an emitter in transistor –

which acts as the source of charge carrier E

(i.e. electrons and holes in semiconductor).
Fig. 2.34: Analogy of transistor
The tap at the ground is similar to the
base of transistor; this tap controls the flow of water,
likewise, base controls the flow of charge carrier.
The bucket on the ground collects the water, coming C E

from the storage tank. Similarly, the collector of the B B

transistor collects the charge carriers coming from
the emitter. E C
NPN PNP
Identifying Bipolar Junction Transistor Fig. 2.35: BJT symbol
(BJT) terminals
Keep the transistor in such a way that the flat surface
faces towards you.
We know that the bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
has three terminals [Fig. 2.36(a) and (b)] — Fig. 2.36(a): and Fig. 2.36(b):
1. Emitter (E) Terminals of transistor

2. Base (B)
3. Collector(C)
The schematic symbol of BJT is given in Fig. 2.35

Practical Exercises
Activity 4
Identification of BJT terminal using multimeter.
Material required
Bipolar transistor NPN and PNP, multimeter.
Procedure
The following procedure is used to identify the BJT terminals.
NPN and PNP are the two types of BJT. Both are similar in

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 Notes physical appearance. Physically, they cannot be differentiated.
Multimeter is used to identify the type of BJT.
Following points illustrate the steps for the identification of
BJT types:
• If we see the transistor internally, BJT has two junctions
(NPN ≡ N - P - N ≡ NP Junction + PN Junction and PNP
≡ P - N - P ≡ PN Junction + NP Junction).
Emitter-base junction Collector-base junction

Terminal 1 Terminal 3
Emitter Base Collector

Terminal 2

Fig. 2.37: Layers and junctions in BJT

• Emitter to base is one PN junction (diode) and base to

collector is another PN junction (diode).
• When multimeter is set to diode mode, then the
multimeter will show the voltage when we keep the
positive probe of the multimeter to the anode of the
diode and negative probe to the cathode.

Fig. 2.38: Multimeter in diode mode

• When multimeter is set to diode mode, then it will not

show the voltage when we keep the positive probe of the
multimeter to the anode of the diode and negative probe
to the cathode.

Steps to identify the NPN type transistor

(a) Connect the red cord to the voltage measuring point as
shown in Fig. 2.39.

Fig. 2.39 Connecting terminals of multimeter

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 (b) Connect the black cord to the common point. Notes
(c) Turn the multimeter in the diode mode as shown in
Fig. 2.40.

Fig. 2.40: Circulating knob of multimeter

(d) Touch the red probe to the centre pin (base) of

the transistor, black probe to either of the two
pin-1 (emitter) or pin- 3 (collector) of BJT as shown in
Fig. 2.41.

Fig. 2.41: Testing the transistor

(e) Look at the display of multimeter.
(f) It will show NPN transistor. The logic behind this is, in
NPN transistor:
• Emitter (E) – N type material – Equivalent to cathode
of the diode
• Base (B) – P type material – Equivalent to anode of
the diode
• Collector (C) – N type material – Equivalent to cathode
of the diode
(g) If the multimeter positive probe is connected to anode
and negative probe is connected to cathode, then it
will show voltage. If the connections are interchanged,
it will not show any value as shown in Fig. 2.42.

Fig. 2.42: Observing the voltage value

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 Notes Steps to identify the PNP type transistor
(a) Connect the red cord to the voltage measuring point as
shown in Fig. 2.43.

Fig. 2.43

(b) Connect the black cord to the common point.

(c) Turn the multimeter in the diode mode as shown in
Fig. 2.40.
(d) Touch the black probe to the centre pin (base) of
the transistor, red probe to the either of the two
pins – 1 (emitter) or pin- 3 (collector) of BJT as shown in
Fig. 2.44.

Fig. 2.44

(e) Look at the display of multimeter.

(f) It is a PNP transistor. The logic behind this is, in PNP
transistor:
• Emitter (E) – P type material – Equivalent to anode
of the diode,
• Base (B) – N type material – Equivalent to cathode of
the diode,
• Collector (C) – P type material – Equivalent to anode
of the diode.
(g) If the multimeter positive probe is connected to anode
and negative probe is connected to cathode, then it
will show voltage. If the connections are interchanged,
it will not show any value as shown in Fig. 2.42.

Transformer
A transformer is a static unit. It simply transforms
the voltage level of an AC signal. It either steps up or

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 steps down the AC voltage. It works on the principle
of electromagnetic induction. A transformer does not
change the frequency of applied AC signal. Transformers Switch is a device which
play an important role in the electrical systems. has two operations ON
and OFF. When switch is
closed (ON) current flows
in the circuit. In this
case circuit is said to be
complete. When switch is
open (OFF), current will
not flow in the circuit. In
this case circuit is said
to be incomplete.
Amplification is the
process of increasing
the level of voltage and
current. Transistor is
used in such a way
that it will increase the
Fig. 2.46: Input‑output voltage and current level
Fig. 2.45: Parts of a transformer terminals of a transformer of the input signal which
is given to the transistor.
1. Transformers are available in a number of sizes. Transistors have three
For example, a transformer used in a mobile terminals. In transistors
major current flows
charger is very small, whereas transformers used
between any two
in the substation of an electricity board are big. terminals while the
2. High voltage is used for transmission and low third terminal is used
for controlling the flow
voltage is used in office and at home.
of current between
3. Transformers are used to increase or decrease terminals.
AC voltage in transmission and distribution of
electricity.
4. Basic construction of transformer includes two
coils wound on the magnetic frame or core.
5. Both the coils are magnetically coupled, whereas
they are electrically insulated from each other.
6. The primary or input coil is connected to the
energy source, while secondary or output coil
supplies power to load.
7. Electromagnetic induction is used in a
transformer. In power grids, large transformers
are used. These transformers are used in the
generation, distribution and transmission in the
electrical systems. Transformers are placed in
every location from the generator to the user.

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 Notes
High tension
transmission lines
Thermal power
plant

Distribution of
Electricity

Low tension
transmission lines

Fig. 2.47: Electrical network

Assignment
A. Search the internet for different types of transformers and
fill their specifications.

Specification
Type of
Transformer mentioned on the
transformer
transformer
Simple Input voltage: __________
step-down Output voltage:
transformer __________
Operating Frequency:
__________
Fig. 2.48

Centre-tape Input voltage: __________

transformer Output voltage:
__________
Fig. 2.49
Operating Frequency:
__________
High Input voltage: __________
frequency Output voltage:
transformer __________
Operating Frequency:
Fig. 2.50
__________

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 B. Visit the nearest power distributing substation and Notes
identify the different parts of high voltage transformer.

Fig. 2.51

Practical Exercises
Activity 5
Perform an experiment to identify the primary and secondary
winding of a transformer.
Material required
Transformer (230V to 12V), multimeter, input supply, bulb
of 200 watt, wire, wire stripper, wire cutter, insulation tape
Procedure
Follow the given steps to identify the primary and secondary
winding of transformer.
(a) Connect the wire to the primary winding of the
transformer.
(b) Connect the wire to the secondary winding of the
transformer.
(c) Connect the primary winding wire to the input supply
carefully.
(d) Connect the wire of secondary winding to the load.
(e) Turn ON the power supply.
(f) Measure the voltage using multimeter at primary and
secondary winding.
(g) Note down the reading displayed on the screen of the
multimeter.

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 (h) Note the observed reading in the following table:

S. Reading Reading at secondary

No. at primary winding
winding

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Integrated Circuit (IC)

Fig. 2.52: Integrated An integrated circuit is a combination of electronic
Circuit
components on a single piece (or ‘chip’) of semiconductor
Silicon material as shown in Fig. 2.52. Integrated
chip circuit has a large number of tiny transistors
5 mm
m
in a small chip and results in circuits that
19 m
are smaller, cheaper and faster.
The internal structure of an IC is shown
Notch
in Fig. 2.53.
Small Integrated circuit has a number of
dot
pins. Each pin defines an input or output.
Plastic
Datasheet is required when working with
0.1 inch
case an integrated circuit chip. Datasheet gives
Fig. 2.53: Internal structure of IC
complete information about a particular
integrated circuit.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Light Emitting Diode (LED) comprises of several layers
of semiconducting material. When the diode is being
utilised with DC, the active layer produces light. The
LED emits light in a particular colour and this colour is
dependent on the type of semiconductor material used
in it. LEDs are made of semiconductor crystals. Typical
LEDs are shown in Fig. 2.54..
When current flows through the crystals, they emit
Fig. 2.54: Light emitting diode light in red, green, yellow or blue colours depending on

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 the composition of the crystal compounds. Blue LEDs
also emit white light by using a yellowish fluorescent
Anode (+) Cathode (-)
layer or by creating a mix of red, green and blue
(RGB) LEDs.
Fig. 2.55: LED Symbol

Check Your Progress

A. Multiple Choice Questions
+ –
1. A diode ________.
(a) is the simplest of semiconductor devices
(b) has characteristics that closely match with those of Cathode
Anode
a simple switch
(c) is a two-terminal device
Fig. 2.56: LED Light
(d) All of the above
2. Which of the following is a semiconductor material?
(a) Silicon
(b) Germanium
(c) Both A and B
(d) None of these
3. An LED produces light when it is _____________.
(a) forward biased
(b) reverse biased
(c) unbiased
(d) None of the above
4. A semiconductor device consisting of two terminals is a
_____________.
(a) diode
(b) triode
(c) transistor
(d) integrated circuit
5. Resistance of variable resistors can be changed and
hence they are called _____________.
(a) rheostat
(b) fixed resistor
(c) variable resistor
(d) thermistor
6. _____________ consists of a coil or a wire loop.
(a) Inductor
(b) Capacitor
(c) Resistor
(d) Diode
7. A semiconductor device consisting of three terminals is
_____________.
(a) diode
(b) transistor
(c) IC
(d) All of the above

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 Notes 8. The different colours emitted by LED is a result of
_____________.
(a) applied voltage
(b) forward or reverse bias
(c) different compounds formation
(d) None of these
9. LED requires _____________ supply.
(a) AC
(b) DC
(c) AC or DC
(d) None of these
10. A transformer is used to _____________.
(a) step up the voltage
(b) step down the voltage
(c) Both A and B
(d) None of These
11. A transformer works on _____________.
(a) AC
(b) DC
(c) both AC and DC
(d) None of these
12. Transistor has _____________ layers and _____________
junctions.
(a) two, three
(b) three, two
(c) three, three
(d) two, two
13. A diode is forward biased when _____________.
(a) the cathode is connected to the positive and anode is
connected to the negative terminal of a battery
(b) the cathode is connected to the negative and anode is
connected to the positive terminal of a battery
(c) no specific polarity is required
(d) None of these
14. A diode is reverse biased when _____________.
(a) the cathode is connected to the positive and anode is
connected to the negative terminal of a battery.
(b) the cathode is connected to the negative and anode is
connected to the positive terminal of a battery.
(c) no specific polarity is required.
(d) None of these
15. Devices which store energy in the form of electric field
are known as _____________.
(a) capacitors
(b) inductors
(c) resistors
(d) diode

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 16. Devices which store energy in the form of magnetic field Notes
are known as _____________.
(a) capacitors
(b) inductors
(c) resistors
(d) diode
17. Resistance of material is affected by _____________.
(a) length
(b) temperature
(c) thickness
(d) All of the above
18. Pentavalent impurities in extrinsic semiconductors
have _____________ electrons in their outermost orbits.
(a) 3
(b) 5
(c) 4
(d) 2
19. Trivalent impurities in extrinsic semiconductors have
_____________ electrons in their outermost orbits.
(a) 3
(b) 5
(c) 4
(d) 2
20. Pure form of semiconductor is known as _____________.
(a) intrinsic semiconductors
(b) extrinsic semiconductors
(c) both A and B
(d) None of these
21. Impure form of semiconductor is known as _____________.
(a) intrinsic semiconductors
(b) extrinsic semiconductors
(c) both A and B
(d) None of these
22. What are the two major categories for resistors?
(a) Low and high power value
(b) Commercial and industrial
(c) Low and high ohmic value
(d) Fixed and variable
23. What is the ohmic value for the colour code of orange,
orange, orange?
(a) 22 kΩ
(b) 33 kΩ
(c) 3300 Ω
(d) 44000 Ω
24. Which of the following is true for resistance?
(a) Symbolised by R, measured in ohms, and directly
proportional to conductance.
(b) Represented by the flow of fluid in the fluid circuit.

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 Notes (c) Directly proportional to current and voltage.
(d) The opposition to current flow is accompanied by the
dissipation of heat.
25. Resistor tolerance is either printed on the component,
or provided by the _____________.
(a) company
(b) keyed containers
(c) colour code
(d) size
26. For a fixed voltage, if resistance decreases, then current
will _____________.
(a) decrease
(b) double
(c) increase
(d) remain the same
27 Resistance in a circuit is _____________.
(a) the same as current
(b) opposite to current
(c) the same as voltage
(d) opposite to voltage
28. A colour code of Brown, Brown, Red, Gold stands for
what ohmic value?
(a) 1.2k Ω 5%
(b) 1.1k Ω 5%
(c) 1.3k Ω5%
(d) 1.5k Ω 5%
29. A colour code of Black, Brown, Green, Gold stands for
what ohmic value?
(a) 1×105Ω5%
(b) 1×104Ω5%
(c) 1×105Ω10%
(d) 1×104Ω10%
30. A colour code of Brown, Red, Orange, Silver is for what
ohmic value?
(a) 12×103 10%
(b) 21×103 10%
(c) 14×103 5%
(d) 12×102 5%
31. A colour code of Red, Yellow, Grey, Gold is for what
ohmic value?
(a) 23×108Ω5%
(b) 24×108Ω5%
(c) 25×107Ω 5%
(d) 22×107Ω5%

B. Fill in the Blanks

1. Transformer works on _____________ voltage.

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 2. Extrinsic semiconductor is _____________ form of Notes
semiconductor.
3. Intrinsic semiconductor is _____________ form of
semiconductor.
4. A capacitor stores energy in the form of _____________
field.
5. Inductor stores energy in the form of _____________ field.
6. Diode has _____________ terminals.
7. Silicon is _____________ material.
8. Transistor has _____________ terminals.
9. When LED is forward biased, it will turn _____________.
10. A three terminal semiconducting device is _____________.
11. Green, Orange, Violet colour coded resistor is
_____________.
12. Violet, Brown, Orange, Silver colour coded resistor is
_____________.
13. Red, Red, Orange, Gold colour coded resistor is
_____________.
14. Yellow, Orange, Yellow, Gold colour coded resistor is
_____________.
15. Red, Black, Yellow, Gold colour coded resistor is
_____________.

C. State whether True or False

1. Transformer is used to step up the voltage.

2. LED emits light in a particular colour and this colour is
dependent on the type of semiconductor material used
in it.
3. Transistor is used as an amplifier and switch.
4. The electromagnetism in a transformer is the energy
source for the transformer.
5. Low voltage is used for transmission and high voltage is
used in office and home.
6. Transformer changes the frequency of the applied signal.
7. The junction where emitter layer and base layer touch
each other is named as emitter base junction.
8. Amplification is the process of increasing the level of
voltage and current.
9. The base unit of capacitance is farad.
10. Green, Orange, Orange, Violet colour coded resistor is
62kΩ 5%.
11. Violet, Green, Orange, Silver colour coded resistor is
75kΩ 10%.

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 Notes 12. Blue, Red, Orange, Gold colour coded resistor is
62kΩ 5%.
13. Orange, Orange, Yellow, Gold colour coded resistor is
330kΩ 5%.
14. Red, Orange, Yellow, Gold colour coded resistor is
330kΩ 5%.
15. Black, Red, Green, Silver colour coded resistor is 300kΩ
5%.
16. Brown, Green, Orange, Silver colour coded resistor is
15kΩ10%.
17. Orange, Orange, Yellow, Gold colour coded resistor is
330kΩ 5%.
18. Orange, Orange, Yellow, Gold colour coded resistor is
330kΩ 5%.
19. Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity lie
between conductors and insulators.
20. Inductors store energy in the form of electric field.

D. Short Answer Questions

1. Write short notes on: Diode, Transistor, LED, Capacitor

and Inductor
2. What is an extrinsic semiconductor?
3. What is an intrinsic semiconductor?
4. What are the applications of transistor?
5. Write down the specification of a capacitor.
6. Why LEDs are good choice?
7. What is an inductance?
8. What is a capacitor?

E. Label the following Figures

1. Identify and name the P type and N type terminal of

diode in Fig. 2.57. Also specify the anode and cathode
terminals of diode.

Fig. 2.57
2. Identify the parts of Light Emitting Diode (LED) in
Fig. 2.58.

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 Notes

Fig. 2.58

3. Identify and name different types of inductors listed in

the following table.

Types of inductor Name

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 Notes F. Match the Columns

Name of component Related terms

Semiconductor Magnetic field
Capacitor Opposition in the flow of current
Resistor Unidirectional device
Inductor Electric field
Diode Three-terminal device

Transistor Trivalent and pentavalent

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