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Blockchain for secure and decentralized artificial intelligence in cybersecurity: A

comprehensive review

Ahmed M. Shamsan Saleh

PII: S2096-7209(24)00006-X
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100193
Reference: BCRA 100193

To appear in: Blockchain: Research and Applications

Received Date: 13 June 2023

Revised Date: 11 January 2024
Accepted Date: 22 February 2024

Please cite this article as: A.M. Shamsan Saleh, Blockchain for secure and decentralized artificial
intelligence in cybersecurity: A comprehensive review, Blockchain: Research and Applications (2024),
doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100193.

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 Author Contribution Statement

Dear Dr. Chun Chen,

I am writing to submit my manuscript titled " Blockchain for Secure and Decentralized Artificial
Intelligence in Cybersecurity: A Comprehensive Review" for consideration for publication in Blockchain:
Research and Applications Journal. I believe that this research article aligns well with the scope and interests
of your esteemed journal and will contribute significantly to the field of blockchain. I have reviewed the
submission guidelines and the aims and scope of Blockchain: Research and Applications Journal, and I am
confident that my research findings will be of great interest to your readership.
To ensure the high quality and originality of my work, this manuscript has not been submitted to any other
journal for consideration.
I believe that Blockchain: Research and Applications Journal is an ideal platform for disseminating these
research findings to a wide audience of experts and practitioners in the field of blockchain. The journal's

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commitment to publishing cutting-edge research and promoting advancements in the blockchain domain
makes it an excellent fit for this manuscript.

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Thank you for considering this manuscript for publication in Blockchain: Research and Applications
Journal. I look forward to the opportunity to contribute to the journal's academic discourse and impact. I

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assure you that if accepted, I will promptly address any comments or suggestions from the reviewers to
enhance the quality and clarity of the manuscript.
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Thank you for your time and consideration.
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Sincerely,
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Ahmed M. Shamsan Saleh

Department of Information Technology
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University of Tabuk
Tabuk, Saudi Arabia
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13-6-2023
 Blockchain for Secure and Decentralized Artificial Intelligence in Cybersecurity: A Comprehensive Review
Ahmed M. Shamsan Saleh
Department of Information Technology
University of Tabuk
Tabuk, Saudi Arabia
[email protected]
Abstract
As the usage of artificial intelligence (AI) grows within the field of cybersecurity, so too does the demand
for secure and decentralized AI systems to protect against potential cyber threats. Blockchain technology (BT) has
emerged as the ideal approach for increasing both the security and privacy of AI systems since it provides decentralized
and immutable data storage. This systematic literature review focuses on the integration of BT with decentralized AI
within cybersecurity. It provides a comprehensive taxonomy of BT and decentralized AI for cybersecurity serving as
the starting point for the study. This paper begins with an overview of BT and its possible uses in cybersecurity and
also analyzes its challenges and opportunities. Decentralized AI is also covered in the study, along with its potential
advantages and difficulties in decentralized AI cybersecurity. Building on that foundation, this study provides
convincing findings highlighting the beneficial relationships between BT and decentralized AI for cybersecurity,

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contributing to a nuanced comprehension of their integration. Moreover, it offers real-world uses of blockchain-
enabled decentralized AI to discuss its usefulness in tackling cybersecurity concerns. Finally, this paper discusses

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future research directions for blockchain-enabled decentralized AI in cybersecurity, including potential applications
and implications of this technology in the field, emphasizing the potential of blockchain-enabled decentralized AI in

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cybersecurity to enhance security, privacy, and trust in AI systems.
Keywords: Blockchain, Artificial Intelligence, Decentralized, Cybersecurity
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I. Introduction
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Modern cybersecurity relies heavily on artificial intelligence (AI), which offers sophisticated threat detection,
incident response, and risk assessment [1][2][3]. As technology continues to advance, so too do cyber threats, which
have become more sophisticated and complex to circumnavigate existing security measures. AI systems are
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susceptible to numerous attacks that can damage their availability, confidentiality, and integrity, including adversarial
attacks, model stealing, and data poisoning [4][5]. Because these attacks happen quickly, enterprises are increasingly
relying on artificial intelligence to detect and respond to these risks in real time to prevent security breaches [6][7]. AI
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systems are equipped to do this because they are capable of analyzing massive amounts of data, identifying patterns,
and discovering anomalies that could be signs of potential cyber threats [8]. Using them can also speed up the process
of manually detecting and resolving security incidents as well as automating threat response. Though they have various
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benefits, AI systems are not immune to cyber threats [9]. Instead, hackers will expose them to assaults intended to
take advantage of their flaws. For instance, data poisoning attacks might tamper with the data utilized for training AI
models, producing skewed or false predictions for users. Adversarial attacks can inject minor errors into the input data,
resulting in data misclassification. Model stealing attacks outright steal trained models, which leads to data breaches
and other security concerns. To solve these difficulties, there is an increasing demand in cybersecurity for secure and
decentralized AI systems [10]. Secure AI systems must be built to withstand, and protect against, these attacks and
other cyber risks. Decentralized AI systems are a solution that allows numerous stakeholders to collaborate and share
data while ensuring sensitive data's privacy and confidentiality.
A viable method for boosting the security and privacy of AI systems is blockchain technology (BT), which
provides decentralized and immutable data storage [11][12][13]. BT produces a distributed ledger that can safely hold
transactional data, creating tamper-proof and auditable records that can be verified by numerous parties [14][15]. BT
may also facilitate decentralized decision-making and consensus methods, which may increase trust and collaboration
among several stakeholders [16]. These technologies can enhance the privacy and security of critical information,
facilitate multi-stakeholder collaboration, and provide real-time threat detection and response [17] [18]. To construct
secure and decentralized AI systems capable of surviving possible cyber-attacks, organizations should utilize BT to
ensure the security and safety of digital infrastructures. To accomplish this, research into, and the development of,
blockchain-enabled, decentralized AI is critical.
In an effort to fill this gap, this study focuses on the dynamic relationship between blockchain technology
and AI. The primary goal is twofold: one, to examine blockchain's significant effect on cybersecurity, and two, to
explain how decentralization, which is inherent in blockchain architecture, strengthens cybersecurity measures. The
subtle interplay of these various technologies offer beneficial effects that emerge only when they converge, a state that
has not been previously studied. While current literature has shed light on the separate impacts of blockchain and AI,
there is a distinct lack of comprehensive studies clarifying their combined influence on cybersecurity. This study
tackles this crucial knowledge gap by combining, and then expanding on, existing knowledge.
In response to the growing need for cybersecurity measures, this research addresses key questions about combining
AI and BT, which were raised by a rigorous review of the main literature. It attempts to integrate and extend related
works that illuminate the specific consequences of blockchain and AI on cybersecurity. It poses the following research
questions in particular:
1. How does the integration of blockchain and artificial intelligence enhance the robustness of cybersecurity
measures?
2. What are the primary obstacles and opportunities associated with implementing decentralized AI in the field
of cybersecurity?
3. How have other researchers combined blockchain technology and decentralized AI within the realm of
cybersecurity?

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4. How do real-world use cases demonstrate the practical application of blockchain-enabled, decentralized AI
solutions in effectively addressing cybersecurity challenges?

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This research seeks to add a nuanced perspective, with an emphasis on building on and filling the gaps highlighted in,
the existing literature. Figure 1 illustrates the taxonomy of blockchain technology and decentralized AI for
cybersecurity as a starting point.
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Taxonomy of Blockchain Technology and
Decentralized AI for Cybersecurity
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Blockchain-Enabled
Blockchain Technology Decentralized AI for
Decentralized AI for
for Cybersecurity Cybersecurity
Cybersecurity
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Existing Existing Existing

Benefits Challenges Benefits Challenges Benefits Challenges
Solutions Solutions Solutions
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Decentralization Cryptographic Key Improved Threat Data Quality and

Scalability Federated Learning Improved Security Scalability PolySwarm
Management Detection Integrity

Decentralized
Security Regulation and Enhanced Privacy Increased Network
Identity Interoperability Decentralized DeepBrain Chain
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Compliance and Security Resilience Connectivity

Management Intrusion Detection

Transparency Faster Response

Security Risks Secure Data Sharing Scalability Decentralized Access Data Privacy Lack of Standards SingularityNET
Times
Control

Immutability Lack of Supply Chain Increased Blockchain-Based Improved Regulatory and

Security Risks Enigma
Interoperability Management Resilience AI Collaboration Legal Issues

Consensus Cyber Threat Better Lack of

IOTA
Intelligence Sharing Collaboration Standardization

Secure Identity
Management Sovrin

Resilient Supply
Chain Management

Figure 1: A taxonomy of blockchain and decentralized AI for cybersecurity.

The main contributions of this study can be summarized as follows:

• The study presents a comprehensive overview of the emerging domain that combines BT and decentralized
AI in the context of cybersecurity.
• The study conducts an in-depth analysis of the potential benefits and challenges associated with the
integration of blockchain and decentralized AI for addressing cybersecurity concerns.
• The study proposes a structured taxonomy that categorizes and organizes the key components and concepts
related to blockchain, decentralized AI, and their intersection with cybersecurity.
• The study reviews and presents real-world use cases that showcase the practical application of blockchain-
enabled, decentralized AI solutions in addressing cybersecurity challenges.
 • The study suggests future research directions that can further enhance the application of blockchain-enabled,
decentralized AI in cybersecurity, addressing existing limitations and pushing the boundaries of innovation.
In the subsequent sections, this study will discover the convergence of BT, decentralized AI, and their implications
for cybersecurity. Section II explores the application of BT in cybersecurity, discussing its features, benefits, and
challenges as well as examining existing solutions. Section III focuses on the role of decentralized AI in cybersecurity,
evaluating its advantages and limitations, and reviewing established solutions. Section IV delves into the core of this
research by analyzing blockchain-enabled, decentralized AI for cybersecurity, highlighting real-world use cases and
assessing their effectiveness. Section V outlines the future of research in this field, identifying potential directions and
innovations. Lastly, Section VI provides a comprehensive conclusion that synthesizes key insights and contributions
drawn from this review.
II. Blockchain Technology for Cybersecurity
A) Overview of blockchain technology and its features
BT is a system of distributed ledgers that permit the development of secure and transparent digital records
[19]. BT operates by establishing a decentralized network of nodes that take part in transaction verification and

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validation, assuring their consistency and immutability [20]. Figure 2 provides an overview of this process [21].

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Figure 2. An overview of blockchain technologies [21].

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The following are the key characteristics/benefits of BT:

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1) Decentralization: BT relies on a decentralized network of nodes, meaning there is no centralized authority or

controlling entity [22]. This decentralization protects the network from attacks and failures while also increasing
transparency and trust among participants. Organizations can build more secure and robust systems that are also less
susceptible to failures and assaults by dividing control and decision making among several nodes.
One study [23] described decentralized finance as a new financial system based on BT that permits financial
transactions to take place without the need for intermediaries like banks. The benefits of decentralized finance include
improved accessibility, lower costs, and enhanced transparency. The study implied that, for decentralized finance to
realize its full potential, solutions to challenges such as regulation, scalability, and security will be required.
Additionally, this article drew attention to some of the promising developments in the field of decentralized finance,
including the expansion of decentralized exchanges and the rising popularity of stablecoins. However, the paper did
not go into great detail about some of the technical aspects of decentralized finance, like the operation of smart
contracts and the compatibility of various blockchain protocols. Furthermore, the paper did not explore the potential
negative consequences of decentralized finance, such as the potential for money laundering and other illegal activities.
Another paper [24] suggested a decentralized conceptual model based on BT for smart grids to overcome the
difficulties in controlling the complicated energy infrastructure and facilitating safe and reliable energy transactions.
Figure 3 describes the framework for interoperability of the smart-grid from the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) that served as a foundation for a suggested conceptual model, made up of four layers: the physical,
communication, transaction, and application layers. Each layer is intended to facilitate a certain functionality, such as
energy production, transmission, and consumption, as well as secure and transparent energy transactions. One of its
features is its decentralized nature, which assures that no single body has authority over the full energy system. Despite
this benefit, this model has the potential for high energy consumption and requires a strong governance structure to
guarantee the system's integrity and security.
Another study [25] investigated how BT and smart contracts can be used in decentralized government
techniques. The authors undertook a thorough literature review and highlighted the benefits of blockchain-based smart
government systems, such as enhanced public engagement, trust in computationally networked urbanism, and
democratized governing structures. Additionally, they identified strategies to ensure reliable and secure blockchain-
based smart-contracts, including digital twin technology, remote-sensing schemes, and virtual connectivity
instruments, as well as the use of analytical AI, spatial computing, and predictive procedures in decentralized decision
making. The authors concluded that smart contracts are essential to blockchain platform transactions, and that the
decentralized environment of BT enables smart-city self-governance and citizen empowerment.
2) Security: Blockchain technology ensures tamper-proof transaction security by utilizing cryptographic methods
[26][27]. There is a permanent record of all transactions on the blockchain since once a transaction is logged there, it
cannot be changed or removed.
One study [28] suggested a security architecture that combined smart devices and BT to establish a secure

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communication platform in a smart city, as shown in Figure 4. To keep information secure and private, they utilized
blockchain technology to resist a variety of risks and give special benefits to the city, including increased

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dependability, fault tolerance, efficiency, and scalability. They developed a common platform by connecting
blockchain with smart city devices to permit secure communication in distributed environments. Future studies will

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focus on creating a system-level model to investigate the interoperability and scalability of the various platforms used
in smart cities.
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Other researchers [29] have analyzed how blockchain technology can be advantageous for multiple
industries, such as supply chain, healthcare, Internet of things (IoT), governance, and finance. The authors investigated
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BT's potential for revolutionizing industrial application fields and providing insights into recent advancements.
According to their literature review, BT has the most promise in the banking and finance industries and can offer safe
solutions for every area of the manufacturing process, from supply chain management to commercial marketing. It
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can manage a variety of applications, including managing loans, handling payments, digitizing currencies, conveying
assets, etc. Future applications of the smart contract include tracking the provenance of documents, establishing
ownership rights for digital or physical objects, and preventing fraud. The study's findings show that industries are
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gradually adopting BT and that this technology has enormous potential to transform practically all industries and
create a working environment that is safer, more secure, and more transparent.
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Figure 3: A conceptual model based on the NIST Framework Proposal [24]. Figure 4: A smart city security
framework [28].

Another paper [30] outlined the current uses of BT in, and its influence on, cryptocurrency security. The
researchers focused on the security features of blockchain, such as its distributed design and consensus procedures,
and analyzed the different threats that can compromise cryptocurrency security. The study looked at several additional
methods and strategies, such as decentralized governance, smart contracts, and cryptography, all of which have been
suggested to increase the security of cryptocurrencies on the blockchain. They also outline issues like scalability,
privacy, and regulation, which pose a threat to the security of cryptocurrencies using blockchain technology.
3) Transparency: Blockchain technology provides security by allowing all users to see the ledger [31]. This ensures
that all transactions are visible to all parties, providing greater trust and accountability [32]. Transparency challenges
in corporate blockchain solutions can be solved in one of three ways, as shown in Figure 5.

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Figure 5: The main approaches to addressing transparency challenges [33].

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Another work [34] focused on choosing and evaluating BT to achieve sustainable supply chain transparency.
In addition to introducing a new hybrid group choice scheme that integrates hesitant fuzzy sets and regrets theory for
BT assessment and selection, the study also presented a measurement system that incorporated supply chain
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transparency features for sustainability and characteristic features for technology. The suggested approach accounted
for decisionmakers' attitudes under uncertainty and incorporated various viewpoints. Their findings demonstrated the
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feasibility of multi-dimensional BT evaluation, and their suggested decision-making tool offered new perspectives on
technological governance and decision making. Areas for further research included the need to study links between
socially sustainable supply chain performance and supply chain transparency, and integrating advanced MCDM
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techniques for a more comprehensive ranking procedure.

Other authors [35] analyzed how BT might influence food manufacturing by fostering greater client
confidence and transparency. Future changes in the food sector will be driven by customer needs for sustainability,
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health, wellness, and transparency; however, the industry is currently experiencing false and deceptive claims that
reduce consumer confidence. By introducing transparency to the food supply chain at relatively cheap price points,
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blockchain technology can help solve this problem, as data is more difficult to tamper with, and there is no central
authority that can collapse the system. This study examined how blockchain can help the food industry prepare for the
future by giving consumers the power to check product claims and avoid food-related fraud.
Another study [36] investigated how BT might be used in the agricultural supply chain to increase
transparency and traceability. The authors emphasized the necessity of data in assisting traceability and proposed using
blockchain's guiding principles of authenticity, security, and transparency to accomplish this goal. They found that
applying blockchain technology to agriculture can improve transparency and traceability, which may help customers
trust agricultural products. Their research did highlight some issues with blockchain technology, including the
dematerialization of documents and energy usage, but the authors contended that for an effective and transparent
agricultural system that assures healthy and sustainable food for everybody, changing the culture and political will are
essential.
4) Immutability: Once a transaction is recorded on the blockchain, it can't be changed or deleted [37]. This
immutability guarantees that the data's integrity is maintained and that the ledger is a trustworthy record of all
transactions [38]. This can prevent sensitive information from being accessed, altered, or deleted without
authorization.
To guarantee the immutability of permissioned blockchains in business applications, one study [39] employed
Keyless Signatures' Infrastructure (KSI), as described in Figure 6. Blockchain has an immutable, distributed ledger,
but in permissioned contexts where end users are prohibited from monitoring or storing a copy of the blockchain, its
immutability becomes questionable. To maintain the long-term immutability of the blockchain in permissioned
environments, KSI provides irreversible and unchallengeable proof of block confirmations. The paper underlined how
crucial it is to keep the blockchain immutable in order to guarantee the dependability of the business apps that rely on
it.

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Figure 6: A blockchain model based on a KSI hash chain [39]. Figure 7: Layers of blockchain

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immutability [40].

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Another paper [41] explored the difficulties encountered by digital archives when trying to keep digitally
signed or sealed records safe, and their certifications valid, over time. The authors suggested utilizing blockchain
technology to maintain the immutability of data while enabling metadata updates and archival bond management. The
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suggested solution, termed TrustChain, can be implemented with either MongoDB or Apache Cassandra and is based
on a metadata model that is compatible with PREMIS, Dublin Core, and ISAD(G) standards. This strategy is a crucial
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step toward utilizing new technologies like blockchain and distributed ledger technology while upholding fundamental
archive science principles. Future work on the TrustChain VIP solution will assess its performance and scalability.
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Another study [40] argued for for the advantages of early standardization in the blockchain industry. The
blockchain, according to these authors, has the potential to change the digital economy, and its success depends on the
technology's ability to be standardized. They offered a framework, as shown in Figure 7, which may be used as a best
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practice guideline for blockchain implementation to comprehend the scope and limits of blockchain immutability. The
article proposed that early standardization can have major benefits.
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5) Consensus: Utilizing a consensus mechanism, blockchain technology makes sure that all network nodes agree on
the ledger's current state [42]. With the help of this consensus method, all transactions are validated and verified by a
number of participants, assuring their authenticity and accuracy.
Researchers [43] have suggested a consensus resource slicing model (CRSM) to increase the effectiveness
of blockchain systems in scenarios including energy trade, as seen in Figure 8. Due to its data transparency, trade
openness, and traceability, blockchain technology is naturally suited for these distributed energy transactions;
however, present consensus methods need to be more effective. CRSM divides consensus nodes into various
consensus zones for concurrent consensus while the storage zone only holds block data with no consensus. By creating
an experimental platform, the authors were able to demonstrate the effectiveness of CRSM, reduce the communication
load on the blockchain system, and significantly speed up consensus. The authors concluded by saying that more
research is necessary to examine the security and effectiveness of CRSM as well as its applicability in other sectors.
 Figure 8: A CRSM model [43].
According to other research [44], consensus is an essential component of BT that maintains the agreement

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and validity of transactions across distributed nodes in a decentralized network. This study covered four primary
consensus methods: proof of work (PoW), proof of stake (PoS), delegated proof of stake (DPoS), and Practical

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Byzantine fault tolerance (PBFT), as shown in Figure 9. The authors concluded that a solid consensus procedure would
not only offer fault-tolerance but would be created with the right application in mind.

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(a) (b)
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(c) (d)
Figure 9: Flow of (a) PoW, (b) PoS, (c) DPoS, and (d) PBFT [44].
Another study [45] suggested the new consensus technique proof of authentication (PoA) for blockchain-
based IoT uses. Because of their high resource requirements and limited scalability, the authors contended that current
consensus algorithms may not be appropriate for IoT applications, so the study introduced the PoA algorithm to
leverage the authentication process used in IoT devices to decrease resource requirements. The authors described how
PoA authenticates transactions by employing the public key infrastructure (PKI), which allows it to reach consensus
without the use of energy-intensive PoW or PoS mechanisms. The authors demonstrated how PoA may provide a
transparent and tamper-evident recording of every transaction in a distributed IoT network, ensuring the transactions'
integrity and security.
In general, blockchain technology has the power to completely change how digital information is stored and
distributed. With its decentralization, security, transparency, immutability, and consensus features, it offers a robust
architecture for developing trustworthy and secure digital systems.
 B) Challenges of Blockchain in Cybersecurity
While BT has the promise to enhance the security and robustness of cybersecurity systems, there are
significant challenges that need to be resolved before the technology can be widely used in this sector [46]. Blockchain
needs to address its scalability, regulation compliance, security threats, and lack of interoperability before it can fully
achieve its potential.
1) Scalability: The scalability of blockchain technology is a significant concern [47]. Large-scale cybersecurity
systems can be challenging to implement because of the distributed environment of the technology, which can cause
delayed transaction processing times and excessive network congestion.
2) Regulation Compliance: Blockchain technology's regulatory compliance difficulties are a key obstacle to its
adoption in cybersecurity [48]. Due to blockchain technology's decentralized nature, it can be challenging to adhere
to existing regulations and policies.
3) Security Risks: Despite the fact that BT is intended to be secure, there are still security risks involved [49] [50].

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For instance, attacks on the consensus mechanism or specific nodes might compromise the network's security as a
whole.

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4) Lack of Interoperability: The lack of interoperability among various blockchain platforms and systems can make
it challenging to adopt blockchain-enabled cybersecurity solutions [51]. This may reduce the efficiency of how

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blockchain technology can address cybersecurity issues.
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C) Review of existing blockchain-based cybersecurity solutions
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Although blockchain technology has many possible applications in cybersecurity [52], there are difficulties
that need to be handled prior to its adoption, such as issues of scalability, regulation compliance, security threats,
and a lack of interoperability. Despite these difficulties, numerous organizations are exploring the use of
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blockchain technology in cybersecurity, and several blockchain-based cybersecurity solutions are currently in use.
Table 1 summarizes the main blockchain solutions along with their respective areas of cybersecurity and
highlights their main contributions in those domains.
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Table 1: Summary of the main blockchain solutions

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Areas of
Blockchain Solution Main Contributions and Benefits
Cybersecurity

1. Cryptographic Key Access Control, Enhances key management and authentication,

Management Encryption safeguarding access to sensitive data.

2. Decentralized Identity Identity & Access Offers secure and verifiable identity
Management Management authentication, mitigating identity-related risks.

Data Protection, Facilitates secure sharing of sensitive data while

3. Secure Data Sharing
Privacy maintaining data integrity.

4. Supply Chain Supply Chain Increases transparency, traceability, and

Management Security authentication in complex supply chains.
 5. Cyber Threat Threat Detection & Enables collaborative threat detection, sharing
Intelligence Sharing Response actionable intelligence across entities.

6. Resilient Supply Chain Supply Chain Enhances supply chain resilience by improving
Management Resilience transparency, security, and responsiveness.

1. Cryptographic Key Management: The management of cryptographic keys is one way that blockchain
technology is used in cybersecurity [53]. Organizations can guarantee that their cryptographic keys are safe
and resistant to attacks by using blockchain technology to store and manage them.
One paper [54] provided a novel method for efficient and secure key management and authentication in distributed
IoT networks utilizing BT. Absent a trustworthy third party, the researchers suggested a blockchain-based architecture,
as shown in Figure 10, that makes use of hash chains to assure data privacy as well as secure communication between

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IoT devices. The suggested method employs a one-way hash chain mechanism to give the IoT devices a collection of
public and private keys for mutual authentication. The authors emphasized this method’s high efficacy and scalability,

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and recommended that future work develop inter-network communication schemes and asses security and
performance requirements. Overall, this study provided a promising solution to the security and privacy issues that
often arise in distributed IoT networks.

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Another study [55] proposed a body sensor network (BSN)-based lightweight backup and efficient recovery
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mechanism for keys in a health blockchain. Healthcare systems must be protected by security measures since they
handle private and sensitive data. Figure 11 shows a smart healthcare structure using both BT and a BSN. The
biosensor devices in the BSN were responsible for producing, storing, and recovering the health blockchain's keys.
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The system’s benefits included improved key security and lower storage costs for encrypting blocks, which improved
the privacy on the health blockchain. The study's evaluations demonstrated that this structure has strong security and
performance, making it an effective solution for protecting private data on the health blockchain.
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Figure 10. A blockchain-based IoT model [54] Figure 11. A smart healthcare system with blockchain and a BSN
[55]
Another work [56] provided a powerful, decentralized key management mechanism for vehicular ad hoc networks
(VANET) with blockchain (DB-KMM) to address the security concerns and opportunities of VANET. Figure 12
depicts the proposed model with the three types of entities that make up the DB-KMM: vehicles, blockchain networks,
and vehicle service providers. The suggested system used a simple mutual-authentication and key-agreement protocol
based on bivariate polynomials and automatically registered, updated, and revoked user public keys. The authors
examined DB-KMM's security and demonstrated that it is capable of preventing common attacks including collusion,
DoS, internal, and public key tampering attacks. Additionally, they used simulations to examine the proposed scheme's
performance, which showed that it performed better than current solutions in terms of communication, storage,
computational overhead, and latency. In general, the suggested DB-KMM mechanism can offer an efficient VANET
key management solution that would improve the security of contemporary transportation systems.

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Figure 12: A DB-KMM system model in [56]. Figure 13. Elements of a blockchain-based
self-sovereign identity framework [57].

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2. Decentralized Identity Management: Decentralized identity management solutions using blockchain

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technology can offer higher levels of security and privacy than conventional centralized systems [58]. Users
have more control over their personal data and reduced risk of identity theft and fraud when systems adopt
BT to store identity information and credentials.
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Research [57] has offered a blockchain-based, decentralized identity management system for transportation that
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employs self-sovereign identity (SSI) to provide all parties with a high level of safety and transparency. Figure 13
displays elements of an SSI structure based on blockchain; it employs a shared ledger that is verified and stored by
numerous nodes within the network. The suggested system sought to eliminate the demand for multi-travel cards for
each transportation supplier and to allow users more authority over their identities while using interoperable ticketing
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systems across Europe. Through a low-fidelity prototype created using the Hyperledger Indy blockchain, the study
provided a proof of concept. The prototype offered the EMC, a verified credential that can be used as an identity card
across Europe's public transportation network, and was based on a set of worldwide technical standards published by
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the W3C. The suggested approach was consistent with the EU's goal of developing a single transportation market
among member countries by 2050. Building more thorough and reliable prototypes, investigating the perspectives of
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the cyber-physical social scheme and the intelligent transportation system, and evaluating the system from the
respective requirements of many stakeholders are all possible directions for future studies.
Other studies [59] have suggested a decentralized identity management system based on blockchain
technology to allow patients and healthcare suppliers to verify themselves securely and transparently in various
eHealth areas. Figures 14 and 15 illustrate the proposed design, including the smart healthcare identity management
method and digital health identity. Health identifiers (healthIDs) are used to uniquely identify patients and healthcare
providers. A healthcare regulator attests to their identity attributes, which are then maintained by the identity holder
and indexed on the blockchain. The authors set up smart contracts on an Ethereum consortium blockchain and assessed
their performance in terms of gas cost, speed, and synchronization delays. According to the findings, the consortium
blockchain could achieve a throughput of more over 100 TPS, and for optimal performance, less than half of the
network's sealers would be present. Future work will involve combining the block chain with a decentralized storage
technique like IPFS and managing and storing patient health data securely using zero knowledge proofs.
Figure 14. The framework of the smart healthcare identity management technique. Figure 15. A summary of
digital health identity [59].
A thorough examination of identity management systems (IDMS) utilizing BT is provided by another study
[60]. The authors claimed that BT can address issues with security, privacy, and trust that traditional IDMS may cannot.
The authors emphasized the benefits of utilizing blockchain to create IDMS, including improved security and privacy,
user control, and interoperability. While BT has received significant interest in identity management, the context of
the user experience is still not fully understood. The use of blockchain in identity management may be hindered by
privacy issues; therefore, further research is needed to better understand BT and identity management.
Other authors [61] have suggested a blockchain-based, decentralized authentication approach for VANET to
address security and privacy concerns connected with this technology, as shown in Figure 16. The suggested method
built a distributed architecture that preserved an immutable record of data, increasing the system's integrity, using a
permissioned blockchain technology called Hyperledger Fabric. The proposed approach permitted vehicles to preserve
restricted anonymity in the network, where only authorized entities could learn their true identities. The effectiveness
of the proposed strategy was compared in the study to the traditional PKI-based approach, and the former had promise.

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Figure 16: The proposed VANET architecture [61].

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3. Secure Data Sharing: Blockchain technology can be utilized to build secure data-sharing networks that offer
more accountability and transparency [62]. Organizations can ensure that sensitive information is shared only
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with authorized parties by adopting BT to store and share data.

As seen in Figures 17 and 18, a blockchain-based distributed authentication technique and network structure can
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be utilized for secure, decentralized medical record storage and sharing [63]. The suggested approach, Medi-Block,
employed bilinear mapping for authentication and eliminated the requirement for third-party trust. During the
authentication phase, the system employed two-way authentication among patients and hospitals while also complying
with several security requirements. The suggested architecture offered a safe platform for sharing medical data and
ensured accuracy, safe data sharing, and cost prediction.

Figure 17. Medi-Block system model and attributes. Figure 18: A blockchain-based medical record framework
[63].
 Another study [64] presented a two-tier blockchain approach that integrated permissioned and permissionless
blockchains to permit secure data sharing, as presented in Figure 19. To do this, the study explored the history of
consensus systems for every form of blockchain and evaluated their concept in two distinct system environments. The
permissioned blockchain validated more blocks than the permissionless blockchain with a single sealer and miner. In
contrast to the permission-less blockchain, the permissioned blockchain showed a decrease in block count as more
miners and sealers were needed. The blockchain concept will be further developed in the future using both methods
to build a decentralized framework that would allow anybody to submit data but limit access to specific data to
authorized users. Alternative protocols and consensus techniques will also be investigated for forwarding and
receiving information from the blockchain.

4. Supply Chain Management: BT can be utilized to develop transparent and secure supply chain management
systems [65][66]. Organizations can minimize the risk of counterfeiting and maintain the integrity of the
supply chain by tracking the flow of products and confirming their authenticity using blockchain technology.
Research [67] has examined the implications of BT on supply chain management (SCM) from the perspective of
sustainable performance in the airport industry. An Italian airport effectively implemented the Airport Collaborative

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Decision Making (A-CDM) platform, which is one of the most important BT uses in airport manufacturing. Although
implementing blockchain technology has many advantages for enhancing operations management (OM), it may not

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always result in the most effectiveness, efficiency, and sustainability. According to his study, managers and
policymakers should collaborate to establish a cooperative network based on shared culture and mutual trust. The

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results show that strategic manufacturing, like airports, are currently understudied. More investigation is required to
determine how cultural, and social factors and involve larger participant diversity such as managers, passengers, and
policymakers in SCM, are impacted by blockchain technology.
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Another paper [68] addressed how contemporary supply chains have become sophisticated value networks that
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are challenging to manage while also retaining the visibility of products and merchandise. The authors suggested using
the IoT to watch, track, and control goods and procedures inside the value chain network to address this problem.
They also recommended blockchain technology to improve transparency and boost business-to-business trust. The
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paper provided six research questions on how blockchain can affect key IoT characteristics—scalability, security,
immutability, information flows, traceability, and interoperability, as depicted in Figure 20. The authors suggested that
integrating blockchain and IoT can improve the efficacy and efficiency of contemporary supply chains. However, the
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authors pointed out many limitations and obstacles involved with integrating blockchain in an IoT environment, all of
which demand immediate attention from regulators and industry stakeholders.
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Figure 19: Outline of a two-tier block chain model [64]. Figure 20. The effect of BT on IoT characteristics
[68].
Another paper [69] examined the barriers to adopting BT in renewable energy supply chain management. The
authors used hybrid approaches including SWARA-Gray, EDAS-Gray, WSM-Gray, COPRAS-Gray, and TOPSIS-
Gray to rank and assess the identified difficulties. The findings showed that "high investment cost" is the biggest
obstacle to the use of blockchain in sustainable energy supply chains. Despite this, the study emphasized that, in the
long run, BT can help the renewable energy industry overcome obstacles and improve supply chain sustainability,
traceability, and transparency.
 5. Cyber Threat Intelligence Sharing: BT can be used to build decentralized networks for sharing cyber threat
intelligence [70]. Organizations can collaborate more successfully, and react to new threats faster, by adopting
blockchain technology to securely share information about cyber threats.
By offering novel distributed detection and reaction approaches based on data security methods, one study [71]
suggested a solution for improving the effectiveness and efficiency of identifying and countering cyber threats. The
suggested method was based on blockchain and artificial intelligence, which may automate incident classification and
management, provide cyber situational awareness, and enable rapid adoption of appropriate safety measures to take
in the event of an attack, as illustrated in Figure 21. The work investigated the accuracy and performance of a deep
autoencoder neural network using BT as a system for classifying and managing incidents. This approach reduced
manual procedures and conserved storage space by utilizing a blockchain smart-contract mechanism to construct an
automated, trusted model for incident management workflow that enabled the automatic collection, categorization,
and enhancement of incident data. The study also demonstrated how the strategies might be used to assist security
operation centers with incident handling.
For decentralized threat intelligence sharing utilizing BT and Trusted Execution Environment (TEE)

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technologies, another study [72] presented a unique trust improvement system called TITAN, as represented in Figure
22. Decentralized blockchain-based sharing architectures can improve sharing efficiency, but they don’t address

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problems with trust, privacy, negative publicity, and legal concerns. TITAN intends to address these issues by utilizing
peer-to-peer reputation systems to foster trust, as well as blockchain and TEE technologies to guarantee the system's

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Figure 21. The workflow of cyber incidents [71]. Figure 22. TITAN architecture [72].
Another paper [73] offered a new blockchain network framework for the safe sharing of cyber threat
intelligence (CTI) data, focusing on the difficulties faced by computer security and incident response teams (CSIRTs)
when sharing highly sensitive information inside systems where participants occasionally have different objectives or
preferences. The model made use of the blockchain's security features to provide a framework for CTI sharing
networks that is efficient and effective, and also has the ability to address trust challenges and data privacy concerns
inherent in this domain. The STIX 2.0 protocol and Hyperledger Fabric were, and the prototype successfully showed
how TLP (Traffic Light Protocol) could be enforced while STIX 2.0 security data could be distributed inside a network
using Fabric's chaincodes. Future work will concentrate on assessing the functionality and security of the CTI BT
network and creating a useful secured application that can be used in real-world applications.

6. Resilient Supply Chain Management: Organizations can follow the movement of items and verify their
authenticity by establishing a decentralized and transparent supply chain network. This can help avoid
counterfeiting and ensure the chain's integrity [74].
Research [75] has discussed the impacts of COVID-19 on food supply systems and the significance of
resilient and sustainable food supply chain management. To boost supply chain resilience, the paper suggested
implementing reverse logistics practices and integrating blockchain technology. They employed a fuzzy synthetic
evaluation method to recognize and eliminate risks connected to adopting blockchain. They emphasized the
significance of both information management and security risks in adopting BT in food supply chains.
Another study [76] investigated the application of BT in the humanitarian sector to enhance the accountability
and transparency of disaster relief supplies, information exchanges, and money transfers. The paper suggested the
theoretical framework shown in Figure 23 to comprehend how swift-trust (ST) can affect transparency in an
operational supply chain. The framework also demonstrated how BT-enabled ST can increase supply chain resilience
(SCR) and collaboration (CO) among entities involved in disaster relief activities. The study gathered information
from global non-governmental organizations and discovered that BT significantly and positively influenced
operational supply chain transparency and ST, which positively impacts CO and SCR.

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Figure 23: Theoretical model in the humanitarian sector [76].

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The advantages and disadvantages of each blockchain solution in different areas of cybersecurity can be summarized
as follows:
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1. Cryptographic Key Management:

Advantages: This strategy can enhance security through decentralized key management, reducing the risk of single
points of failure. Improved authentication and access control ensure that only authorized parties can access sensitive
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data.
Disadvantages: There is increased complexity in managing and safeguarding private keys, the potential for loss of
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access if keys are lost, and scalability challenges when dealing with a large number of keys.
2. Decentralized Identity Management:
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Advantages: This strategy allows for secure and verifiable identity authentication, reducing identity-related risks. It
also enhances privacy control for users, as they own their identity data.
Disadvantages: Adoption challenges, as transitioning from traditional identity management systems can be complex.
Privacy concerns arise from the need to balance transparency and user data protection.
3. Secure Data Sharing:
Advantages: This method facilitates the secure sharing of sensitive data while maintaining data integrity. It eliminates
the need for intermediaries, reducing risks associated with centralized data storage.
Disadvantages: It is difficult to ensure data confidentiality while still maintaining the benefits of transparency. There
are also scalability concerns when handling a large volume of data transactions.
4. Supply Chain Management:
Advantages: This method increases transparency, traceability, and authentication in complex supply chains. It
improves accountability and reduces fraud by providing an immutable record of transactions.
Disadvantages: Adoption challenges, as integrating existing supply chain systems with blockchain can be technically
demanding. Ensuring data accuracy and trust among participants remains a concern.
5. Cyber Threat Intelligence Sharing:
Advantages: This solution enables collaborative threat detection, sharing actionable intelligence across entities. It also
strengthens collective security efforts and accelerates response times.
Disadvantages: It can be difficult to balance information sharing with concerns about privacy and competitive
advantage. Ensuring the accuracy and quality of shared threat intelligence can be challenging.
6. Resilient Supply Chain Management:
Advantages: This solution enhances supply chain resilience by improving transparency, security, and responsiveness.
It mitigates risks by providing real-time visibility into supply chain operations.
Disadvantages: This solution is dependent on the accuracy and reliability of data fed into the blockchain. There are
implementation challenges when integrating legacy systems with blockchain-based solutions.
In each case, these lessons and insights shed light on the practical implications of implementing blockchain solutions
in different areas of cybersecurity, helping organizations make informed decisions while harnessing the benefits and
addressing potential challenges.

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A) Overview of decentralized AI and its benefits for cybersecurity

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Decentralized AI refers to the usage of artificial intelligence algorithms and models that are spread across
numerous network nodes. It facilitates the use of distributed computing infrastructure in contrast to centralized AI,
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where all data and processing take place on a single system. One study [77] gave a general overview of AI applications
and investigated the most recent AI developments in cybersecurity, especially in security analysis and the evaluation
of potential upgrades. The work emphasized the value of utilizing AI technologies to address cybersecurity issues and
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suggested an AI approach to provide security. The study illustrated the need for more research in this area and offered
a helpful analysis of how AI might enhance the effectiveness of protection measures.
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Another paper [78] analyzed the difficulties of cybersecurity in industrial control systems (ICS) in the context
of Industry 4.0, and suggested the use of AI techniques to boost resilience against cyber threats. The authors examined
the distinctions between ICS and information systems and suggested that a decentralized architecture with flock
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behavior is superior to a centralized management architecture for controlling large-scale industrial processes. The
study emphasized the importance of determining relevant indicators to evaluate and contrast the impacts on the
controlled elements in order to measure the efficacy of the suggested framework.
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Other research [79] has focused on the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT), or technology used for healthcare
services, and highlighted its vulnerability to cyberattacks, raising privacy and security concerns. To address these
issues, the study explored the combination of blockchain technology and AI within the IoMT framework. This paper
emphasized the potential of technologies such as AI and BT in decentralized healthcare applications.
By enabling more efficient threat detection, response, and prevention, decentralized AI has the potential to
revolutionize the field of cybersecurity. Decentralized AI could have a number of benefits, including:
1. Improved Threat Detection: Decentralized AI allows organizations to better identify and analyze potential
cyber threats by leveraging multiple data sources and computational resources [80].
2. Enhanced Privacy and Security: Decentralized AI can assist in preserving the security and privacy of
sensitive information by dispersing the data and processing among several nodes, minimizing the possibility
of an attack or single point of failure [81].
3. Faster Response Times: Decentralized AI may decrease response times to emerging risks by distributing AI
models across numerous nodes, permitting organizations to react more rapidly and efficiently [82].
4. Increased Resilience: By dispersing data processing and storage across numerous nodes, decentralized AI
can help to increase the resilience of cybersecurity systems by minimizing the possibility of a single point of
failure or attack [83].
 5. Better Collaboration: Decentralized AI can promote greater collaboration among many organizations and
stakeholders in cybersecurity, facilitating more efficient sharing of data and intelligence [84].
Despite these potential advantages, there are difficulties in implementing decentralized AI in cybersecurity. Among
these are problems with data integrity, interoperability, and regulatory compliance. Decentralized AI, however, has the
capability to improve the security and robustness of cybersecurity systems as this technology develops.

B) Analysis of challenges and limitations of decentralized AI in cybersecurity

1. Data Quality and Integrity: For decentralized AI to successfully train and deploy models, it needs access
to high-quality and reliable data [85]. In decentralized systems, it could be challenging to ensure the quality
and integrity of the data, especially if it is generated from sources with varying degrees of reliability.
2. Interoperability: Different programming languages, frameworks, and architectures may be used to
implement decentralized AI models, which can make it challenging to share and integrate models across
various networks or organizations [86].

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3. Scalability: Decentralized AI models may become computationally complicated, requiring significant
resources for training and deployment. This can cause scalability issues, especially if the models need to be

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deployed among large networks or data centers [86].

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4. Security Risks: Decentralized AI models may be susceptible to attacks or manipulation, especially if the
models are dispersed across a number of network nodes. Because of this, guaranteeing the security and
integrity of the models, and therefore the data they analyze, may be difficult [87].
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5. Regulatory and Compliance Issues: Decentralized AI models could pose regulatory and compliance
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challenges in cybersecurity, especially if they process sensitive data or work in regulated industries [48].
6. Lack of Standardization: Due to the lack of standardization in decentralized AI models, evaluating and
comparing different models, as well as ensuring interoperability and compatibility across different networks
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or organizations, can be challenging [88].

Despite these difficulties, decentralized AI has the potential to transform the field of cybersecurity by facilitating more
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efficient threat detection, response, and prevention. To enable the full potential of decentralized AI in cybersecurity, it
will be crucial to address these difficulties and constraints.
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C) Review of existing decentralized AI solutions for cybersecurity

Decentralized AI has the opportunity to revolutionize cybersecurity by facilitating more effective threat detection,
response, and prevention. Following are some of the solutions that show this method’s potential for increasing the
security and resilience of cybersecurity systems, even though there are still difficulties and restrictions connected with
its deployment.
1. Federated Learning (FL): FL is a decentralized method of machine learning that allows several devices to
cooperatively train a single model without sharing the training data [89]. This system supports the privacy
and security of sensitive data while also allowing for efficient model training. Figure 24 shows how privacy
is preserved through federated learning [90].
By creating a novel system for the coordination of security monitoring and harmful behavior control, one study
[91] solved the problem of effectively decreasing malicious traffic in 6G networks. The authors suggested
using blockchain-empowered federated learning (BeFL) to guarantee the confidentiality and privacy of the distributed
network security behavior’s knowledge base. They defined this as using a knowledge graph, creating a universal
network malicious behavior knowledge-base, and analyzing its application possibilities. In a prototype system, as
depicted in Figure 25, the suggested BeFL architecture esd implemented and compared against two baseline
techniques; it former performed better in identifying users, detecting flows, and tracking the source of attacks. In
addition, the prototype was tested against different DDoS attacks and outperformed two other baseline methods in
terms of attack recognition accuracy and survivability.
Figure 24: Privacy preservation through federated learning [90]. Figure 25: Prototype deployment of BeFL
[91].

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Other research [92] has examined using federated cybersecurity (FC) to secure and improve the effectiveness of

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IoT devices. By creating a federation of learned and shared models on top of diverse participants, the authors sought
to discover security vulnerabilities and avoid the spread of risks over the IoT network. FL a privacy-aware machine
learning model, which is especially beneficial in securing the susceptible IoT environment. The study examined

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methods for addressing FL performance issues that may influence the security and overall effectiveness of the IoT,
with a primary focus on security.
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A blockchain-in-the-loop FL technique called FabricFL has also been suggested for trusted and decentralized
systems [93]. This strategy incorporated traditional FL, the Hyperledger Fabric blockchain, and gamification
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components to address security issues with FL. The framework offered a collaborative training environment for
machine learning models that was secure and auditable, while also protecting user privacy. Utilizing three different
datasets, the suggested method increased the FL process' accuracy and convergence to the best performance. The paper
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concluded that FabricFL may offer a secure and trusted environment for FL in industrial contexts.
Another study [94] focused on enhancing the efficiency of healthcare systems by introducing the energy-efficient
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distributed federated learning offloading and scheduling (EDFOS) system within blockchain-based networks.
Traditional disease detection applications often overlook processing performance and data privacy, and this study
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addressed that gap by proposing EDFOS, a comprehensive system that optimizes energy-efficient offloading and
scheduling while meeting quality of service (QoS) requirements for healthcare applications. Simulation results
revealed that EDFOS significantly reduced power consumption, training and testing time, resource leakage, and
deadlines, compared to existing healthcare systems. This approach provided an effective solution to the challenges of
power consumption and data privacy in healthcare applications.

2. Blockchain-Based AI: Decentralized AI models can be developed using blockchain technology and
deployed across numerous network nodes [95]. This strategy can increase the security and resiliency of AI
models while still allowing for efficient training and deployment for cybersecurity applications.
One paper [96] presented a solution for challenges in industrial Internet of things (IIoT) healthcare
applications by introducing the deep reinforcement learning-aware blockchain-based task scheduling
(DRLBTS) algorithm. This algorithm ensured secure and efficient task scheduling in the healthcare context,
addressing concerns like security, privacy, and makespan requirements. The proposed scheme divided tasks
into mobile, fog, and cloud categories and executed them based on resource requirements, validation, and
time considerations. The proposed system achieved optimal results. While effective, the DRLBTS has its
limitations, particularly its energy consumption during task execution. Future work aims to consider factors
like energy consumption, electricity cost, and mobility-enabled power efficiency. it also requires other
improvements to enhance the algorithm's performance in executing healthcare workflows, including real-
time profiling, resource optimization, and energy consumption reduction.
 3. Decentralized Intrusion Detection: By utilizing distributed computing resources and AI algorithms,
decentralized intrusion detection systems can be employed to identify and respond to cyber threats [97]. By
allowing faster detection of, and response to, emerging threats, this strategy can help increase the resilience
and responsiveness of cybersecurity systems.
As presented in Figures 26 and 27, one study [98] has suggested a decentralized machine learning framework to
facilitate cooperative intrusion detection in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) based on BT. The authors contended
that conventional UAVs were susceptible to cyberattacks because they depended on centralized servers for data
processing. The authors discussed decentralized predictive analytics using blockchain technology and suggested a
framework for applying and sharing machine learning models. Cooperative intrusion detection was used as a case
study for evaluating the proposed system, proving the usefulness and efficiency of the suggested strategy for UAVs
and related applications. When compared to the centralized approach, the suggested system performed better in terms
of detection accuracy and performance overhead. By reducing the demand for data sharing among the nodes, the
framework improved data privacy and security as well. Future research will examine the presented structure's
scalability and robustness in real application-specific scenarios for UAVs facing various known attacks.

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Figure 26: A blockchain-based decentralized machine learning system. Figure 27: The conceptual
model for the machine learning process [98].
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An intrusion detection structure for smart transportation systems (STS) known as FED-IDS has also been
proposed [99]. The proposed FED-IDS framework is illustrated in Figure 28. STS is susceptible to cyber attacks as a
result of the widespread use of software and the initiation of wireless interfaces. To combat this, FED-IDS uses a
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context-aware transformer network to offload the learning-process via servers to distributed vehicle edge-nodes in
order to effectively detect attacks. To permit multi-edge nodes to deliver accurate, safe, and distributed training without
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the requirement for centralized control, the authors suggested a blockchain-managed, federated training strategy. The
evaluations conducted on two public datasets showed that FED-IDS outperformed other techniques, demonstrating
the credibility of protecting networks of intelligent transportation systems against cyberattacks.

4. Decentralized Access Control: In a distributed environment, access to sensitive data and systems can be
controlled via decentralized access control systems [100]. By lowering the potential of a single point of failure
or attack, this strategy may enhance the security and privacy of sensitive information.
One study [101] presented a secure architecture for IIoT in smart manufacturing applications, including BT and
machine learning (ML), as shown in Figure 29. The proposed framework includes five layers, including a transport
layer that is BCT-enforced and an attack detection layer based on ML. This architecture is contrasted with comparable
ones described in the literature, and experiments demonstrated that the suggested architecture may significantly
decrease threats from DDoS, injection, brute force, and XSS attacks.
To solve security and privacy problems with the storage of medical data, another study [102] suggested a
distributed, privacy-preserving information repository for smart health called Derepo that made use of homomorphic
encryption and decentralized access control. The double-layered architecture, which combined static and dynamic
processes, guaranteed controllability, manageability, and pseudonymity while maintaining computability. Fully
homomorphic encryption (FHE) ensured confidentiality and addressed privacy concerns, while the consortium
blockchain ensured the access control system's reliability. The suggested method made use of distributed ledger
technology to offer a reliable access control system and homomorphic encryption for protecting data privacy and
computability. The design was user-centric, and the sole holder of information was managing access and decrypting
their information. The encrypted data can be processed by authorized third parties without accessing its original
contents. A Derepo prototype was evaluated for security assessments, demonstrating its feasibility. Future work will
concentrate on optimizing the performance and expanding the functionality to an industrial level.

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Figure 28: Th FED-IDS framework [99].
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IV. Blockchain-Enabled Decentralized AI for Cybersecurity

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A) Introduction of the concept of blockchain-enabled decentralized AI for cybersecurity

AI and BT have both experienced incredible growth and development in recent years [103]. While AI has
enhanced its efficiency and efficacy for numerous uses, such as cybersecurity, blockchain technology is well known
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for its capacity to provide secure and decentralized record-keeping. One potential use for these technologies is the
creation of decentralized AI models for cybersecurity using blockchain and AI [95]. Decentralized AI models can be
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distributed across several nodes by utilizing the distributed computing capabilities of blockchain networks, enhancing
the security and resiliency of AI models and cybersecurity systems. Decentralized AI is able to assist in addressing a
number of the obstacles brought on by conventional centralized AI models, such as issues with data privacy and
security. By utilizing federated learning and other decentralized methods of AI training, sensitive data can be secured
while still allowing for the efficient training of AI models.
In the context of the IIoT, one study [104] suggested a blockchain-enabled intelligent IoT framework that
used AI to facilitate efficient big data analysis, as shown in Figure 30. The proposed design sought to address issues
with centralized schemes, security, privacy, resource constraints, and the absence of training data for artificial
intelligence. A qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the design demonstrated that it exceeded current IoT
architectures in terms of accuracy, latency, security, privacy, computational complexity, and energy cost. The proposed
architecture converged blockchain and AI and enabled a scalable and accurate analysis of data in real time for IoT
applications. Although there are still challenges, including scalability, interoperability, and energy efficiency, the
authors recommended incorporating machine intelligence principles into the architecture to solve these issues.
In order to address issues with the electric vehicle (EV) charging systems, such as vulnerable charging
stations and inefficient charging schedules, another paper [105] suggested integrating blockchain with AI. The authors
reviewed the market's existing AI and BT charging systems and suggested use scenarios where both methodologies
might work together to create a safe, effective, and distributed charging system. The study explored possible trends
and executions for better-charging infrastructure for EVs as illustrated in Figure 31. The proposed framework sought
to provide a high quality of service (QoS) for end users. The authors assessed the existing state of the EV charging
ecosystem and highlighted two significant obstacles: balancing consumer satisfaction with grid operations, and
maintaining security and privacy. The potential of AI was assessed in scheduling EVs and improving the provisioning
of EV charging stations, and the impact of blockchain was evaluated in protecting the ecosystem and facilitating
trustless energy trade between EVs, private charging station owners, and power utilities. The authors provided use
scenarios emphasizing the potential advantages of combining both technologies, and they came to the conclusion that
integrating AI and Blockchain is necessary for developing an effective charging ecosystem.
In the context of 6G, another paper [106] suggested using blockchain technology for decentralized network
management. There is a rising need for fault-tolerant and censorship-resistant solutions as communication services
become more virtualized and software-defined to assure trust in the data and infrastructure. Blockchains are thought
to be a viable remedy that might automate some contractual agreements and offer a decentralized environment for
numerous parties and resources. This study examined the use of blockchain in various network functions, including
dynamic spectrum management, software-defined networking, resource management, and IoT services. Researchers
are becoming more interested in decentralized methods of network management, especially as operators look for ways
to guarantee the reliability of data, operations, and business transactions while preserving business continuity.

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Figure 30. The design overview of the proposed BlockIoTIntelligence Architecture [104]. Figure 31: Electric
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vehicle infrastructure and protocols [105].

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To create a trustworthy and respectful community according to the time banking concept, research [107] has
also suggested a blockchain-enabled decentralized time banking system (BlendTBS). BlendTBS is a system that
compensates users for taking part in socially positive activities and operates on a permissioned blockchain network.
An initial BlendTBS prototype was implemented, and small-scale research has assessed the system's usefulness in a
traditional community on the island of Aneityum, Republic of Vanuatu. The authors hope that by presenting this
position paper, more people will become interested in the uses of BT in contemporary society.

B) Analysis of the benefits and difficulties of blockchain-enabled decentralized AI for cybersecurity

There are a lot of potential advantages to decentralized AI enabled by blockchain for cybersecurity, but there
are also a lot of difficulties and restrictions with this method. It is therefore vital to carefully weigh both the advantages
and the disadvantages.
The benefits of blockchain-enabled decentralized AI for cybersecurity are:
1. Improved Security: A secure and decentralized framework is provided by BT, which can be exploited to
further enhance the security of AI models [108] [109]. Deploying decentralized AI models over numerous
network nodes minimizes the probability of a single point of failure or attack.
One study [110] investigated the security flaws in smart vehicular networks (SVNs) and suggested a secure
architecture to deal with these issues utilizing blockchain and deep neural networks (DNNs). The study emphasized
that SVN properties, such as mobility, decentralization, and resource limitations, make traditional security methods
incompatible. The suggested platform uses a cluster-based manner so that every cluster's vehicles can securely interact
using blockchain; DNN is then employed to find the irregular vehicles that are attacked in each zone, using network
traffic analysis. The findings of this test suggested that the new framework enhanced throughput, including the
increasing of miners and block size, and that DNN execution for irregular vehicle detection performed with great
accuracy. The suggested framework can improve SVN's efficiency and security and make it more resistant to
cyberattacks.
A new key management protocol for industrial cyber physical systems (ICPSs) utilizing blockchain and artificial
intelligence has also been proposed [111]. The protocol enables the creation of keys between IoT-enabled smart-
devices and their corresponding gateway-nodes. Fog servers then partially construct blocks using secure information
from smart devices and deliver them to cloud servers in charge of finalizing the blocks, mining them for verification,
and adding them to the blockchain. The private blockchain architecture enables precise predictions utilizing AI
algorithms for big data analysis. The suggested method was examined in an ICPS environment for security and
demonstrated resilience to probable attacks; it also utilizied realistic testbed tests employing cryptographic libraries to
illustrate its superiority over other methods.

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2. Increased Resilience: By facilitating more rapid and efficient threat detection and response, decentralized

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AI models can assist in strengthening cybersecurity systems. Decentralized AI models can identify and react
to emerging risks faster than centralized models using blockchain-distributed computing resources and AI

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algorithms, making the former more resilient [109].
One study [112] suggested that disaster aid networks could become more resilient by utilizing blockchain
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technology. Getting supplies to those in need can be difficult in disaster zones because of their unpredictable and
dynamic nature. Collaboration, coordination, sovereignty, and equality in the provision of aid are essential for disaster
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response networks to succeed. Smart contracts enabled by blockchain technology allow for secure, real-time data
sharing and automation in a decentralized environment, making it a promising solution to this problem. As shown in
Figure 32, this paper investigated how blockchain technology can be integrated with the IoT and dynamic voltage
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frequency scaling (DVFS) to improve disaster management resilience. The findings demonstrated that blockchain
technology can enhance disaster-aid network methods and provide insightful information for researchers and
management interested in practical implementation. Despite these promising results, the study itself has its
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shortcomings, such as restrictions on data collecting, reliance on a single case study, and absence of on-site verification
of simulation results. The collecting of accurate data is hampered by the confidentiality of data regarding agency
interaction and coordination during disasters. It is also challenging to validate model implementation on-site in the
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absence of an actual disaster.

Another paper [113] investigated how BT and smart contracts could enhance security and resilience for smart
grids. The study analyzed energy transcations and how integrating smart contracts, AI, and blockchain can eliminate
the demand for third-party intermediaries and simplify the adoption of decentralized energy transactions and
interactions, decreasing costs and boosting security and sustainability for these systems.
Another study [114] suggested a blockchain-based smart grid that incorporated peer-to-peer energy trading and
zero-trust cybersecurity to improve resilience. The authors emphasized the necessity of reliable and sustainable
solutions as well as the vulnerability of current energy infrastructure to cyber-attacks. The suggested strategy, as
depicted in Figure 33, combined smart contracts and peer-to-peer energy trading to allow small customers and
suppliers to engage in energy markets. The findings showed that smart contracts built on blockchains improved zero-
trust cybersecurity, reducing cyberattacks and attaining resilience. Future studies will require empirical research to
test this proposed model.
 Figure 32: Conceptual model [115] Figure 33: Smart contract research model [114].

3. Data Privacy: Sensitive data can be kept private when it is local to a device or node. Decentralized
approaches to AI training, such as federated learning, can assist in addressing data privacy issues highlighted
by centralized AI models while also allowing a decentralized model to train on this data securely [81].

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One paper [116] investigated how BT and FL are used to enhance the privacy and security of information in
collaborative learning. FL is a new training approach that permits numerous scattered nodes to learn a deep learning

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(DL) model simultaneously without sharing information. However, the trained model may be compromised by
malicious actors using specific security flaws in present FL techniques. To combat this, the study suggested a

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blockchain-enabled security paradigm that can provide a better DL model without sharing information; doing so would
enhance privacy by enforcing greater data security and access rights as described in Figure 34. Data and model
poisoning attacks were studied using a blockchain-facilitated FL method constructed along the Ethereum network and
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a conventional FL method (without blockchain). The study offered a transparent incentive structure that motivated
participating decentralized nodes for good behavior and prevented frequent problems. The study analyzed the potential
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of BT for improving privacy and data security in collaborative learning and offered insightful information for the FL
security literature. Future research could concentrate on analyzing how incentive based block chains affect FL methods
with asynchronous and heterogeneous training datasets. The study used Infura and Rinkeby Testnet to lower gas fees,
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but further research is required to comprehend the full effect of an incentive-based blockchain utilizing the FL method
in practical situations including mainnet.
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In order to solve privacy and efficiency concerns in fog computing, another study [117] suggested a
new blockchain-enabled federated learning (FL-Block) system, as explained in Figure 35. The FL-Block architecture
enables local learning updates for end users, which are exchanged with a blockchain-based global learning scheme
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validated by miners. The suggested model used a PoW consensus technique to facilitate autonomous machine learning
without a central authority. Additionally, the paper evaluated FL-Block's latency performance and determined the ideal
block generation rate, taking into account communication, consensus delays, and computing cost. Findings from the
assessment indicated that FL-Block performed better than other options in terms of protecting privacy, effectiveness,
and resilience to poisoning attacks. By maximizing the trade-off between efficiency and privacy protection, the authors
intended to expand the model to more generic scenarios in future work. Additionally, they wanted to investigate how
game theory and Markov decision processes might be used to find the ideal conditions for computing and
communication costs.

Figure 34: Collaborative learning system description [116]. Figure 35: Decentralized privacy in fog computing
based on FL-Block [117].
 4. Improved Collaboration: Decentralized threat intelligence sharing and other collaborative cybersecurity
schemes can be facilitated by blockchain-enabled decentralized AI models. By utilizing the combined
knowledge and experience of various organizations and stakeholders, threats can be detected and handled
more effectively [109].
As seen in Figure 36, one study [118] proposed a blockchain-based accountability approach for digital-twin
environments that are distributed and cooperative. The approach incorporated a public or private authority that offered
complete security and privacy perseveration, with no repudiation of block chain transactions. The suggested method
was built on the "X-by-design" and "X-as-a-service" concepts and greater security, accountability, and integrity in
decentralized techniques. This study demonstrated that BT has the ability to develop various industries by introducing
novel features including smart contracts, content tokenization, the elimination of counterfeit products, supply chain
optimization, digital-twins, and end-to-end security.
An architecture for a blockchain enabled Internet of Vehicles (IoV) with cooperative positioning (CP) has also
been proposed [119] to increase the precision, resilience, and security of vehicular GPS location, as shown in Figure
37. The suggested framework includes: a self-positioning correction method based on the DNN algorithm for
increasing the positioning accuracy of intelligent vehicles; an intelligent multiple vehicle positioning error to decrease

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GPS positioning errors for common vehicles; and a blockchain-enabled system for information sharing and security
among intelligent vehicles, CoVs, and roadside units. The suggested architecture was assessed using extensive

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simulation results, which revealed enhancements in vehicular positioning accuracy, information transfer, and sharing.

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Figure 36: Proposed model for digital twin environments [118]. Figure 37: IoV system
architecture [119].

The challenges of blockchain-enabled decentralized AI for cybersecurity are:

1. Scalability: Deploying and maintaining decentralized AI models enabled by blockchain can be
computationally intensive and require significant computing resources. As a result, scalability may be a
considerable difficulty [12].
2. Network Connectivity: For decentralized AI models to be effective, they need very high levels of network
connectivity and stability. In certain environments, especially in distant and/or less developed areas, this can
be difficult [120].
3. Lack of Standards: For blockchain-enabled decentralized AI, there is presently a lack of standards and best
practices. As a consequence, maintaining interoperability and security across many systems and networks
may be difficult [121].
4. Regulatory and Legal Issues: A number of regulatory and legal challenges, specifically those related to data
privacy and security, are brought up by the usage of blockchain and AI in cybersecurity. Therefore, for
enterprises looking to adopt this strategy, overcoming regulatory and legal frameworks can be a major
problem [121].
C) Review of existing blockchain-enabled decentralized AI solutions for cybersecurity
This section shows some of the existing solutions that offer insight into the future of cybersecurity and the role
that blockchain and AI will play in tackling growing threats.
1. PolySwarm: PolySwarm is a blockchain-based marketplace for threat intelligence that detects and responds
to threats using a decentralized network of security experts and AI models [122]. The platform uses BT to
facilitate secure and transparent interaction among various security experts and organizations.
2. DeepBrain Chain: DeepBrain Chain is a decentralized AI computing platform that employs blockchain
technology to provide effective and affordable AI training and inference. Due to the platform's ability to share
computational resources over a network of nodes, large-scale AI models can be trained more rapidly and cost
effectively than conventional centralized methods [123].
3. SingularityNET: Blockchain technology is used by SingularityNET, a decentralized AI marketplace, to
facilitate the cooperation and sharing of AI models and services [124]. The platform makes it possible for
developers and entrepreneurs to acquire and utilize AI models from many suppliers, fostering a more
productive and cooperative AI ecosystem.

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4. Enigma: Enigma is a blockchain-based, decentralized privacy protocol that permits secure and private data

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sharing and analysis [125]. Without disclosing sensitive information to a single party, the platform uses secure
multi-party computational techniques to facilitate data analysis and AI model training.

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5. IOTA: Using blockchain technology, the IOTA Foundation has created a decentralized method of intrusion
detection. The system employs a distributed network of sensors and AI models to enhance the precision and
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effectiveness of intrusion detection while also detecting cyber threats in real time [126].
6. Sovrin: A blockchain-based identity management system called Sovrin leverages decentralized AI to offer
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secure and accurate identity authentication [127]. By allowing individuals and entities to securely
communicate and verify identity information, a mechanism reduces the probability of fraud and identity theft
[128].
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V. Future Research Directions

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This section explains the future research directions for blockchain-enabled decentralized AI in cybersecurity to further
enhance this technology. The following need to be addressed by researchers:
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1. Integration of blockchain and decentralized AI: Future studies should examine more sophisticated
applications of blockchain and decentralized AI technology for enhancing cybersecurity. For instance,
researchers can look into the possibility of using blockchain as a secure and transparent framework for
training and sharing AI models. By facilitating more secure and effective information sharing, threat
detection, and response capabilities, the integration of blockchain and decentralized AI technologies has the
capability to revolutionize cybersecurity. This direction of research may result in the creation of more
advanced and reliable cybersecurity systems, which may then assist in protecting enterprises from evolving
cyberthreats.
2. Improved interoperability: The advancement of blockchain and decentralized AI solutions that are more
standardized and interoperable would greatly improve the effectiveness and efficiency of cybersecurity
processes. In order to improve collaboration and data sharing, future research should investigate strategies
for achieving interoperability across various blockchain platforms and decentralized AI models. This research
direction can address the existing fragmentation of blockchain and AI technologies, allowing for improved
collaboration and information exchange. Consequently, enhanced interoperability could lead to more rapid,
precise, and efficient cybersecurity responses.
3. Decentralized identity management: A crucial component of cybersecurity is identity management, and
future studies should explore the potential of blockchain and decentralized AI in designing more effective
 and secure identity management platforms. To create more reliable and scalable identity management
solutions, researchers should look into the adoption of decentralized identity protocols and their incorporation
with BT and AI technologies. The security and privacy of user information can be significantly enhanced
through decentralized identity management, which serves an essential role in cybersecurity. This research
could lead to the development of more robust and scalable identity management technologies, which could
then better protect user data and prevent illegal access to critical information.
4. Privacy-preserving blockchain and AI: Privacy is a significant concern in cybersecurity, and future studies
could investigate the potential of using privacy-preserving blockchain and AI technologies for enhancing the
security of highly sensitive data. To create more secure and private blockchain and AI solutions, researchers
should examine the usage of advanced cryptography and privacy-enhancing technology. This research may
lead to the building of more trustworthy and privacy-preserving blockchain and AI technologies, which may
protect more effectively critical data and avoid unauthorized access.
5. Regulatory and legal considerations: These concerns need to be resolved as blockchain and decentralized
AI technologies grow and develop. Future studies can examine the opportunities and challenges for
blockchain and decentralized AI in cybersecurity law, as well as how to assure compliance with pertinent

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regulations. This direction can encourage the adoption of blockchain and decentralized AI technologies in
cybersecurity.

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In conclusion, there is a wide range of future research topics for blockchain-enabled, decentralized AI in cybersecurity.
By continuing to investigate these directions, researchers can contribute to the establishment of more secure, efficient,

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and effective cybersecurity solutions. re
VI. Conclusion
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The growing demand for secure and decentralized AI in cybersecurity has prompted this investigation of blockchain
technology. The potential benefits and drawbacks of utilizing BT and decentralized AI in cybersecurity, as well as
current solutions and practical use cases, have all been examined in this paper, and the analysis has revealed that the
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integration of BT and decentralized AI mechanisms holds enormous promise. It can revolutionize cybersecurity by
facilitating more secure and efficient information sharing, threat detection, and response. However, in order to do this
successfully, various obstacles and restrictions must be addressed, such as scalability, interoperability, and regulatory
ur

considerations. Current solutions, such as decentralized AI systems and blockchain-based cybersecurity platforms,
have shown promise in addressing these issues. Even so, there is still potential for advancement and further
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investigation in developing more reliable solutions.

The practical advantages of integrating blockchain technology with decentralized AI in the context of cybersecurity
are significant. This convergence offers enhanced data integrity and transparency through blockchain's immutable
ledger, ensuring that AI-generated insights and actions are tamper-proof and auditable. Furthermore, the collaborative
environment enabled by blockchain facilitates decentralized threat detection, faster response times, and improved
accuracy, thereby fortifying cybersecurity operations against ever-evolving and sophisticated threats.
Moreover, the potential impact of future research, including the integration of blockchain and decentralized AI,
improved interoperability, decentralized identity management, privacy-preserving solutions, and regulatory and legal
considerations, can significantly advance the field of blockchain-enabled decentralized AI in cybersecurity.
The combination of blockchain technology and decentralized AI has the potential to address many of the challenges
faced in cybersecurity today. As the field continues to evolve, it is crucial that researchers and practitioners work
together to develop new solutions that can provide the highest level of security and protection against cyber threats.
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Declaration of interests

☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

☐ The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered
as potential competing interests:

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