Lesson 3:

Components of Cells: Structure and Function

MEDICAL AND BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE of a cell
1. All higher living organisms including humans are made up of cells.
2. Human body contains wide variety of cells that differ in structure and different in functions between in the
separate organisms
3. Human cell contains subcellular structures they can be Organelles having a specific region in the cells with
distinct physical or chemical concentrations or cell structures with a particular task. One of the examples of
subcellular structure are nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes and peroxisomes etc. Organelles having a specific
region in the cells with distinct physical or chemical concentrations or cell structures with a particular task.
NUCLEUS- It regulates the cell's growth and reproduction and holds its genetic information. It has been made
evident that the genetic material of a cell is contained in the membrane-bound nucleus. Nucleus is not just found
in plant or animals it is found in all eukaryotic cells like fungi, protist
EUKARYOTIC CELLS- organisms whose cells contain well defined nucleus, mitochondria, endo plasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus and vacuoles or other membrane-bound organelles
membrane bound organelles- are only found in eukaryotic cells

4. Each subcellular structure the has unique shape and function.

5. Some diseases are due to a lack of subcellular structures.
6. Zellweger’s syndrome is due to lack of peroxisomes.
7. Lysosomal enzymes are involved in spreading of cancer.
8. Lack of lysosomes or its enzymes results in lysosomal diseases.
9. Growth of cells requires cell divisions. Cell cycle encompasses all the events of
cell division.
10. Cells are not immortal because humans are not immortal. They have finite life span.
11. Cell death is crucial for shaping of organs during development and for
recovery from injuries.
12. Biochemistry explores molecular mechanisms of normal cellular processes as
well as diseases.
13. Mitochondria is involved in apoptosis.
14. Endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes and Golgi complex are involved in the integration
of pro-apoptin signals.

MOLECULAR COMPOSITION OF CELL

Water
Water accounts for about 70-75% of the weight of the cell. Other cellular constituents are
either dissolved or suspended in water.

Organic Compounds
1. Organic compounds accounts for 25-30% of the cell weight.
2. They are nucleic acids, proteins, polysaccharides (carbohydrates) and lipids. Proteins
accounts 10-20% of the weight of the cell. Nucleic acids account 7-10% of the cell
weight. Polysaccharides usually account for 2-5% of the cell weight. About 3% of cell
weight is due to lipids. Lipid’s content may be higher in adipocytes or fat cells. Proteins
may account more of cell weight in cells like erythrocytes known as the red blood cells in human.
3. Other low molecular weight organic compounds may account for 4% of cell weight.
They are monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, purine and pyrimidine nucleotides,
peptides, hormones, vitamins and coenzymes.
Monosaccharides are the building blocks of disaccharides such as sucrose and lactose
Polysaccharides such as cellulose and starch

Inorganic Compounds
1. Inorganic compounds account for the rest of the cell weight.
2. They are cations like sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, copper, iron and anions
like chloride, phosphate, bicarbonate, sulfate, iodide and fluoride.

EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

In eukaryotes, cells aggregate to form tissues or organs and these are further organized
to form whole organism. In humans, eukaryotic cells exist in large number of sizes and
shapes to perform varieties of functions. For example, nerve cells differ from liver cell
which differ from muscle cell and they differ in function also. Though the eukaryotic cells
differ in sizes and shapes they have certain common structural features. Further,
eukaryotes contain subcellular structures and well defined nucleus. Cells are surrounded
by membranes. It separates the cells from surrounding and it is called as plasma or cell
membrane.

SUBCELLULAR STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

A. Cell Membrane
Structure
1. The outermost structure of the cell that decides its contour is the cell membrane.
2. It is a lipid bilayer- A common element of all cell membranes. It plays a crucial role because the barrier that
delineates a cell's boundaries is provided by its structural elements. Because the structure consists of two layers
of fat cells arranged in two sheets. It also consists of proteins and small amounts of carbohydrates

Functions
1. it is a bloodstream flowing that describes the flow of fluids in our body So, it is fluid and dynamic
2. It is semi permeable- are membranes are those that permit solvent molecules to flow across them but not
solute molecules. These semipermeable membranes can be made of cellulose, cellulose nitrate, animal bladder,
etc., only selected compounds are allowed to pass through from out-
side. The selective permeability is responsible for the maintenance of internal environment of the cell and for
creating potential difference across the membrane.
3. The modification of the cell membrane results in formation of specialized structures
like axon of nerves, microvilli of intestinal epithelium and tail of spermatids.

B. Nucleus
Structure
1. Centre of the cell is nucleus.
2. It is surrounded by double-layer membrane of about 250-400 Å thick.
3. The two layers of nuclear membrane are an outer and inner membrane (layer). The two
membranes fuse periodically to produce nuclear pores. Exchange of material between
nucleus and rest of the cell occurs through nuclear pores.
4. The outer nuclear membrane continuous with other cytomembranes. In some
eukaryotic cells, like erythrocyte nucleus is absent. In spermatozoa, nucleus accounts
for 90% of cell whereas in other cell’s nucleus accounts for less than 10% of the cell. In
prokaryotes, nucleus is not well defined.

Functions
1. Nucleus is the information Centre of eukaryotic cell. More than 90% of the cellular DNA
is present in the nucleus. It is mainly concentrated in the form of chromosomes.
2. Human cell contains 46 chromosomes. These chromosomes are composed of
nucleoprotein chromatin, which consist of DNA and proteins histones. Some RNA may
also present in the nucleus.
3. In prokaryotes, the DNA is present as thread in the cytosol.

C. Nucleolus
Structure and Function
1. These are small dense bodies present in the nucleus. Their number varies from cell to cell.
2. There is no membrane surrounding them. They are continuous with nucleoplasm. Protein
accounts for 80% of nucleolus remainder is DNA and RNA.

D. Nucleoplasm
1. It is also called as nuclear matrix. It contains enzymes involved in the synthesis of DNA
and RNA.

E. Cytosol, Cytoplasm or Cell Sap

Structure
1. The extra nuclear cell content that possesses both organelles and other material
constitutes cytoplasm. Material other than subcellular components in the cytoplasm
makes up the cytosol or cell sap.
2. Sometimes soluble portion of the cell is referred as cytosol. Cytoplasm accounts for 70-
75% weight of the cytosol.

Functions
1. Numerous enzymes, proteins and many other solutes are found in cytosol.
2. Cytosol is the main site for glycolysis, HMP shunt, activation of amino acids and fatty-
acid synthesis.

F. Mitochondria
Structure
1. Are the second largest structures in the cell.
2. Generally, mitochondria are ellipsoidal in shape and can assume variety of shapes.
3. The length of a mitochondrion is about 7 microns and has a diameter of 1 micron.
4. Mitochondria consist of outer and inner membranes. The outer membrane is composed
of equal amount of protein and lipids.
5. The lipids are mainly phospholipids and cholesterol. The outer membrane functions as
a limiting membrane and permeable to many compounds.
6. The inner membrane consists of 75% protein and remainder is lipid.
7. Cardiolipin is the important phospholipid of inner mitochondrial membrane.
8. The inner membrane is convoluted to form number of invaginations known as cristae
extending to matrix (see figure above).
9. These cristae are covered with knob like structures, which are composed of head piece,
stalk and a base piece.
Functions:
1. The number of mitochondria ranges from 1-100 per cell depending on type of cell and
its function. Several factors influence the size and number of mitochondria in cells. In
yeast, mitochondria are present in aerobic state and absent in anaerobic state.
Exposure to cold increases mitochondria by 20-30% in liver cells.
2. In highly metabolically active cells mitochondria are more and large.
3. Location of mitochondria in cell also depends on types and functions of cell. In liver cell
mitochondria are scattered. In muscles they are parellely arranged. Mitochondria in
liver cell may range up to 2000 whereas in kidney they may range up to 300.
4. Mitochondria is the power house of the cell. It is responsible for the production of
energy in the form of ATP. The knob like structures functions in electron transport and
oxidative phosphorylation.
5. Mitochondria also contain other energy producing pathways like citric-acid cycle, fatty
acid oxidation and ketone-body oxidation.
6. Some reactions of gluconeogenesis and urea cycle also occur in mitochondria.
Mitochondria are capable of synthesizing some of its proteins.
7. Mitochondria contain some DNA known as mitochondrial DNA and ribosome.
8. Mitochondria which are essential for life because of their involvement in ATP
production also pay key role in programmed cell death of several types of cells. During
apoptosis, mitochondrial membrane potential drops. This leads to permeabilization of
mitochondrial membrane. Cytochrome-C or mitochondrial proteins are released into
cytosol which activates death enzymes. Further alterations in mitochondrial
morphology also occur during apoptosis.
9. In humans, mitochondria are derived from mother only. Hence, origin of mother of
humans has been traced.
10. Outer and inner mitochondrial membranes contain translocase enzymes. They are
involved in sorting of nuclear encoded proteins into mitochondrial sub-compartments
as well as for their import into mitochondria. The inner mitochondrial membrane
space is home for several lethal proteins like pro-death enzymes.

G. Lysosomes
Structure
1. They are small vesicles present in cytoplasm.
2. They are surrounded by a membrane. Lysosomes are called as ‘Suicidal bags’ of the cell.

Functions
1. Lysosomes are rich in hydrolytic enzymes, which are active at acidic pH. The lysosomal
enzymes digest the molecules brought into the cell by phagocytosis.
2. Macrophages are rich in lysosomes.

Medical Importance
1. Lysosomal enzymes are involved in bone remodeling and intracellular digestion.
2. Disease, shock or cell death causes rupture of lysosomes and release of enzymes. In
some organisms, lysosomal enzymes are responsible for cell death of larval tissues.
3. Lack of one or more of lysosomal enzymes cause accumulation of materials in the cell
resulting in lysosomal diseases.
4. In some disease like arthritis and muscular dystrophy, lysosomal enzymes are released
to cause uncontrolled destruction of surrounding tissues. Lysosomal proteases
cathepsins are involved in spreading of cancer (metastasis).
5. As the age advances in digestible material an age pigment ‘lipofuscin’ occurs in some
cells.
6. Lysosomal cystine transporter cystinosis is defective in cystinosis, which is a
lysosomal disease. Hence, cystine transport into cytosol from lysosome is blocked.
7. Lysosomes are involved in integration of pro-apoptin signals.

H. Peroxisomes
Structure
1. Are also small vesicles surrounded by a membrane. They are also called as microbodies.

Functions:
1. They contain enzymes of H2O2 metabolism. The concentration of protein in
peroxisomes is very high and they may occur in crystalline form. The enzymes of
H2O2 catabolism present in peroxisomes are peroxidase and catalase.
2. Peroxisomes also contain other enzymes like D, L-amino acid oxidase, uric acid
oxidase and L-hydroxy fatty acid oxidation that generates H2O2. Glycerophospholipids
are also synthesized in peroxisomes.

I. Medical Importance
1. Lack of peroxisomes result in Zellweger’s syndrome.
Cytomembranes
There is an extensive network of membranes in the cytoplasm. These membranes are
called as cytomembranes. They are divided into endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex
or apparatus. The endoplasmic reticulum is further subdivided into rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RFR) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
2. Disease, shock or cell death causes rupture of lysosomes and release of enzymes. In
some organisms, lysosomal enzymes are responsible for cell death of larval tissues.
3. Lack of one or more of lysosomal enzymes cause accumulation of materials in the cell
resulting in lysosomal diseases.
4. In some disease like arthritis and muscular dystrophy, lysosomal enzymes are released
to cause uncontrolled destruction of surrounding tissues. Lysosomal proteases
cathepsins are involved in spreading of cancer (metastasis).
5. As the age advances in digestible material an age pigment ‘lipofuscin’ occurs in some
cells.
6. Lysosomal cystine transporter cystinosis is defective in cystinosis, which is a
lysosomal disease. Hence, cystine transport into cytosol from lysosome is blocked.
7. Lysosomes are involved in integration of pro-apoptin signals.

J. Peroxisomes
Structure
1. Are also small vesicles surrounded by a membrane. They are also called as microbodies.

Functions
1. They contain enzymes of H2O2 metabolism. The concentration of protein in
peroxisomes is very high and they may occur in crystallizes form. The enzymes of
H2O2 catabolism present in peroxisomes are peroxidase and catalase.
2. Peroxisomes also contain other enzymes like D, L-amino acid oxidase, uric acid
oxidase and L-hydroxy fatty acid oxidation that generates H2O2. Glycerophospholipids
are also synthesized in peroxisomes.

Medical Importance
1. Lack of peroxisomes result in Zellweger’s syndrome.
Cytomembranes
There is an extensive network of membranes in the cytoplasm. These membranes are
called as cytomembranes. They are divided into endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex
or apparatus. The endoplasmic reticulum is further subdivided into rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RFR) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).

K. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Structure
1. It is continuous with outer nuclear membrane.
2. The cytoplasmic surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum is coated with ribosomes.
Membrane enclosed channels of endoplasmic reticulum are called cisternae. The
ribosomes are complexes of RNA and protein.

Functions
1. Ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum are involved in protein synthesis.
2. Protein synthesized, enters cisternae and later extruded.

L. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

Structure
1. It is continuous with rough endoplasmic reticulum. It differs from RER by the absence
of ribosomes. When isolated SER is called as microsomes.

Functions
1. SER of intestinal cells is involved in formation of triglycerides.
2. In the adrenal cortex, SER is the site of steroid formation.
3. Cytochrome P450 dependent monooxygenases are present in liver cell SER.

M. Golgi Apparatus
Structure
1. It consists of cluster of paired cytomembranes. The margins of these cytomembranes
are flattened.
2. It also contains several small vesicles, which are pinched off from the flattened
margins of membranes.
Functions
1. The Golgi bodies are well developed in cells, which are involved in secretion. Material
produced in the cell for export is processed by golgi body and is packaged as vesicle and
is pinched off. The vesicles fuse with plasma membrane and their content is released
to exterior by the process known as exocytosis. The digestive enzymes of pancreas and
insulin is produced and released in this way.
2. Golgi apparatus helps in the formation of other subcellular organelles like lysosomes
and peroxisomes.
3. Golgi apparatus is involved in protein targeting. It directs proteins to be incorporated
into membranes of other subcellular structures. It is also involved in glycosylation and
sulfation of proteins.
4. Golgi apparatus is involved in integration of pro-apoptic signal. It generates pre-apoptic
mediator ganglioside GD3.

Medical Importance
1. Some cases of diabetes are due to defective processing of insulin in Golgi complex.
Intracellular Ion Channels
2. Membrane of endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex and nucleus has ion channels. They
are involved in transport of ions between cytosol and these intracellular components.
3. Calcium and chloride ion channels which are involved in their transport from these
components into cytosol are known.

N. Vacuoles.
1. Some animal cells contain vacuoles. They are membrane enclosed vesicles
containing fluid. Mostly they contain nutrients.
Cell Coat. Some mammalian cells contain thin coat known as cell coat on the outer surface
of the cell membrane. The cell coat is flexible and sticky. It is composed of
mucopolysaccharides, glycolipids and glycoproteins. The adhesive properties of cell and
organization of tissue is controlled by cell coat.
2. Cytoskeletons
These are filament like structures made up of proteins present in cytoplasm. Non-muscle
cells perform mechanical work with these intracellular networks of proteins.
(a)Microfilaments. They are actin like filaments. They form loose web beneath cell
membrane.
(b)Myosin Fibres. Same as that of myosin of skeletal muscle.
(c) Microtubules. Tubulin is the building block of microtubules. Dendrites, axons of
nerve cells and sperm cells contain microtubules. The sperm cell moves with the
help of flagellum, a microtubule. These cyto skeletons are involved in the
maintenance of cell shape, cell division, cell motility, phagocytosis, endocytosis
and exocytosis.
(d) Intermediate Filaments. They are not involved in movement of cell. They are stable
components of cytoskeleton. Neurofilament of neurons, glial filaments of glial cells
and keratin of epithelial cells are some examples of intermediary filaments.

CELL CYCLE
1. In all forms of life growth requires cell division.
2. However, some cells divide even after growth like erythrocytes and epithelial cells of
intestine.
Sequences of events associated with cell division occur in cyclic manner. Hence, cell cycle
consists of sequence of events, which occur in cyclic manner during cell division. There
are four stages (phases) in cell cycle. They are
1. S (Synthesis)-Phase
2. G1 (Gap 1)-Phase
3. G2 (Gap 2)-Phase
4. M (Mitosis)-Phase
Sometimes, cell cycle is considered in two main events. They are mitosis and inter phase
 which consist of G1, G2 and S-phases.
1. S (Synthesis)-Phase: Division of a cell into two daughter cells requires duplication of
DNA. During S-phase concentration of DNA precursors increases nearly 10-20 folds.
In S-phase DNA synthesis occurs. Period of DNA synthesis is almost constant in all
adult cells. (1 Hour)
2. G1 and G2-Phases: G1 and G2-phases are gaps or breaks in cell cycle. No special events
occur during these phases except the size of the cell may increase. However, there
may be many biochemical reactions taking place preparing the cell for division and
checking that all appropriate steps are completed. The period of S1, G2 and M-Phases
may range from 12-18 hours. But the period of G1-phase varies; it can be few hours to
months or even years.
3. Mitosis (M)-Phase: Many events take place in this phase of cell cycle. At the end mitosis
cell divides into two daughter cells. The daughter cells are in G1-phase.

Check Points in Cell Cycle

1. It is essential that during cell cycle, the synthesis of DNA, chromosomal segregation
and cytoplasm division takes place in proper order. So, controls or check points within
the cell cycle exist for all organisms.
2. During cell cycle, oscillation of cell from mitosis to interphase is controlled by many
cellular proteins. Further check points exist at the G1/S and G2/M boundaries of cell
cycle.

Four phases of cell cycle with check points

CELL DEATH
MEDICAL AND BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
1. Cells are not immortal i.e., they have finite life span. In the body, cells are formed and
destroyed. So, cells are in fluid and dynamic state.
2. Cell division and cell death are two opposite processes required to maintain constant
tissue volume (tissue homeostasis).
3. Further cell death plays an important role in shaping tissues and organs during
development or during recovery from injuries.
4. Cell death may occur due to several external factors also.
There are three types of cell death.
1. Necrosis: It is also termed as cell murder. Cells undergo necrotic death if cell mem-
brane is damaged or due to decreased oxygen supply and if energy (ATP) production is
blocked.
2. Apoptosis: This type of cell death occurs in tissue turnover. Individual cells or groups
of cells undergo this type of death. Aged cells in the body are removed by apoptosis. It is a
genetically programmed cell death. In the initial stages of apoptosis, cell shrinks, followed
by fragmentation and finally these fragments are eliminated by phagocytosis.
3.Atrophy: This type of cell death occurs in the absence of essential survival factors.
Survival factors required by the cell are produced by other cells. Absence of nerve growth
factor leads to atrophy of nerves. It is also genetically programmed cell death.

Summary (Lesson 1 -3)

Water has many properties that are critical to maintaining life. It is a polar molecule,
allowing for the formation of hydrogen bonds, which allow ions and other polar
molecules to dissolve in water. Therefore, water is an excellent solvent. The hydrogen
bonds between water molecules give water the ability to hold heat better than many
other substances. As the temperature rises, the hydrogen bonds between water
continually break and reform, allowing for the overall temperature to remain stable,
although increased energy is added to the system. Water’s cohesive forces allow for the
property of surface tension. All of these unique properties of water are important in the
chemistry of living organisms.

The pH of a solution is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. A

solution with a high number of hydrogen ions is acidic and has a low pH value. A solution
with a high number of hydroxide ions is basic and has a high pH value. The pH scale
ranges from 0 to 14, with a pH of 7 being neutral. Buffers are solutions that moderate pH
changes when an acid or base is added to the buffer system. Buffers are important in
biological systems because of their ability to maintain constant pH conditions.
When all the biochemical events occur in proper order, the cell or body remains normal.
Blocks in biochemical events manifest as disease. So, every known (to be known) disease
must (may) be due to blocks in biochemical events. The goal of biochemistry is to explain
all diseases in molecular terms. Therefore, biochemistry knowledge is required.