THE STUDY OF SENSORS AND ITS APPLICATION FOR MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

A SENIOR PROJECT SUBMITTED TO JIMMA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF NATURAL

SCIENCE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR BACHELOR DEGREE OF SCIENCE (B.SC) IN PHYSICS.

BY: SUDI NASIRO

ADVISOR: HIWOT DIGAFE (MSc)

JUNE, 2017
JIMMA, ETHIOPIA
Acknowledgement
First and for most glory to be the almighty God who made all thing possible. I would like to take
this opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude to my excellence advisor Hiwot Digafe for her
constructive comments and encouragement throughout this work. Finally I would like to extend
my deepest and special thanks to my mother for their supporting in all my duty. Also I extend
thanks for those who help me in day to day activities of this research proposal writing.

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ABSTRACT

Sensors are significant part of complex and sophisticated systems of modern technology; and so
heart of any inspection system. Systems of sensors are constructed for a variety of applications
including surveillance imaging mapping and target tracking. In medical fields sensors (like fiber
optical sensors) have wide application to measure the physical and chemical
parameters .The physical parameters of medical interest that have been successfully
measured by fiber optical sensors are pressure, temperature, blood flow, humidity cataract onset
radiation dose etc. Sensors are also used in electronic circuits to measure current and
temperature. In industries sensors are used to detect the presence or absence of an object.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS page
Acknowledgement …...........................................................................................ii
Abstract …............................................................................................................iii

Chapter 1 …........................................................................................................1
1 Introduction ….....................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of study ….....................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of problems …...................................................................................1
1.3 Ojectives ….........................................................................................................2
1.3.1 General objective …....................................................................................2
1.3.2 Specific objectives….....................................................................................2
1.4 Significance of study ….......................................................................................2
1.5 Delimitation of the study …................................................................................3
1.6 Limitation of the study …....................................................................................3

Chapter 2…................................................................................................................4
Literature Review ….....................................................................................................4
2 Sensors …..................................................................................................................4
2.1 Sensors characteristics …....................................................................................4
2.1.1 Cross-sensitivity …...............................................................................................5
2.1.2 Resolution ….........................................................................................................5
2.1.3 Dynamic Range …...............................................................................................5
2.1.4 Accuracy …...........................................................................................................5
2.2 Types of Sensors …..................................................................................................5
2.2.1 Active Sensors …..................................................................................................5
2.2.2 Passive Sensors …...................................................................................................5
2.3 Extending Sensors Usefulness ….............................................................................6
2.3.1 Calibration …..........................................................................................................6
2.3.2 Bridge measurement …............................................................................................6

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Chapter 3.…..........................................................................................................7
3 Methodology ….........................................................................................................7
3.1 Study area and period of study …......................................................................7
3.2 Project design …..................................................................................................7
3.3 Source of data/ Source of Information …..........................................................7
3.4 Method of the data analysis …............................................................................7

Chapter 4 ….........................................................................................................8
4.1........................................................................................9
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.1.4

4.2 …………………………………………………………..
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.3 ………………………………………………………..
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.4 ………………………………………………
4.4.1
4.4.2

REFERENCES ….....................................................................................................

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 CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1.1. Background
Sensor in the natural world includes those which equip us with our five senses –sight, hearing,
smell, taste and touch. This converts the various and diverse inputs to electro chemical
signal that can be used to inform or control the living organism [ 1].

In a similar way, in man-made devices, sensors are also used to measure various stimuli.
However, because of the broad range of potential inputs and outputs, the accepted definition of
sensors is refined. In this definition all devices that convert in put energy into output energy are
referred to us transducers, and sensors form a small subset of the group as defined below [1].

A sensor is a transducer that receivers the input signal or stimuli and responds with an electrical
signal bearing a known relationship to the input``. In some cases, the sensors provide their own
source of illumination, and are referred to us active sensor. Passive sensors, on the other hand, do
not provide illumination and depend on variations of natural conditions for detection [2].

Sensors are elements of measurement system. They are devices that can detect physical variables
such as force, length temperature, acceleration, velocity, pressure, frequency, capacity,
resistance, time, light intensity, etc. and have the ability to give a measurable output
signal sensors output varies in relation to the amplitude of the physical variable. Typical signal
variable includes voltage, displacement, current, force, pressure, light, frequency etc. This
project deals with the study of sensor and its application for measurement system [3].

1.2 Statement of the problem

sensors and its application for measurement system necessary to identify the challenges conduct
the researcher to do this title is to the study of sensors and its application for measurement
system .It also describe application of sensors in medicine, industrial and electronic circuits.
This study was sought to answer the following questions:
 How to understand the term sensor?
 How to explain the application of sensor in medicine
 How to explain the application of sensor in industry?
 How to describe the application of sensor in electronic circuits?

1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 General objective
The main objective of this study will be to understand the study of sensor and its application for
measurement system.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
The specific objective of this senior project is to
1. Enable to understand what a sensor is
2. Explain the application of sensor in medicine
3. Explain the application of sensor in industry
4. Describe application of sensor in electronic circuits

1.4 Significance of the study

This study is widely important in day-to-day activity of human life. Human tend to think about
things like whether the user needs the information, or whether it might challenges them, inspire
them or teach something new. As stated on the paper human being needs sensors in all
his activities, so knowing about sensors and their application is very important.
Generally, the study on the application of sensors in measurement system is used as a guideline
for the readers to prepare another project on sensor and deeply understand about the application
of sensor for measurement system.
1.5 Delimitation of the study
This study is basically to state the basic points of the study of sensors and its application for
measurement system .And also describe application of sensor in medicine, industry and
electronic circuit’s .This study will be performed based on the review methods and theoretical
analysis. In period of time April to June 2017 at Jimma university college of natural science
department of physics.

1.6 Limitation of the study

This study was influenced by the following problems.
 Limitation of knowledge to do the research
 Insufficient money to do the research in a sustainable way.
 Lack of references.
 Lack of experience.
 Limitations of time since the three months are not enough to do the research in
sustainable way.
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURES REVIEW

2.0 SENSORS
a sensor is converter that measures a physical quantity and converts it in to a signal that can be
read by an observer or an (today mostly electronic) instrument. For example, mercury in glass
thermometer converts the measured temperature in to expansion and contraction of a liquid that
can be read on a calibrated glass tube a thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage
that can be read by a voltmeter [4].
When a transducer converts measurable quantity (sound, pressure level, optical intensity,
magnetic field, etc.) to an electrical voltage or an electrical current we call it a sensor. A sensor is
advice, which responds to an input quantity by generating a functionally related output usually in
the form of an electrical or optical signal .A sensors sensitivity indicates how much the sensors
output changes when the measured quantity changes .For instance, if the mercury in a
thermometer move 1cm when the temperature changes by 1oc the sensitivity is 1cm1oc
(it is basically the slope DY/DX assuming a linear characteristic.

Sensors also have an impact on what they measure; for instance, a room temperature
thermometer inserted in to a hot cup liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats the
thermometer .Sensors need to be designed to have a small effect on what is measured; making
the sensors small effect on what is measured; making the sensors small improves this and may
introduce other advantage [5].
A good sensor obeys the following rules.
1. It is sensitive to the measured property only
2. It is sensitive to any other property likely to be encounter in its application
3. Does not influence the measured property
2.1. Sensor characteristics.
2.1.1 Cross- sensitivity
we define as cross –sensitivity the gain of the sensor with respect to an unintended stimulus. For
a sensor whose output y is intended to depend on a stimulus x we can define its cross sensitivity
on z as; Syz= ∂y/∂z.The existence of cross sensitivities is both a limitation and blessing
on accurate measurement. To make accurate and reproducible measurement the engineer needs
to carefully monitor and record environment parameters.
2.1.2. Resolution
The smallest change of input detectable at the output is called the resolution .In analogue system
the resolution is usually limited by noise .In digital system resolution is 1LSB (least significant
bit). A high resolution does not necessarily imply a high accuracy. [5].
2.1.3. Dynamic Range
The ratio between the maximum and minimum signals the compression or distortion, while the
minimum defined by the threshold .The dynamic range is often measured in units of the RMS
noise voltage, and expressed in a number of effective bits, or in decibels .So we will say that the
dynamic range of advice is D decibels if D=20log 10(ymax∕ymin) [5].
2.1.4. Accuracy
The difference between the apparent value of the stimulus and the actual value is called accuracy
.Accuracy is easy to intuitively understand but somewhat vague to define [5].
2.2. Types of Sensors
2.2.1. Active sensors
Active sensors are that who drives their power from the stimulus which they are
measuring .These includes:
1. Photovoltaic sensors : e.g. solar cells, portable exposure meters
2. piezoelectric sensors : generate electric polarization which is linearly related to the
applied force (stress) examples include gas igniters ,microphones ,older record player
cartridges , stress/ strain gauges[5].
3. Thermoelectric sensors: A thermo couple junction in formed when two dissimilar
metal are joined at one end when the junction is heated small voltage appears b/n the two
wires which is mono topically increasing with temperature.
4. Electromagnetic sensors: -Lenz’s law dictates that a changing magnetic flux through a
loop conductor will induce a voltage across its terminals. Electromagnetic sensors include
microphones, phonograph pickups metal detectors and dynamos. Actuators includes
 Earphones, loudspeakers and motors, both rotational and linear [5].
2.2.2. Passive Sensors
Sensors that requires an external power source (i.e. behaves like apposite circuit elements such as
resistors, capacitor or inductor) are called passive sensors. These include
5. Variable resistance sensors.
6. Variable resistance sensors ’:- the change in resistance of an element can be readily
measured [5].
7. Hall effect sensors: when current flowing through rectangular sheet conductor in the x-
direction is subjected to a magnetic field in the Z- direction the electors experience force
deflecting them sideways and thus producing a voltage across the conductor in the x-
direction is subjected to a magnetic field in the z- direction, the electrons experience
A force deflecting them sideways and thus producing a voltage across the conductor in the y-
direction.
8. Variable reactance sensors : is used as displacement trans utilized either in
conjunction with a frequency meter, as the variable capacitance, example, can be
resonated with affected inductor leading to a variable resonance frequency which can
then be measured [5].
2.3. Extending Sensors Usefulness
2.3.1. Calibration
Calibration techniques are used to extend the usefulness of an instrument, correcting for offsets,
non-linearity, hysteresis and other un desired characteristics of an instrument .To calibrate
an instrument one needs to measure known quantities and then devise an error model ( i.e. a set
of equations that allows the instrument raw reading to be corrected) [5].
2.3.2. Bridge measurements
The sensitivity of a sensor can be increased by incorporating it in abridge arrangement.
Impedance varying sensors are often arranged DC or AC wheat stone bridges [5].
 CHAPTER- 3
METHODOLGY
This chapter explains the system of studying the project; these are setting/area study design,
method of study and method of data analysis.

3.1 Study area and period of study

This study was conducted in Jimma University the period of April to June 2017

3.2. Project design

The project working of this study were reviewing article to investigate and describe the study of
sensor and its application for measurement system. And also explain the application of sensor in
medicine, industry and electronic circuits. This research method is theoretically research.

3.3. Source of Data/Source Information

The source of information for this study will be gathered on different ways .The source of infor-
mation secondary source of data collection from different article, books, standard journals, Inter-
net access with my daily at my local area

3.4. Method of the data analysis

The source of information for this project has been documentary source or secondary source to
find the study article or theoretical assumptions. Additionally also that source is Internet service,
different physics books etc. To do this study work, some articles and books was revised Impor-
tant information are gathered from Internet services and related books in library will be us. After
having collected the required information, data would be analyzed and arranged carefully in a
suitable manner to accomplish the final project.
 CHAPTER -4
DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Displacement Sensors

Displacement sensors can be used in both direct and indirect system of measurement.
Physicians and biomedical researchers are interested in measuring the size, shape, and
position of the organs and tissues of the body. Variations in these parameters are important
in discriminating normal from abnormal function. Direct measurement of displacement is
used to determine the change in diameter of blood vessels, and the changes in volume and
shape of cardiac chambers. Indirect measurements of displacement are used to quantify
movement of liquids through heart valves [7].

4.1.1. Inductive displacement sensors

An inductance L can be used to measure displacement by varying any three of the coil
parameters.

L= n 2 Gμ

Where

n= number of turns of coils.

G= geometric form factor, μ= effective permeability of the medium. Each of these

parameters

can be changed by mechanical means.

Figure 1 .Inductive displacement sensors

Notice that mutual inductance can be converted to self-inductance type i.e. a to b by
connecting

terminals b-c see figure above.

4.2 Application of Sensors in Medicine

In medical fields the opportunities offered by optical fibers have always been
advantageously exploited. In fact the use of optical fibers in medicine goes back to the
sixties when fiber bundles were successfully pioneered in endoscopy both for
illumination and imaging [1].

4.2.1. The working principle of sensing

The working principle of fiber optical sensors is based on the modulation of the fiber
optical properties (phase, intensity, wavelength, polarization state) by the parameter
under investigation the complexity of the electro optical system. The type of
components selected, and thus cost of the sensor is related to the operating principle.
The ideal fiber optical sensor for biomedical application should possess the following
characteristics [1].
 1. Reliability
2. automatic or semi-automatic operation for used by operators who have little or no
technical back ground
3. Low cost installation and maintenance.
Fiber optical sensors for biomedical applications are mostly of the intensity modulation
type,owing to the low cost of their components and the simplicity of their architectures.
They can be either intrinsic or extrinsic according to whether the intensity modulation
is produced by the fiber,which is sometimes modified by an external transduser
connected to the fiber (fig 2).

Figure 2. Working principle of intensity modulated fiber optical

sensor

4.2.2. Sensors for physical parameters

The physical paraments of medical interests that have been successfully measured by fiber optical
sensors are mainly pressure temperature, blood flow, humidity as well as radiation dose,cataract onset
and biting force [1].
1. Pressure
Head trauma patients require continuous monitoring of intracranial pressure. During the post-
operative and drainage monitoring phase’s .It is essential to know respectively the sub aural and
ventricular pressures as well as the pressure wave form display. Fiber optical sensors, being
relatively easy to manufacture and therefore, in expensive enough to be disposable overcome
these backwards [1].
Among the proposed pressure fiber optical sensors, two types fulfill the low cost, high
performance requirement one has a fabry –perot cavity at the fiber tip; the other has a small
diaphragm in front of the fiber optic link.
The fabry -perot cavity for pressure sensing is a glass tube having a partially etched face,
covered by a pressure sensitive silicon diaphragm.
The other pressure sensing approach, characterized by a diaphragm in front of the fibre optic link
is based on the light intensity modulation of the reflected light caused by the pressure- induced
position of the diaphragm [1].
2. Temperature
Fibre –optic thermometers are used when electrical insulations are necessary. The most relevant
application involves tissue heating control during hypothermia therapy for cancer treatment .For
this application conventional thermistors or thermocouples can perturb the incident field and
produce localized hot spots. Other application of thermometry by fiber –optic sensors are the
mapping of thermal distributing in cancer photo therapy, patient monitoring during magnetic-
resonance imaging cardiac output monitoring by means of the thermo dilution technique . The
possibility of simultaneous monitoring with arrays of multiple sensors is also desirable. For these
applications the restricted working range 35-45°C is sufficient with a sensitivity of at least 0.1°C
[1].
3. Blood flow
Laser Doppler flowery is a powerful tool for vasomotion monitoring and the use of optical fibers
enhances the possibility of both invasive and contact measurement.
The basic scheme of fiber optic laser Doppler flowmetry is illustrated in the figure (3) below.
The light of He-Ne laser is guided by ban optical fibre probe to the tissue or vascular net work
being studied. The light is diffusely scattered and partially absorbed within the illuminated
volume. Light hitting moving blood cells undergoes a slight Doppler shift. The blood flow rate is
derived by the spectrum analysis of the back scattered signal which presents flow dependent
Doppler shift frequency [1].
Figure 3. Basic scheme of fiber optic laser Doppler flometry

4. Humidity
A major requirement of intensive care is the continuous monitoring of breathing condition, i.e.
the cough sneeze and breathing count. The cladding of the sensitive fiber –section is a plastic
film doped with the umbelliferon dye, which is a moisture sensitive floured cent material under
UV –pumping. The sensitive fiber section- is place over the patient’s mouth and laterally excited
with a halogen lamp. Since the water vapor in human respiration exceeds that in the room the
patient’s expiration produces a fluorescent signed which is detected by an electro-optical unit at
the nurses’ station [1].

4.3 Application of Sensors in Industry

4.3.1. Object detector sensor
One of the feedbacks frequently needed by industrial control systems is the position of one or
more components of the operation being controlled .Object detections sensors are devices used to
provide information on the presence or absence of an object.
Sensors Advantage Disadvantage Application

Limit witch -high current -requires physical -interlocking

capability
-basic end of travel
-low cost contact with target sensing
-very slow response
-contact bounce

Photo electric -senses all kinds of -lens subject to -packing

materials contamination -material handing
-parts detection
-long life -sensing range affected
-longest sensing range by color and reflective
-very fast response time of target

Inductive -resistance to harsh -distance limitation -industrial and

environment machine
-very predictable -machine tool senses
-Long life ,easy to metal only target
install

capacitive -detects through some -very sensitive to -level sensing

containers extreme
-can detects non environmental
metallic targets
changes
Table (1) some object detector sensors

4.3.2 Pressure sensors

The measurement and control of fluid (liquid or gas) pressure has to be one of the most common
in all the process industries. Pressure is the force per unit area that a fluid exerts on its
Surroundings. Pressure sensors all operate on the basis of the same principle: the detection of a
physical force which arises due to pressure. For example, if a diaphragm separates two regions
with different pressures on either side, there will be a physical force on the diaphragm given by:
Force= (p 1 -p 2 ) (Diaphragm area)
The force is directed from the high pressure region to the low pressure region .In order to
measure these force we many measure the deflection of the diaphragm with displacement
transducer (such as capacitive transducer) or we may measure the strain in the diaphragm with
embedded strain gauges [4].

4.4 Application of Sensors in Electronic Circuits

Sensors and their associated circuits are used to measure various physical properties such as
temperature, pressure, force flow, position, light intensity, current etc. These properties act as the
stimulus to sensor, and the sensor output is conditioned and processed to provide the
corresponding measurement of the physical property [3]

property sensors Active/passive Out put

temperature Thermocouple Passive Voltage
Silicon Active Current/voltage
RTD Active Resistance
 Thermistor Active Resistance
Force/pressure Srain gage Active Resistance
piezoelectric passive Voltage
Acceleration light Accelerator Active Capacitance
intensity photodiode passive current

Table (2) typical sensors and their output format

4.4.1. Temperature sensors

Measurement of temperature is critical in modern electronic devices, especially expensive lap
top computer and other portable devices with densely packed circuits which dissipate
considerable power in the form of heat. In order to conserve battery life, the fan should only
operate when necessary. Accurate temperature measurements are required in many other
measurement systems such as process control, and instrumentation application [2].
A thermometer is an instrument that measures the temperature of a system in a quantitative way
(sensing element) .The easiest way to do this is to find a substance having a property that varies
regularly with its temperature .The most direct regular way is linear one [4].
T(x) = ax+b
Where T is the temperature of the substance and changes as the property x of the substance
changes. the constants a and b depends on the substance used and
may be evaluated by specifying two temperature points on the scale such as 32°C for the freezing
point of water and212°C for its boiling point .
There are two basic categories of temperature measurement (i.e. either to use mechanical
properties (expansion of substance) or to use electrical properties) to operate [4].

Using mechanical properties

1. Capillary tube thermometer
The element mercury is a liquid in the temperature range as of -38.9°C to 356.7°C As a liquid
mercury expands (moves) as it gets warmer its expansion rate is linear, and can be accurately
calibrated .
2. Filled thermal system
The device consists of a bulb filled with expanding substance connected to a bourdon tube
mechanism via a capillary tube (≈30m long). [4]
.3.3.2. Current sensing
Current measurement or monitoring with in electronic circuitry is a common requirement
spanning many types of applications. These may includes anything from portable hand held
equipment through to automotive applications: there are two basic application types [6].
1 .closed loop
2.open loop
1.Closed loop system
In closed loop systems current is measured compared with a reference value and them modified
as necessary by some control elements response time can be critical here especially where
immediate actions need to be taken based on instantaneous current value [6].
Example of closed loop current monitoring includes.
1. Switching power supplies with current limiting function or switch mode battery charging
circuits.
2. Electronic fuses for internal fault limiting in equipment on distributed power system.
3. auto shutdown functions for DC control.
2. Open loop systems
Open loop current sensing systems are characterized by the fact that the measured value is not
acted up on immediately. It may for example be made available for some other system usually
less time critical.
Examples includes
1. Current measurement in instrumentation. (example bench power supplies ,ammeters ,
2. current probes)
3. Power consumption indication, especially portable battery powered consumer items.
CHAPTER -5
CONCULUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 conculussion
Sensors are significant part of complex and sophisticated systems of modern technology. They
are basically the heart of any inspection system. Systems of sensors are constructed for a variety
of applications including surveillance imaging mapping and target tracking .They are specially
used for measurement system.

In medical fields sensors (like fiber optical sensors) have wide application to measure the
physical and chemical parameters .The physical parameters of medical interest that have
been successfully measured by fiber optical sensors are pressure, temperature , blood flow,
humidity cataract onset radiation dose etc.

Sensors are also used in electronic circuits to measure current and temperature. Current sensors
and temperature sensors are used for this purpose. In industries sensors are used to
detect the presence or absence of an object. Limit switch, inductive proximity sensors,
capacitive proximity sensors and pressure sensors are used for industrial application.
In general sensors are pervasive; they are embedded in uor bodies, automobiles,cellular,
telephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial plants and countless other applications.
Without the use of sensors there would be no automation.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION
References

1. Anna Grazia Mignani and Francessco Baldini ,Biomedical Sensors, 1996, UK.
2. John Wiley, sensors and signal conditioning, 1991, Newyork.
3. James Wong, Temperature measurement, 15 may, 1986, Italy.
4. http//www.google.com,AO2 Sensors and transducers ,lecture note.
5. EE3, 02/AO4instrumentation, transducers and sensors, Imperial college, autumns
2008, journal.
6. Tilahun Tesfaye,sensors and transducers March 2014, Addis Ababa University.
7. http//www.zetex.com,Issue-January 2008 An39.
8.