1. Language as the Main Means of Communication: linguistic • Productivity (creativity, open-endedness).

Language allows for an

definitions of language and its difference from other communicative infinite number of expressions through the combination of a finite
systems. set of elements (sounds, words, etc.). Speakers can create and
Language can be defined as a systematic means of communication using understand novel sentences they've never encountered before.
sounds, gestures, signs, or written symbols, typically organized according to • Cultural transmission. Language is learned and transmitted within
certain rules and conventions. It allows individuals to express ideas, convey a cultural context, often through social interaction.
information, and interact with others within a community or society. • Talking to animals. It is an aspect of human behavior that often
Linguistically speaking, language encompasses various components, involves the use of language in a simplified or modified form, as
including phonology (the sound system), morphology (the structure of well as non-verbal communication signals to interact with animals.
words), syntax (sentence structure), semantics (meaning), and pragmatics • Reflexivity.Language can be used to talk about language itself, as
(language use in context). well as to discuss abstract concepts and metalinguistic ideas.
While communication refers to the interchange of message or information Hocket singled out the following features of the language:
from one person to another, either verbally or non-verbally, language is a human Hockett, C. (1960). Fifteen "design-features" of human language:
communication method or the system through which two people interact. 1. Vocal-auditory channel: sounds emitted from the mouth and perceived
Language, on the other hand, is a system that is governed by structure and by the auditory system.
rules5. It is a structured system of symbols and rules, while communication is the 2. Rapid fading (transitoriness): Signal last a short time. This is true of
act of transmitting information. One defining characteristic of language is that it all systems involving sound.
can be used to create an infinite number of sentences and meanings. 3. Interchangeability: All utterances that are understood can be produced.
In summary, while all languages are a means of communication, not all 4. Total feedback: The sender of a message also perceives the message.
communication involves language. Language is a specific type of communication That is, you hear what you say.
that involves a structured system of symbols and rules, whereas communication 5. Specialization: The signal produced is specialized for communication
can take many forms and does not necessarily require such a system.
and is not the side effect of some other behavior.
6. Semanticity: There is a fixed relationship between a signal and a
meaning.
2. Main characteristics of language 7. Arbitrariness: There is an arbitrary relationship between a signal and
What sets language apart from other communicative systems, such as its meaning. That is, the signal is related to the meaning by convention or by
animal communication or nonverbal communication among humans, are instinct but has no inherent relationship with the meaning.
several key features: 8. Discreteness: Language can be said to be built up from discrete units
• Displacement (referring to past and future) Language enables (e.g., phonemes in human language). Exchanging such discrete units causes
speakers to refer to things and events that are not present in the a change in the meaning of a signal. This is an abrupt change, rather than a
immediate environment, whether they're things from the past, future, continuous change of meaning.
or abstract concepts. This ability to talk about the past, plan for the 9. Displacement: Communicating about things or events that are distant
future, or discuss hypothetical situations in time or space.
• Arbitrariness (no natural connection between form and meaning, 10. Productivity: Language is an open system. We can produce
word and object) In language, there's no inherent connection potentially an infinite number of different messages by combining the
between a word or symbol and its meaning. For example, the word elements differently.
"dog" doesn't inherently resemble a canine; it's merely a sound or 11. Cultural transmission: Each generation needs to learn the system of
symbol that English speakers have agreed upon to represent that communication from the preceding generation.
concept.
 12. Duality of patterning: Large numbers of meaningful signals (e.g., • The genetic source (innate capacity for language)
morphemes or words) produced from a small number of meaningless units
(e.g., phonemes). 3. Language and Thinking
13. Prevarication: Linguistic messages can be false, deceptive, or Experience is more important than language for thinking development.
meaningless. Piaget questioned language as a sufficient cause in the intellectual
14. Reflexiveness: In a language, one can communicate about development
communication. “Mental actions are not mediators between the outer world of energy and
15. Learnability: A speaker of a language can learn another language. overt behaviour; instead, with them the person defines the external world
and employs behavior for the sake of adaptation” (Piaget, 1971)
The origins of language.The suspicion does not appear improbable that the
progenitors of man, either the males or females, or both sexes, before they had Piaget denies that the child must rely on language to achieve conceptual
acquired the power of expressing their mutual love in articulate language, order.
endeavoured to charm each other with musical notes and rhythm. Darwin (1871) The world of objects is not an impringing force which makes itself known;
some type of spoken language must have developed between 100,000 and rather, the child constructs the world. Language and other symbols do
50,000 years ago, well before written language (about 5,000 years ago). Yet,
among the traces of earlier periods of life on earth, we never find any direct not allow to circumvent the task of construction. They can be employed
evidence or artifacts relating to the speech of our distant ancestors that might tell by the person to represent structures.
us how language was back in the early stages.
Sources of language. Linguistic rules may be coordinated with the structures of thought, but they
 Divine source do not appear to be causative bases of it, perhaps not even models for it.
In the biblical tradition, as described in the book of Genesis, God created Adam Action-based theory of thinking: as a free actor on his environment he
and “whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name hereof.”
cannot but be forming structures which are functionally valid.
Alternatively, following a Hindu tradition, language came from Sarasvati, wife
of Brahma, creator of the universe. In most religions, there appears to be a divine Action and behavior structures the world, but not language. Language does
source who provides humans with language. In an attempt to rediscover this not cause thinking, it complements it.
original divine language, a few experiments have been carried out, with rather
Linguistic relativity: weak version and strong version (linguistic
conflicting results. The basic hypothesis seems to have been that, if human infants
were allowed to grow up without hearing any language around them, then they
determinism)
would spontaneously begin using the original God-given language. Weak version - The structure of language influences how we perceive the
The natural sound source. world
primitive words derive from imitations of the natural sounds that early men and
women heard around them. Language determines thought and we think only in the categories provided
Among several nicknames that he invented to talk about the origins of speech, by it.
Jespersen (1922) called this idea the “bow-wow” theory.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
cuckoo, splash, bang, boom, rattle, buzz, hiss, screech, bow-wow.
• The social interaction source (grunts, groans, curses of primitive people) Languages of native Americans, such as the Hopi, led them to view the
• The physical adaptation source (upright posture, bi-pedal locomotion, role world differently from those who spoke European languages.
of front limbs, upright teeth, intricate muscles of lips)
Hopi: Animate (+clouds and stones) and inanimate
• The tool-making source (right-handedness, making stone tools)
“We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages” 4. Language and Speech
Against: If thinking and perception were determined by language, then the Language (langue)
concept of language change would be impossible.
Speech (langage)
Human- based approach - It is a human, who manipulates the language,
Language is a part of speech, its social product, speech historically goes
not the other way round.
first.
Language and thinking are deeply intertwined aspects of human cognition.
Speech is many-sided and heterogeneous, spreading several areas (physical,
Language serves as a tool for thought, allowing us to organize and express
physiological, psychological); it is both individual and societal.
our ideas, communicate with others, and manipulate abstract concepts. At
the same time, our thoughts influence the way we use language, shaping the Language is self-contained and a principle of classification, it is static.
words we choose and the structures we employ to convey meaning. Language gives unity to speech.
One important aspect of the relationship between language and thinking is Forms of difference langue and parole
the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, also known as linguistic relativity. This
hypothesis suggests that the language we speak influences or even  Competence vs. performance (N. Chomsky)
determines the way we perceive and think about the world. While strong  Ergon vs. energeia (W. von Humbolt)
versions of this hypothesis have been largely discredited, there is evidence  Sprache vs. Rede (H. Paul)
to suggest that language can indeed shape certain aspects of cognition, such  Sprachsystem vs. aktualisierte Rede (G.Gabelentz)
as our categorization of objects and our understanding of spatial  Sprachgebilde vs. prechakt (K. Buhler)
relationships and time.  Type-token- relationship (M.A.K. Halliday)
Additionally, language plays a crucial role in various cognitive processes,
These terms represent various conceptual distinctions within the study of
including problem-solving, decision-making, and creativity. For example,
language and linguistics, highlighting different aspects of language
when we engage in problem-solving tasks, we often use language to
structure, use, and variation. Here's an overview of each pair:
internally represent the problem, generate possible solutions, and evaluate
their feasibility. Similarly, when making decisions, we may use language to 1. Langue vs. Parole (Ferdinand de Saussure):
weigh the pros and cons of different options and articulate our reasoning.
 Langue refers to the underlying system or structure of a
Furthermore, language enables us to engage in complex social interactions, language, including its grammar, vocabulary, and rules. It
share knowledge, and transmit culture from one generation to the next. represents the abstract, idealized form of language shared by
Through language, we can convey not only factual information but also speakers of a particular linguistic community.
emotions, intentions, and social norms, fostering collaboration and
cooperation within groups.  Parole, on the other hand, refers to the actual instances of
language use by individuals in speech or writing. It
In summary, language and thinking are deeply interconnected, with encompasses the concrete manifestations of language in real-
language serving as both a reflection of our cognitive processes and a tool world communication, including specific utterances and
that shapes and facilitates our ability to think, reason, and communicate. texts.
2. Competence vs. Performance (Noam Chomsky):  Sprachsystem refers to the abstract, systematic structure of
language, similar to langue or competence.
 Competence refers to an individual's underlying knowledge
of the rules and principles of a language, including their  Aktualisierte Rede refers to the actualized or realized speech,
ability to generate and understand grammatically correct similar to parole or performance. It represents language in
sentences. It represents the idealized linguistic capacity that use, as it is produced and understood by speakers and
speakers possess. listeners in real communication.
 Performance, in contrast, refers to the actual use of language 6. Sprachgebilde vs. Sprechakt (Karl Bühler):
in real-world communication, which may be influenced by
 Sprachgebilde refers to language as a constructed entity,
various factors such as memory limitations, processing
similar to langue or competence. It encompasses the formal
constraints, and contextual factors. Performance can vary
structure and organization of linguistic elements.
from situation to situation and may not always reflect a
speaker's full linguistic competence.  Sprechakt refers to speech acts or communicative acts,
similar to parole or performance. It focuses on the functional
3. Ergon vs. Energeia (Wilhelm von Humboldt):
aspects of language use, including the intentions and effects
 Ergon refers to the inherent structure or potentiality of of utterances in specific contexts.
language, similar to the concept of langue. It represents the
7. Type-Token Relationship (Michael A.K. Halliday):
abstract, formal aspects of language that enable
communication.  Type refers to the abstract, generalized categories or patterns
within a language, such as grammatical rules, word classes,
 Energeia, on the other hand, refers to the dynamic, creative
or syntactic structures.
aspect of language use, similar to parole. It encompasses the
actualization of linguistic potential through concrete  Token refers to the concrete instances or occurrences of
instances of communication, reflecting the individual's linguistic elements within actual texts or utterances. Tokens
agency and creativity. exemplify the application of linguistic types in real-world
communication, reflecting the variability and diversity of
4. Sprache vs. Rede (Hermann Paul):
language use.
 Sprache refers to language as a system, analogous to langue
These conceptual distinctions provide frameworks for analyzing and
or competence. It encompasses the abstract structure and
understanding different aspects of language structure, use, and variation,
rules of a language that enable communication.
shedding light on the complex interplay between language as a system and
 Rede, on the other hand, refers to speech or discourse, language in action.
similar to parole or performance. It represents the concrete
"Language" and "speech" are two related but distinct concepts in the study
instances of language use in communicative acts, including
of linguistics:
spoken or written expressions.
1. Language: Language refers to a system of communication that uses
5. Sprachsystem vs. Aktualisierte Rede (Georg von der Gabelentz):
symbols (such as words or gestures) to convey meaning. It
 encompasses the entire structure and organization of a system of include phonological (sound), morphological (word structure), syntactic
communication, including grammar, syntax, semantics, and (sentence structure), semantic (meaning), and pragmatic (language use)
pragmatics. Language is a cognitive ability shared by humans and aspects of language.
possibly some other species, allowing for the expression of complex
Approaches to Universals
ideas, beliefs, emotions, and intentions. It can exist in various forms,
including spoken language, written language, sign language, and  Chomsky’s approach
nonverbal communication.  Greenberg’s approach
2. Speech: Speech specifically refers to the oral production and
Chomsky’s approach
reception of language through the vocal tract. It involves the
physical articulation of sounds, words, and sentences by the speaker In the late 1950s the term linguistic universals was used to refer to: The
and the auditory perception and comprehension of those sounds by underlying principles of linguistic organisation and structures that are
the listener. Speech is just one modality of language expression, represented in the human mind.
alongside other modalities such as writing, signing, and gesturing.
This statement embraces the assumption that humans are born with a kind
While speech is a primary means of language communication for
of an innate universal grammar that determines what is possible in a
many human societies, not all languages are exclusively spoken;
language and what is not. Since all humans, according to this view, are born
some are primarily or entirely visual-gestural, such as sign
with the same universal set of primitives, for example a restricted set of
languages.
sounds that they can produce, the number of possible languages must be
In summary, language is the broader concept encompassing all systems of restricted. Accordingly, the languages of the world must show similar
communication, while speech specifically refers to the oral production and patterns or linguistic universals.
reception of language through sound. While closely related, these terms
Universal grammar
distinguish between the abstract structure of communication (language) and
its physical manifestation in sound (speech). A set of principles that apply to all languages and parameters that vary
within clearly defined limits from one language to another
5. Language Universals: basis of the study, definitions, approaches,
types (morphological, syntactic) Substantive universals
Languages are cut from the same pattern (Greenberg).Uniformities of grammatical categories like noun or verb and grammatical functions such as
universal scope between languages. Nobody doubts the existence of subject or object – you might know these as the basic building blocks of
universals and all search for them intensely. grammar.
Basis of the Study: Language universals are patterns or principles that are Formal universals
found across different languages. They serve as the foundation for
understanding the common features and structures that underlie human the rules that we use to form meaningful syllables, phrases, sentences. For
language. example, phrase structure rules determine how phrases and sentences can be
build up from words. Derivational rules guide the reorganization of
Definitions: Language universals are generalizations about linguistic syntactic structures such as the transformation from a statement into a
features that hold true across a wide range of languages. These features can question.
Greenberg’s approach For example, if a language has [v] and [z], it will also have [f] and [s]. But
if a language only has [f] and [s], it might not have [v] and [z].
Introduction to Universals of Language (1966)
Some languages don't have either set of sounds. This pattern is a strong rule
“Some Universals of Grammar with particular reference to the order of
(universal) across languages.
meaningful elements”
But there are also examples of statistical implicational universals. For
The universals are less abstract and are established on the basis of data from
instance, if a language typically places the main verb between the subject
‘a large and representative sample of world languages’
and the object, as in English The cat caught the mouse, its relative clauses
Word-order universals usually follow the noun they modify, as in the cat that caught the mouse,
but Chinese and a few other languages are exceptions, placing relative
In declarative sentences with nominal subject and object, the dominant clauses before the noun they modify.
order is almost always one in which the subject precedes the object.
Explanations for universals
Syntactic universals
Monogenesis hypothesis: the idea that all languages stem from the same
 In conditional statements, the conditional clause precedes the proto-language and have inherited the same universal traits from this proto-
conclusion as the normal order in all languages. language. It cannot explain the existence of many universals
 When the descriptive adjective precedes the noun, then the
demonstrative and the numeral do likewise. Language contact hypothesis - languages have many things in common
because they are constantly influenced by each other.
Morphological universals
However, while language contact may sometimes explain how near-
 If a language has inflection, it always has derivation. universal features spread across the world, it can hardly explain why certain
 If the verb has categories of person-number, it always has tense- features are allowed to spread this way, while others are not.
mode categories. Innateness hypothesis
 If a language has the category of gender, it always has the category
explains our ability to learn and use language as an effect of an innate
of number.
grammar, a genetic programme specifically designed to determine the
Nonimplicational universals development of our language ability.

Certain properties are found in all languages without making reference to Language universals may be partly explained by our genetic endowment,
any other properties of language. All languages have oral vowels but this does not necessarily (at least not always) presuppose a language-
specific innate grammar, but may just as well be linked with more general
Implicational universals anatomic and cognitive features.
If a language has a certain sound feature (like [v] and [z]), it will also have Functional explanation
another related sound feature (like [f] and [s]). However, just because a
language has the second feature (like [f] and [s]), it doesn't mean it will
have the first feature (like [v] and [z]).
Some language features are universal because they make linguistic
utterances easier both to produce and to interpret—for cognitive, anatomic
or other reasons.
Color universals
The remaining color universals are all implicational: A language with
colour terms for purple, pink or orange also has terms for brown, blue,
green, yellow and red. A language with a colour term for brown also has
terms for blue, green, yellow, and red. A language with a colour term for
blue also has terms for green, yellow, and red. A language with colour terms
for green or yellow also has a term for red.
Universal word classes
 Interjections Words or phrases expressing emotions, like "Wow!" or
"Ouch!"
 Nouns and verbs

Types: Language universals can be categorized into different types based

on the linguistic phenomenon they describe. Two common types are:
Morphological Universals: These are patterns or principles that govern the
internal structure of words, such as rules for forming plurals, tense markers,
or word order within a word.
Syntactic Universals: These are patterns or principles that govern the
structure and arrangement of words within sentences, such as word order
(e.g., subject-verb-object), syntactic categories (e.g., noun phrases, verb
phrases), or grammatical relations (e.g., subject, object, and verb).