Common Chemistry

Experiments Using the Latest

Technology

Vernier Software & Technology

www.vernier.com
888.837.6437

Nüsret (Nüs) Hisim

[email protected]

NSTA National 2019

St. Louis, MO

HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES
Evaporation of Alcohols
● Go Direct Temperature

Boyle’s Law
● Go Direct Gas Pressure Sensor

Beer’s Law
● Go Direct SpectroVis Plus
 Graphical Analysis 9

Evaporation and
Intermolecular Attractions
In this experiment, Temperature Probes are placed in various liquids. Evaporation occurs when
the probe is removed from the liquid’s container. This evaporation is an endothermic process that
results in a temperature decrease. The magnitude of a temperature decrease is, like viscosity and
boiling temperature, related to the strength of intermolecular forces of attraction. In this
experiment, you will study temperature changes caused by the evaporation of several liquids and
relate the temperature changes to the strength of intermolecular forces of attraction. You will use
the results to predict, and then measure, the temperature changes for several other liquids.

You will encounter two types of organic compounds in this experiment—alkanes and alcohols.
The two alkanes are pentane, C5H12, and hexane, C6H14. In addition to carbon and hydrogen
atoms, alcohols also contain the -OH functional group. Methanol, CH3OH, and ethanol, C2H5OH,
are two of the alcohols that we will use in this experiment. You will examine the molecular
structure of alkanes and alcohols for the presence and relative strength of two intermolecular
forces—hydrogen bonding and dispersion forces.

OBJECTIVES
• Study temperature changes caused by the evaporation of several liquids.
• Relate the temperature changes to the strength of intermolecular forces of attraction.

Figure 1

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Evaporation and Intermolecular Attractions

MATERIALS
Chromebook, computer, or mobile device
Graphical Analysis 4 app
2 Go Direct Temperature Probes
methanol (methyl alcohol)
ethanol (ethyl alcohol)
1-propanol
1-butanol
n-pentane
n-hexane
6 pieces of filter paper (2.5 cm × 2.5 cm)
2 small rubber bands
masking tape

PRE-LAB EXERCISE
Prior to doing the experiment, complete the Pre-Lab table. The name and formula are given for
each compound. Draw a structural formula for a molecule of each compound. Then determine
the molecular weight of each of the molecules. Dispersion forces exist between any two
molecules, and generally increase as the molecular weight of the molecule increases. Next,
examine each molecule for the presence of hydrogen bonding. Before hydrogen bonding can
occur, a hydrogen atom must be bonded directly to an N, O, or F atom within the molecule. Tell
whether or not each molecule has hydrogen-bonding capability.

PROCEDURE
1. Obtain and wear goggles! Caution: The compounds used in this experiment are flammable
and poisonous. Avoid inhaling their vapors. Avoid contacting them with your skin or
clothing. Be sure there are no open flames in the lab during this experiment. Notify your
teacher immediately if an accident occurs.

2. Set up the data-collection equipment.

a. Launch Graphical Analysis.

b. Connect the Temperature Probes to your Chromebook, computer, or mobile device.
c. Click or tap the meters and identify which probe is Probe 1 and which probe is Probe 2.
3. Click or tap Mode to open Data Collection Settings. Change End Collection to 240 seconds.
Click or tap Done.

4. Wrap the tips of the probes with square pieces of filter paper secured by small rubber bands
as shown in Figure 1. Roll the filter paper around the probe tip in the shape of a cylinder.
Hint: First slip the rubber band on the probe, wrap the paper around the probe, and then
finally slip the rubber band over the paper. The paper should be even with the probe end.

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 Evaporation and Intermolecular Attractions

5. Stand Probe 1 in the ethanol container and Probe 2 in the 1-propanol container. Make sure
the containers do not tip over.

DANGER: Denatured ethanol, CH3CH2OH: Highly flammable liquid and vapor. Keep away
from heat, sparks, open flames, and hot surfaces. Do not eat or drink when using this
product—harmful if swallowed. Causes skin and serious eye irritation. May cause
respiratory irritation. Avoid breathing mist, vapors or spray. Causes damage to organs.
Addition of denaturant makes the product poisonous. Cannot be made nonpoisonous.

DANGER: 1-Propanol: Keep away from heat, sparks, open flames, and hot surfaces—
highly flammable liquid and vapor. Do not eat or drink when using this product—harmful if
swallowed. Causes mild skin irritation and serious eye damage. May be harmful if inhaled.
May cause drowsiness or dizziness.
6. Prepare two pieces of masking tape, each about 10 cm long, to be used to tape the probes in
position during Step 7.

7. After the probes have been in the liquids for at least 30 seconds, click or tap Collect to start
data collection. Monitor the temperatures for 15 seconds to establish the initial temperature
of each liquid. Then simultaneously remove the probes from the liquids and tape them so the
probe tips extend 5 cm over the edge of the table top as shown in Figure 1.

8. Data collection will stop after 4 minutes, or you can stop data collection before 4 minutes has
elapsed if the lowest temperature has been reached. Examine the graph of temperature vs.
time. Based on your data, determine the maximum temperature, t1, and minimum
temperature, t2, for both probes. Record t1 and t2 for each probe.

9. For each liquid, subtract the minimum temperature from the maximum temperature to
determine Δt, the temperature change during evaporation.

10. Based on the Δt values you obtained for these two substances, plus information in the Pre-
Lab exercise, predict the size of the Δt value for 1-butanol. Compare its hydrogen-bonding
capability and molecular weight to those of ethanol and 1-propanol. Record your predicted
Δt, then explain how you arrived at this answer in the space provided. Do the same for n-
pentane. It is not important that you predict the exact Δt value; simply estimate a logical
value that is higher, lower, or between the previous Δt values.

11. Test your prediction in Step 10 by repeating Steps 5–9 using 1-butanol with Probe 1 and n-
pentane with Probe 2.

DANGER: 1-Butanol, C4H9OH: Keep away from heat, sparks, open flames, and hot
surfaces—highly flammable liquid and vapor. Toxic if swallowed, in contact with skin, or if
inhaled. Do not eat or drink when using this product. Do not breathe mist, vapors, or spray.
Causes skin and serious eye irritation. Causes damage to organs.

DANGER: n-Pentane, CH3(CH2)3CH3: Keep away from heat, sparks, open flames, and hot
surfaces—highly flammable liquid and vapor. Do not eat or drink when using this product—
harmful if swallowed or in contact with skin. Avoid breathing mist, vapors or spray. May
cause drowsiness or dizziness.

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 Evaporation and Intermolecular Attractions

12. Based on the Δt values you obtained for all four substances, plus information in the Pre-Lab
exercise, predict the Δt values for methanol and n-hexane. Compare the hydrogen-bonding
capability and molecular weight of methanol and n-hexane to those of the previous four
liquids. Record your predictedΔt, then explain how you arrived at this answer in the space
provided.

13. Test your prediction in Step 12 by repeating Steps 5–9, using methanol with Probe 1 and n-
hexane with Probe 2.

DANGER: Methanol, CH3OH: Keep away from heat, sparks, open flames, and hot
surfaces—highly flammable liquid and vapor. Toxic if swallowed, in contact with skin, or if
inhaled. Do not eat or drink when using this product. Do not breathe mist, vapors, or spray.
Causes skin and serious eye irritation. Causes damage to organs.

DANGER: Hexanes, C6H14: Keep away from heat, sparks, open flames, and hot surfaces—
highly flammable liquid and vapor. Do not eat or drink when using this product. Avoid
breathing mist, vapors, or spray. May be fatal if swallowed and enters airways. May cause
damage to organs. Causes skin and eye irritation. May cause drowsiness or dizziness.
Suspected of damaging fertility or the unborn child. Do not handle until all safety
precautions have been understood.

PROCESSING THE DATA

1. Two of the liquids, n-pentane and 1-butanol, had nearly the same molecular weights, but
significantly different Δt values. Explain the difference in Δt values of these substances,
based on their intermolecular forces.

2. Which of the alcohols studied has the strongest intermolecular forces of attraction? The
weakest intermolecular forces? Explain using the results of this experiment.

3. Which of the alkanes studied has the stronger intermolecular forces of attraction? The weaker
intermolecular forces? Explain using the results of this experiment.

4. Plot a graph of Δt values of the four alcohols versus their respective molecular weights. Plot
molecular weight on the horizontal axis and Δt on the vertical axis.

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PRE-LAB
Hydrogen
Structural Molecular
Substance Formula bond
formulas weight
(Yes or no)
ethanol C2H5OH

1-propanol C3H7OH

1-butanol C4H9OH

n-pentane C5H12

methanol CH3OH

n-hexane C6H14

DATA TABLE
Substance t1 t2 Δt (t1– t2)
(°C) (°C) (°C)
ethanol

1-propanol

1-butanol

n-pentane

methanol

n-hexane

Predicted Δt Explanation
(°C)
1-butanol

n-pentane

methanol

n-hexane

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 Graphical Analysis 6

Boyle’s Law: Pressure-Volume

Relationship in Gases
The primary objective of this experiment is to determine the relationship between the pressure
and volume of a confined gas. The gas we use will be air, and it will be confined in a syringe
connected to a Gas Pressure Sensor (see Figure 1). When the volume of the syringe is changed
by moving the piston, a change occurs in the pressure exerted by the confined gas. This pressure
change will be monitored using a Gas Pressure Sensor. It is assumed that temperature will be
constant throughout the experiment. Pressure and volume data pairs will be collected during this
experiment and then analyzed. From the data and graph, you should be able to determine what
kind of mathematical relationship exists between the pressure and volume of the confined gas.
Historically, this relationship was first established by Robert Boyle in 1662 and has since been
known as Boyle’s law.

OBJECTIVES
• Use a Gas Pressure Sensor and a gas syringe to measure the pressure of an air sample at
several different volumes.
• Determine the relationship between pressure and volume of the gas.
• Describe the relationship between gas pressure and volume in a mathematical equation.
• Use the results to predict the pressure at other volumes.

Figure 1

MATERIALS
Chromebook, computer, or mobile device
Graphical Analysis 4 app
Go Direct Gas Pressure
20 mL gas syringe

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Boyle’s Law: Pressure-Volume Relationship in Gases

PROCEDURE
1. Prepare the data-collection equipment and an air sample for data collection.

a. Launch Graphical Analysis. Connect the Gas Pressure Sensor to your Chromebook,
computer, or mobile device.
b. With the 20 mL syringe disconnected from the Gas Pressure Sensor, move the piston of
the syringe until the front edge of the inside black ring (indicated by the arrow in
Figure 1) is positioned at the 10.0 mL mark.
c. Attach the 20 mL syringe to the valve of the Gas Pressure Sensor.
2. Set up the data-collection mode.

a. Click or tap Mode to open Data Collection Settings. Change Mode to Event Based.
b. Enter Volume as the Event Name and mL as the Units. Click or tap Done.
3. To obtain the best data possible, you will need to correct the volume readings from the
syringe. Look at the syringe; its scale reports its own internal volume. However, that volume
is not the total volume of trapped air in your system since there is a little bit of space inside
the pressure sensor.

To account for the extra volume in the system, you will need to add 0.8 mL to your syringe
readings. For example, with a 5.0 mL syringe volume, the total volume would be 5.8 mL. It
is this total volume that you will need for the analysis.
4. You are now ready to collect pressure and volume data. It is easiest if one person takes care
of the gas syringe and another enters volumes.

a. Click or tap Collect to start data collection.

b. Move the piston so the front edge of the inside black ring (see Figure 2) is positioned at
the 5.0 mL line on the syringe. Hold the piston firmly in this position until the pressure
value displayed on the screen stabilizes.
c. Click or tap Keep and enter 5.8, the gas volume (in mL). Remember, you are adding
0.8 mL to the volume of the syringe for the total volume. Click or tap Keep Point to store
this pressure-volume data pair.

Figure 2
d. Continue this procedure using syringe volumes of 10.0, 12.5, 15.0, 17.5, and 20.0 mL.
e. Click or tap Stop to stop data collection.
5. When data collection is complete, a graph of pressure vs. volume will be displayed. To
examine the data pairs on the displayed graph, tap any data point. As you tap each data point,
the pressure and volume values are displayed to the right of the graph. Record the pressure
and volume data values in your data table.

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6. Based on the graph of pressure vs. volume, decide what kind of mathematical relationship
exists between these two variables, direct or inverse. To see if you made the right choice:

a. Click or tap Graph Tools, , and choose Apply Curve Fit.

b. Select Power as the curve fit and Dismiss the Curve Fit box. The curve fit statistics are
displayed for the equation in the form
y = axb
where x is volume, y is pressure, a is a proportionality constant, and b is the exponent of
x (volume) in this equation. Note: The relationship between pressure and volume can be
determined from the value and sign of the exponent, b.
c. If you have correctly determined the mathematical relationship, the regression line should
very nearly fit the points on the graph (that is, pass through or near the plotted points).
d. Rescale the axes on your graph by clicking or tapping Graph Tools, . Choose Edit
Graph Options and set the x-axis to display 0 to 25 mL and the y-axis to display 0 to
300 kPa. Dismiss the Graph Options box.
e. (optional) Export, download, or print the graph with the curve fit displayed.
7. With the best-fit curve still displayed, proceed directly to the Processing the Data section.

DATA AND CALCULATIONS

Volume Pressure Constant, k
(mL) (kPa) (P / V or P • V)

PROCESSING THE DATA

1. With the best-fit curve still displayed, click or tap Graph Tools, , and turn on Interpolate.
Dismiss the Graph Tools box and click the graph to interpolate. Move along the regression
line until the volume value is 5.0 mL. Note the corresponding pressure value. Now move to
the point where the volume value is doubled (10.0 mL). What does your data show happens
to the pressure when the volume is doubled? Show the pressure values in your answer.

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 Boyle’s Law: Pressure-Volume Relationship in Gases

2. Using the same technique as in Question 1, what does your data show happens to the
pressure if the volume is halved from 20.0 mL to 10.0 mL? Show the pressure values in your
answer.

3. Using the same technique as in Question 1, what does your data show happens to the
pressure if the volume is tripled from 5.0 mL to 15.0 mL? Show the pressure values in your
answer.

4. From your answers to the first three questions and the shape of the curve in the plot of
pressure vs. volume, do you think the relationship between the pressure and volume of a
confined gas is direct or inverse? Explain your answer.

5. Based on your data, what would you expect the pressure to be if the volume of the syringe
was increased to 40.0 mL? Explain or show work to support your answer.

6. Based on your data, what would you expect the pressure to be if the volume of the syringe
was decreased to 2.5 mL? Explain or show work to support your answer.

7. What experimental factors are assumed to be constant in this experiment?

8. One way to determine if a relationship is inverse or direct is to find a proportionality

constant, k, from the data. If this relationship is direct, k = P/V. If it is inverse, k = P•V. Based
on your answer to Question 4, choose one of these formulas and calculate k for the seven
ordered pairs in your data table (divide or multiply the P and V values). Show the answers in
the third column of the Data and Calculations table.

9. How constant were the values for k you obtained in Question 8? Good data may show some
minor variation, but the values for k should be relatively constant.

10. Using P, V, and k, write an equation representing Boyle’s law. Write a verbal statement that
correctly expresses Boyle’s law.

EXTENSION
1. To confirm that an inverse relationship exists between pressure and volume, a graph of
pressure vs. reciprocal of volume (1/volume) may also be plotted. To do this, it is necessary
to create a new column of data, reciprocal of volume, based on your original volume data:

a. Click or tap More Options, , in the Volume column header in the table. Choose Add
Calculated Column.
b. Enter 1/volume as the Name and 1/mL as the Units.
c. Click or tap Insert Expression and choose A/X as the expression.
d. Enter 1 as Parameter A and select Volume as the Column.
e. Click or tap Apply.
2. Plot a best-fit regression line on your graph of pressure vs. 1/volume:

a. Click or tap Graph Tools, , and choose Edit Graph Options.

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b. Enter 0 as the value for both the Left value for the x-axis and the Bottom value for the y-
axis.
c. Dismiss the Graph Options box. Your graph should now include the origin (0,0).
d. Click or tap Graph Tools, , and choose Apply Curve Fit.
e. Select Linear as the curve fit and Dismiss the Curve Fit box. The linear-regression
statistics are displayed in the form:
y = mx + b
where x is 1/volume, y is pressure, m is a proportionality constant, and b is the y-
intercept.
f. If the relationship between P and V is an inverse relationship, the graph of pressure vs.
1/volume should be direct; that is, the curve should be linear and pass through (or near)
the origin. Examine your graph to see if this is true for your data.

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 Spectral Analysis 11

Determining the Concentration

of a Solution: Beer’s Law
The primary objective of this experiment is to determine the concentration of an unknown
nickel (II) sulfate solution. You will be using a Colorimeter or Spectrometer. The wavelength of
light used should be one that is absorbed by the solution. The NiSO4 solution used in this
experiment has a deep green color, so Colorimeter users will be instructed to use the red LED.
Spectrometer users will determine an appropriate wavelength based on the absorbance spectrum
of the solution. The light striking the detector is reported as absorbance or percent transmittance.
A higher concentration of the colored solution absorbs more light (and transmits less) than a
solution of lower concentration.

You will prepare five nickel sulfate solutions of known concentration (standard solutions). Each
is transferred to a small, rectangular cuvette that is placed into the Spectrometer. The amount of
light that penetrates the solution and strikes the photocell is used to compute the absorbance of
each solution. When a graph of absorbance vs. concentration is plotted for the standard solutions,
a direct relationship should result, as shown in Figure 1. The direct relationship between
absorbance and concentration for a solution is known as Beer’s law.

Figure 1
You will determine the concentration of an unknown NiSO4 solution by measuring its
absorbance. By locating the absorbance of the unknown on the vertical axis of the graph, the
corresponding concentration can be found on the horizontal axis (follow the arrows in Figure 1).
The concentration of the unknown can also be found using the slope of the Beer’s law curve.

OBJECTIVES
• Prepare NiSO4 standard solution.
• Measure the absorbance value of each standard solution.
• Find the relationship between absorbance and concentration of a solution.
• Determine the concentration of an unknown NiSO4 solution.

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Determining the Concentration of a Solution: Beer’s LawExperiment

MATERIALS
Chromebook, computer, or mobile device
Vernier Spectral Analysis app
Go Direct SpectroVis Plus
one cuvette
five 20 × 150 mm test tubes
30 mL of 0.40 M NiSO4
5 mL of NiSO4 unknown solution
two 10 mL pipets (or graduated cylinders)
two 100 mL beakers
pipet pump or pipet bulb
distilled water
test tube rack
tissues (preferably lint-free)

PROCEDURE
1. Obtain and wear goggles. Caution: Be careful not to ingest any NiSO4 solution or spill any
on your skin. Inform your teacher immediately in the event of an accident.

2. Add about 30 mL of 0.40 M NiSO4 stock solution to a 100 mL beaker. Add about 30 mL of
distilled water to another 100 mL beaker. DANGER: Nickel sulfate solution, NiSO4: Causes
skin, respiratory tract, and eye irritation. Do not breathe mist, vapors, or spray—toxic if
swallowed.

3. Label four clean, dry, test tubes 1–4 (the fifth solution is the beaker of 0.40 M NiSO4). Pipet
2, 4, 6, and 8 mL of 0.40 M NiSO4 solution into Test Tubes 1–4, respectively. With a second
pipet, deliver 8, 6, 4, and 2 mL of distilled water into Test Tubes 1–4, respectively.
Thoroughly mix each solution with a stirring rod. Clean and dry the stirring rod between
stirrings. Keep the remaining 0.40 M NiSO4 in the 100 mL beaker to use in the fifth trial.
Volumes and concentrations for the trials are summarized below:

Trial 0.40 M NiSO4 Distilled H2O Concentration

number (mL) (mL) (M)
1 2 8 0.08

2 4 6 0.16

3 6 4 0.24

4 8 2 0.32

5 ~10 0 0.40

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 Determining the Concentration of a Solution: Beer’s Law

4. Prepare a blank by filling an empty cuvette 3/4 full with distilled water. To correctly use a
cuvette, remember:

• All cuvettes should be wiped clean and dry on the outside with a tissue.
• Handle cuvettes only by the top edge of the ribbed sides.
• All solutions should be free of bubbles.
• Always position the cuvette so the light passes through the clear sides.
5. Launch Spectral Analysis. Connect the Go Direct SpectroVis Plus to your Chromebook,
computer, or mobile device. Click or tap Absorbance vs. Concentration.

6. To calibrate the Spectrometer, place the blank cuvette in the Spectrometer and select Finish
Calibration. Note: If necessary, wait for the Spectrometer to warm up before selecting Finish
Calibration.

7. Determine the optimal wavelength for creating the standard curve.

a. Remove the blank cuvette, and place the 0.40 M standard into the cuvette slot.
b. The live graph will update with the spectrum of the sample. Click or tap the desired
wavelength or enter the Wavelength. Click or tap Done.
8. You are now ready to collect absorbance-concentration data for the five standard solutions.

a. Click or tap Collect to start data collection.

b. Empty the 0.40 M solution from the cuvette. Using the solution in Test Tube 1, rinse the
cuvette twice with ~1 mL amounts and then fill it 3/4 full. Wipe the outside with a tissue
and place it in the device.
c. When the value has stabilized, click or tap Keep and enter 0.080 as the concentration in
mol/L. Click or tap Keep Point. The absorbance and concentration values have now been
saved for the first solution.
d. Discard the cuvette contents as directed by your instructor. Using the solution in Test
Tube 2, rinse the cuvette twice with ~1 mL amounts, and then fill it 3/4 full. Place the
cuvette in the device, wait for the value displayed on the screen to stabilize, and click or
tap Keep. Enter 0.16 as the concentration in mol/L. Click or tap Keep Point.
e. Repeat the procedure for Test Tube 3 (0.24 M) and Test Tube 4 (0.32 M), as well as the
stock 0.40 M NiSO4. Note: Wait until Step 10 to test the unknown.
f. Click or tap Stop to stop data collection.
g. To examine the data pairs on the displayed graph, click or tap any data point. Record the
absorbance and concentration data values in your data table.

9. Display a graph of absorbance vs. concentration with a linear regression curve.

a. Click or tap Graph Tools, , and choose Edit Graph Options.

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 Determining the Concentration of a Solution: Beer’s LawExperiment

b. Enter 0 as the value for both the Left value for the x-axis and the Bottom value for the y-
axis. Dismiss the Graph Options box.
c. Click or tap Graph Tools, , and choose Apply Curve Fit.
d. Select Linear as the curve fit and Dismiss the Curve Fit box. The linear-regression
statistics for these two data columns are displayed for the equation in the form
y = mx + b

where x is concentration, y is absorbance, m is the slope, and b is the y-intercept.

Note: One indicator of the quality of your data is the size of b. It is a very small value if
the regression line passes through or near the origin. The correlation coefficient, r,
indicates how closely the data points match up with (or fit) the regression line. A value of
1.00 indicates a nearly perfect fit.
The graph should indicate a direct relationship between absorbance and concentration, a
relationship known as Beer’s law. The regression line should closely fit the five data
points and pass through (or near) the origin of the graph.
10. Determine the absorbance value of the unknown NiSO4 solution.

a. Obtain about 5 mL of the unknown NiSO4 in another clean, dry, test tube. Record the
number of the unknown in your data table.
b. Rinse the cuvette twice with the unknown solution and fill it about 3/4 full. Wipe the
outside of the cuvette and place it into the device.
c. Monitor the absorbance value. When this value has stabilized, record it in your data table.
11. Discard the solutions as directed by your instructor. Before closing Spectral Analysis,
continue to the Processing the Data section.

PROCESSING THE DATA

1. To determine the concentration of the unknown NiSO4 solution, interpolate along the
regression line to convert the absorbance value of the unknown to concentration.

a. Click or tap Graph Tools, , and turn on Interpolate.

b. Click or tap any point on the curve to find the absorbance value that is closest to the
absorbance reading you obtained during the Procedure. Record the corresponding NiSO4
concentration, in mol/L, in your data table.
2. (optional) Print a graph of absorbance vs. concentration, with a regression line and
interpolated unknown concentration displayed.

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 Determining the Concentration of a Solution: Beer’s Law

DATA AND CALCULATIONS

Concentration
Trial Absorbance
(mol/L)

1 0.080

2 0.16

3 0.24

4 0.32

5 0.40

Unknown number
6
___________

Concentration of unknown mol/L

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