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1
Secondary

co nda ry
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unit 4 & 5

Eng. Gaber Alaa

 1st
Math – Geometry Secondary

Vectors
Scalar quantity Vector quantity
Is determined completely by a real number The vector is the quantity determine by a
(Magnitude) real number which represents the
magnitude of this quantity and
direction.
AS: Distance (length), time, As: Force, Displacement, Velocity,
temperature, mass, area, and volume. weight.

The distance The displacement

▪ It is the scalar quantity which represents ▪ It is the vector quantity which represents
the length of the path covered during the shortest distance between starting
movement from a position to another and point and the ending point and in the
its determined completely by its direction from starting point to the
magnitude only without direction. ending point.
▪ It is the distance covered in a certain
direction
For example 𝑪

In the opposite figure:

If a body moved from the point 𝑨 a distance 𝟏𝟐𝒎.

east, then changed its direction and moved 𝑨 𝑩
𝟓𝒎. north and stopped at the point 𝑪 , then

▪ The distance covered by the body during the movement = 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑩𝑪 = 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟕𝒎.

▪ And the displacement resulted during the movement is the length of ̅̅̅̅
𝑨𝑪 in the direction
from 𝑨 to 𝑪 = √(𝟏𝟐)𝟐 + (𝟓)𝟐 = 𝟏𝟑 𝒎. in the direction ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑪

The direction

Each ray in the plane determines a certain direction.

▪ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑨 determine east direction.
▪ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑬 determine north east direction.
▪ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ determine the direction 𝟑𝟎° north of west.
𝑶𝑵
▪ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑴 determine the direction 𝟑𝟓° east of south.

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Note that:
if ⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 and ⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫 are parallel and each of them is 𝑪
𝑿 𝑨
⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝑬 ∈ 𝑨𝑩
not parallel to 𝑿𝒀 ̅̅̅̅ ,
𝑭 ∈ ̅̅̅̅
𝑨𝑩, 𝑭 ∈ ̅̅̅̅
𝑪𝑫 , 𝒁 ∈ ̅̅̅̅
𝑿𝒀, then:
𝑭 𝑬
𝒁
▪ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑨 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑨 have the same direction and are carried on one straight line.
▪ 𝑬𝑨
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑭𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ have the same direction and carried on two parallel straight line
▪ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑨 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑩 are in opposite directions and carried on one straight line
▪ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑭𝑫
𝑬𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are in opposite directions carried on two parallel straight lines
▪ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑨 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒁𝑿 are in different direction and carried on two not parallel straight lines.

Generally:

▪ The two rays which have the same or opposite directions are carried on one straight
line or two parallel straight lines and vice versa.
▪ The two rays different in direction are not carried on one straight line or two parallel
straight lines.

The Directed Line Segment

The points 𝑨 and 𝑩 are the two-ending points of ̅̅̅̅

𝑨𝑩 or ̅̅̅̅
𝑩𝑨.

̅̅̅̅
If we determine the point 𝑨 as a starting point to 𝑨𝑩
and the point 𝑩 as its ending point, then we describe
this segment as a directed line segment from 𝑨 to 𝑩
and is denoted by the symbol ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩.

Notice That: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑨𝑩 ≠ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑨

𝑩
▪ The directed line segment: 𝑨

It is a line segment which has an initial point, and terminal point and a direction.

▪ The norm of the directed line segment:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is the length of 𝑨𝑩

The norm of 𝑨𝑩 ̅̅̅̅ and is denoted by the symbol ‖𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖.

▪ Equivalent directed line segments:

Two directed line segments are said to be equivalent if:

▪ they have the same norm.

▪ they have the same direction.

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Equivalence of two directed line segments

Two directed line segments said to be equivalent if they have equal

length and same direction.
AS: If 𝑨𝑩𝑪𝑫 is a parallelogram
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ equivalent to 𝑪𝑫
∴ 𝑩𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫𝑨 equivalent to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑩

Remarks:

▪ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝑪𝑫
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ can not be equivalent unless two parallel straight lines carrying them or one
straight line as in the following figures:
𝑨 𝑩
=

𝑪 𝑫 𝑨 𝑩
𝑪 𝑫

=
=
=

▪ If 𝑨, 𝑩 , 𝑪 and 𝑫 are not collinear and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑩𝑨 is equivalent to
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫 , then 𝑨𝑩𝑪𝑫 is a parallelogram.

▪ From a point in the plane, for example 𝑪 , we can

𝑫
draw a unique directed line segment ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫
𝑩
equivalent to another line segment ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 in the same
𝑪
plane.
𝑨

▪ There are an infinite number of directed line segments can be drawn in the plane and each
of them is equivalent to another directed line segment.

Position vector

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑨 is called position vector of point 𝑨 and it is called ⃗𝑨 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑨 = ⃗𝑨 = (𝒙, 𝒚)

The norm of the vector

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝒙, 𝒚), then the norm of the vector 𝑨

If vector 𝑨𝑩 ⃗ denoted
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ = ‖𝑩𝑨
by ‖𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ = 𝑨𝑩 = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 so: ‖𝑨
⃗ ‖ = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−𝟑, 𝟒)
As: if 𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ = √(−𝟑)𝟐 + (𝟒)𝟐 = √𝟐𝟓 = 𝟓
∴ ‖𝑨𝑩

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The unit vector

𝟐 𝟐
It is a vector whose norm is unity ⃗⃗ = (𝟑 , 𝟒) → ‖𝑨𝑩
𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ = √(𝟑) + (𝟒) = 𝟏 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭.
𝟓 𝟓 𝟓 𝟓

The zero vector

⃗⃗ or 𝟎
It is a vector whose norm equals zero and denoted by 𝑶 ⃗ , where 𝑶
⃗⃗ = (𝟎, 𝟎) and it has no
direction.

Addition of two vectors Remarks:

If ⃗𝑨
⃗ = (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) , ⃗𝑩
⃗ = (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ) then: ⃗𝑨 + ⃗𝑩
⃗ = (𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 ) ▪ ⃗𝑨 + ⃗𝑩
⃗ = ⃗𝑩
⃗ + ⃗𝑨

As: If ⃗𝑨
⃗ = (𝟐, 𝟑) , ⃗𝑩
⃗ = (−𝟏, 𝟒) then: ⃗𝑨 + ⃗𝑩
⃗ = (𝟐 − 𝟏 , 𝟑 + 𝟒) = (𝟏, 𝟕) ▪ ⃗𝑨 + ⃗𝑶
⃗ = ⃗𝑶
⃗ + ⃗𝑨
⃗ = ⃗𝑨
⃗

▪ ⃗𝑨 + (−𝑨
⃗ ) = ⃗𝑶
⃗
Definition If ⃗𝑨 = (𝒙, 𝒚) , 𝑲 ∈ ℝ , then 𝑲𝑨
⃗⃗ = 𝑲(𝒙, 𝒚) = (𝑲𝒙, 𝑲𝒚)

As: If ⃗𝑨
⃗ = (𝟒, −𝟑) ∴ 𝟓𝑨
⃗⃗ = 𝟓(𝟒, −𝟑) = (𝟐𝟎, −𝟏𝟓)

Vectors and Coordinates

𝒊̂, 𝒋̂ are called fundamental unit vector, 𝒊̂ = (𝟏, 𝟎), 𝒋̂ = (𝟎, 𝟏)

If ⃗𝑨
⃗ = (𝒙, 𝒚), then ⃗𝑨 = 𝒙𝒊̂ + 𝒚𝒋̂
⃗⃗ = (𝟐, 𝟑) = 𝟐𝒊̂ + 𝟑𝒋̂ , 𝑩
As:𝑨 ⃗⃗ = (−𝟑, 𝟎) = −𝟑𝒊̂
Remarks:

The vector whose norm equals one is called unit vector

As: 𝒊̂ = (𝟏, 𝟎) , its norm= √𝟏 + 𝟎 = 𝟏 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 So ‖𝒊̂‖ = 𝟏 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 and also ‖𝒋̂‖ = 𝟏 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕

Equality of two vectors

For any two vectors ⃗𝑨

⃗ = (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) , ⃗𝑩
⃗ = (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 )

∴ ⃗𝑨
⃗ = ⃗𝑩
⃗ if and only if 𝒙𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒚𝟐

If ⃗𝑨
⃗ = ⃗𝑩
⃗ , and ⃗𝑨 = 𝟔𝒊̂ + 𝟐𝒋̂ , ⃗𝑩
⃗ = (−𝟑𝒂, 𝒃) ∴ 𝟔 = −𝟑𝒂 → 𝒂 = −𝟐 , 𝟐=𝒃

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The polar form of the position vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑶𝑨

▪ If the position vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑶𝑨 makes an angle of
measure 𝜽 with the positive direction of 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔, then the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖
‖𝑶𝑨
polar form of the position vector

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖, 𝜽)
𝑶𝑨 = (‖𝑶𝑨

▪ If the position vector of the point 𝑨 (𝒙 , 𝒚) is in the polar

form ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖, 𝜽) then:
𝑶𝑨 = (‖𝑶𝑨

𝒚
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 , 𝒚 = ‖𝑶𝑨
𝒙 = ‖𝑶𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 , 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 =
𝒙

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖
‖𝑶𝑨
▪ The cartesian form of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑨 is: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
‖𝑶𝑨

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 , ‖𝑶𝑨

𝑶𝑨 = (‖𝑶𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽)

𝒚
▪ 𝐈𝐟 𝑨
⃗⃗ = (𝒙, 𝒚) , 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝑨
⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
‖𝑶𝑨
𝒙

Parallel and perpendicular vectors

⃗⃗ , 𝑴
For every non zero vectors 𝑵 ⃗⃗⃗ where 𝑵
⃗⃗ = (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ), 𝑴
⃗⃗⃗ = (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 )

▪ If ⃗𝑵
⃗ // ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ , then 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽𝟏 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽𝟐

𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐
= → 𝒙 𝟏 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒙 𝟐 𝒚𝟏 = 𝟎
𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐

▪ If ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ ⊥ ⃗𝑵
⃗ , then 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽𝟏 × 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽𝟐 = −𝟏

𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐
× = −𝟏 → 𝒙 𝟏 𝒙 𝟐 + 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟎
𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐

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Remarks:

1) If ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ is a non-zero vector , 𝒌 ≠ 𝟎 > then ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ // 𝒌 ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ and ‖𝒌 ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ ‖ = |𝒌|‖𝑴
⃗⃗⃗ ‖

▪ The direction of 𝒌 ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ is the same direction of ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ for every 𝒌 > 𝟎

▪ The direction of 𝒌 ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ is the opposite direction of ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ for every 𝒌 < 𝟎
⃗⃗ and 𝑩
2) If 𝑨 ⃗⃗ are non-zero vectors, 𝑨
⃗⃗ = 𝒌 𝑩
⃗⃗ , 𝒌 ≠ 𝟎 , then 𝑨
⃗ // 𝑩
⃗⃗

Adding vectors geometrically

The first method: Triangle rule "Shal relation”

▪ In any triangle 𝑨𝑩𝑪:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑪 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑪
▪ For Example:
The displacement ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 followed by another displacement ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑪 is equivalent to a unique
displacement ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑪

▪ Remarks:

➊ Any two vectors ⃗𝑨 and ⃗𝑩

⃗ could be added (finding their resultant) by constructing two
⃗⃗ and 𝑩
consecutive vectors equivalent to the two vectors 𝑨 ⃗⃗

➋ Shal rule of adding two vectors is true if the points 𝑨, 𝑩 and 𝑪 belong to the same straight
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑩𝑪
line 𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑨𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

➌ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 = − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑨 , where ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑨 = ⃗𝑶
⃗ (𝒁𝒆𝒓𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓)

➍ In any triangle 𝑨𝑩𝑪: 𝑨𝑩

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑩𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑨
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑶
⃗⃗ because (𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑩𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) + 𝑪𝑨
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑨𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑨
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑶
⃗⃗

So, we can generalize this to any polygon.

For: In the pentagon ABCDE, we get:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑩𝑪
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑫
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑫𝑬
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑬𝑨
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑶
⃗⃗

➎ In any quadrilateral 𝑨𝑩𝑪𝑫: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑨𝑩 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑪 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑫

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
because (𝑨𝑩 𝑩𝑪) + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑪 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑫 So, we can generalize this to any polygon.

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The Second method: The parallelogram rule

▪ In any parallelogram 𝑨𝑩𝑪𝑫:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑨𝑫
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑨𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

∵ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑫 is equivalent to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑩𝑪
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑨𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑨𝑫
∴ 𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑨𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

▪ Remarks:

➊ If 𝑴 is the point of intersection of the two diagonals of the parallelogram, then 𝑨𝑪

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑴

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑨𝑫
∵ 𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑨𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑨𝑫
∴ 𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑴

➋ In triangle 𝑨𝑩𝑪:

▪ If ̅̅̅̅
𝑨𝑫 is median, then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑪 = 𝟐𝑨𝑫

Subtracting two vectors geometrically

If 𝑨 = (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) and 𝑩 = (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 )

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 𝑶𝑩 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑨 = (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ) − (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 )

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )
𝑨𝑩

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ = √(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )𝟐 − ( 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )𝟐
‖𝑨𝑩

▪ From the opposite figure:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 𝑶𝑩 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑨

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If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 represents the vector ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑪 represents the vector ⃗𝑵
⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ represents the vector 𝑴

then 𝑪𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑵
⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑪 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑨 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑨 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑩

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑪 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑩

As applying the previous rules of adding and subtracting vectors on two directed line segments
we should notice that:

▪ Remark:

⃗⃗ and 𝑩
If 𝑨 ⃗⃗ represent two adjacent sides of parallelogram,
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝑩
then (𝑨 ⃗ ) , (𝑨
⃗⃗ − ⃗𝑩
⃗ ) represent the diagonals of the

⃗⃗ + ⃗𝑩
parallelogram, then ‖𝑨 ⃗ ‖ = ‖𝑨
⃗⃗ − ⃗𝑩
⃗‖

Applications on Vectors
Geometric applications

If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 = 𝒌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫𝑪 , 𝒌 ≠ 𝟎 then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫𝑪 are:

▪ Carried by the same straight line (𝑨 , 𝑩 , 𝑪 , 𝑫 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓)

▪ Carried by two parallel straight lines 𝑨𝑩
⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗ //𝑫𝑪
⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗

Remark:

▪ If 𝑨𝑩𝑪𝑫 is a quadrilateral in which 𝑨𝑩

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒌 𝑫𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝒌 ≠ 𝟎 , then 𝑨𝑩
⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗ //𝑫𝑪
⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗ or ‖𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ = |𝒌| ‖𝑫𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖

and vice versa.

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Important remarks to solve the problems of the quadrilateral shapes

To prove that the figure is a parallelogram
▪ we prove one of the following properties:
▪ Each two opposite sides are parallel.
▪ Each two opposite sides are equal in length.
▪ Two opposite sides are parallel and equal in length.
▪ The two diagonals bisect each other.

Important remarks to solve the problems of the quadrilateral shapes

To prove that the quadrilateral is a rectangle, rhombus or square
we should prove first that the quadrilateral is a parallelogram as previous, then:
▪ To prove that the parallelogram is a rectangle we prove one of the following properties:
▪ Two adjacent sides are perpendicular.
▪ The two diagonals are equal in length.
▪ To prove that the parallelogram is a rhombus we prove one of the following properties:
▪ Two adjacent sides are equal in length.
▪ The two diagonals are perpendicular.
▪ To prove that the parallelogram is a square we prove one of the properties of the rectangle
and one of the properties of the rhombus together.

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Division of Line Segment

If the point 𝑪 divides ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 by a given ratio 𝒎𝟐 ∶ 𝒎𝟏 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒓𝟏 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ are the vectors which are
𝒓𝟐 , 𝒓
represented by the directed line segments ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑨 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑩 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑪 where 𝑶 is the origin point.

𝑨𝑪 𝒎𝟐
𝑰𝒇 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒎𝟐 × 𝑪𝑩
∴ 𝒎𝟏 × 𝑨𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑩 𝒎𝟏

⃗ − ⃗𝑨
𝒎𝟏 × (𝑪 ⃗ ) = 𝒎𝟐 × (𝑩
⃗⃗ − ⃗𝑪) → 𝒎𝟏 × (𝒓 𝒓𝟏 ) = 𝒎𝟐 × ( ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗)
𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓

𝒎𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒓𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒓𝟐
⃗ =
∴ 𝒓 (𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 )
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐

If 𝑨 = (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) , 𝑩 = (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ) , 𝑪 = (𝒙, 𝒚)

𝒎𝟏 (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) + 𝒎𝟐 (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 )
∴ (𝒙, 𝒚) =
𝒎 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐

𝒎 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐 𝒙 𝟐 𝒎 𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐 𝒚𝟐
∴ (𝒙, 𝒚) = ( , ) (𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 )
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐

𝒎𝟏 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒙𝟐
𝒙=
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐

𝒎 𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝒚=
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐

▪ If 𝑪 is the midpoint of 𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ where 𝑨 = (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) , 𝑩 = (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ) , then:
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒓𝟏 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒓𝟐
𝒎𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 = 𝒎 ⃗ =
→ 𝒓 (𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 )
𝟐

𝑨+𝑩 𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒙 𝟐 𝒚 𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐
∴𝑪= → (𝒙, 𝒚) = ( , ) (𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 )
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝑨+𝑩
Example: If 𝑨 = (𝟐, 𝟓) , 𝑩 = (𝟒, 𝟏) , then 𝑪 “ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒅 − 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕” = 𝟐

𝟐+𝟒 𝟓+𝟏
𝑪=( , ) = (𝟑, 𝟑)
𝟐 𝟐

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Internal Division of line segment:

If 𝑪 ∈ ̅̅̅̅
𝑨𝑩 “ 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒈𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕” ∴ 𝑪 divides ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 internally
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑪 𝒎𝟐
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑪𝑩
so, 𝑨𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ have the same direction
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑩 𝒎𝟏

𝒎𝟐
𝒎𝟏 , 𝒎𝟐 have the same sign “ 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆” >𝟎
𝒎𝟏

𝒎 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐 𝒙 𝟐 𝒎 𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐 𝒚𝟐
∴ (𝒙, 𝒚) = ( , )
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐

Notice That:
▪ If 𝑨𝑩𝑪 is a triangle whose vertices are 𝑨 = (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) , 𝑩 = (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ) , 𝐂 = (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ) and the point
𝑴 is the point of intersection of its medians, then:

𝑨+𝑩+𝑪
𝑴=
𝟐

𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒙 𝟐 + 𝒙 𝟑 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟑
𝑴=( , )
𝟑 𝟑

External Division of line segment:

⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗ “ 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 ” 𝑪 ∉ 𝑨𝑩

If 𝑪 ∈ 𝑨𝑩 ̅̅̅̅ “ 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒈𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕”

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑪 𝒎𝟐
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 →
∴ 𝑪 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒔 𝑨𝑩 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑪𝑩
so, 𝑨𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ have two opposite directions
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑩 𝒎𝟏

𝒎𝟏 , 𝒎𝟐 have different signs “ 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎 𝒊𝒔 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒔 𝑵𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆”

𝒎𝟐 𝒎 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐 𝒙 𝟐 𝒎 𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐 𝒚 𝟐
<𝟎 ∴ (𝒙, 𝒚) = ( , )
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐

First: |𝒎𝟐 | > |𝒎𝟏 | , then 𝑪 ∈ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑨𝑩 , 𝑪 ∉ ̅̅̅̅
𝑨𝑩 (𝑨𝑪 > 𝑪𝑩)

Second: |𝒎𝟐 | < |𝒎𝟏 | , then 𝑪 ∈ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑩𝑨 , 𝑪 ∉ ̅̅̅̅
𝑨𝑩 (𝑨𝑪 < 𝑪𝑩)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖
‖𝑨𝑪 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝑪 𝒎𝟐
Notice That: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖
= =| |
‖𝑪𝑩 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝑩 𝒎𝟏

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Equation of the straight line

The General Form of the equation of the straight line

𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 where 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 are real numbers, 𝒂 and 𝒃 are not equal to zero together.

The slope of the straight line.

1) If the line passes through the two points (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ), (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ) then its slope
𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
(𝒎) = =
𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏
2) If the equation of a St. line is 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 , Then its slope
− 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑿 −𝒂
(𝒎) = =
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒚 𝒃
3) If the equation of a St. line is 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄 , Then its slope
(𝒎) = 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑿
and intercepts from 𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 a part of length = the absolute value of the number 𝒄, and it
passes through the point (𝟎, 𝒄)
4) If the measure of the (+𝒗𝒆) angle of a St. line with (+𝒗𝒆)𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 is 𝜽 , then its slope
(𝒎) = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 ∴ 𝒎 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽
If 𝜽 is an acute angle If 𝜽 is an obtuse angle
∴ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 ∴ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆

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If 𝜽 = 𝟎° If 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎°
∴ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 = 𝟎 ∴ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅

5) The slope of 𝑿 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 and the slope of 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆
(𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝑿 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔) are equal to zero.
6) The slope of 𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 and the slope of any vertical straight line (𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔) are
undefined.

Remarks

1) If the slope of ⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑨𝑩 = The slope of ⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑪 , then the points 𝑨 , 𝑩 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑪 are collinear.
2) Any two different points in the plane one and only one straight line passes through them,
and from any point outside this straight line we can draw another unique straight line parallel
to it.
3) If two St. lines are parallel, then their slopes are equal so 𝒎𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐
𝑰𝒇 𝑳𝟏 // 𝑳𝟐 , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒎𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒂
4) If two St. lines are perpendicular, then 𝒎𝟏 × 𝒎𝟐 = −𝟏
𝑰𝒇 𝑳𝟏 ⊥ 𝑳𝟐 , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒎𝟏 × 𝒎𝟐 = −𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒂

▪ The direction vector of any straight line (𝒖

⃗ ):

Every non-zero vector can be represented by a directed line segment on a straight line is called a
direction vector of the straight line

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
In the opposite figure: Each of 𝑿𝒀 𝒀𝒁 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒁𝑿 , 𝒀𝑿⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is a
direction vector of the straight-line 𝑳.

⃗ ≠ ⃗𝑶
If 𝒖 ⃗ ,𝒖
⃗ the straight line 𝑳 , then 𝒖
⃗ is a direction vector to the straight line 𝑳

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▪ If 𝒖
⃗ = (𝒂, 𝒃) is a direction vector to a straight line, then 𝒌𝒖
⃗ is a direction vector to the same
straight line, where 𝒌 ∈ ℝ∗
For example:
▪ If 𝒖
⃗ = (𝟑, 𝟒)is a direction vector of a straight line, then each of the
vectors (𝟔, 𝟖), (− 𝟑, −𝟒), ( 𝟏 . 𝟓 , 𝟐), ( 𝟏𝟓, 𝟐𝟎) . .. is a direction vector of this straight line.

Notice That:
𝒃
▪ If 𝒖
⃗ = (𝒂, 𝒃) is a direction vector to a straight line, then 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 of this straight line =
𝒂

and vice versa

The different forms of the equation of a straight Line

The straight line 𝑳 which passes through the point 𝑨 = (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) and the vector 𝒖
⃗ = (𝒂, 𝒃) is
a direction vector to it, then:

The vector equation: 𝒓 ⃗ + 𝒌𝒖

⃗ = 𝑨 ⃗ → (𝒙, 𝒚) = (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) + 𝒌(𝒂, 𝒃)

The two parametric equations: 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒌𝒂 , 𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒌 𝒃

𝒚−𝒚𝟏 𝒃
The cartesian equation: = = 𝒎
𝒙−𝒙𝟏 𝒂

The equation of the straight line given two points lying on it

If the straight line passes through the two points 𝑷(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑵 = (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 )

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑵
⃗ = 𝑷𝑵
Let the vector 𝒖 ⃗⃗ − 𝑷
⃗⃗ be a direction vector of the straight line

𝒚 𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 (𝒎) =
𝒙 𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

⃗ = ⃗𝑷
The vector equation is 𝒓 ⃗ + 𝒌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑵 𝒐𝒓 ⃗ = ⃗𝑵
𝒓 ⃗ + 𝒌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑵

𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝒊𝒔 =
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

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The perpendicular direction vector of a straight line

⃗ = (𝒂, 𝒃) is a direction vector of a straight line

If 𝒖

⃗⃗ = (𝒃, −𝒂) is the perpendicular direction vector to the vector 𝒖

Then 𝑵 ⃗

Also, any one of the family of the vector ⃗𝑵

⃗ which are in the form 𝒌(𝒃, −𝒂) where 𝒌 ∈ ℝ∗ is
⃗
perpendicular direction vector to the vector 𝒖

Remarks:

If the general equation of the straight line is: 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃 𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 ,then:

The vector ⃗𝑵
⃗ = (𝒂, 𝒃) = (𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒙 , 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒚) is the perpendicular
direction vector to the straight line.

⃗ = (𝒃, −𝒂) is the direction vector to this straight line.

The vector 𝒖

The equation of the straight line given its slope and the intercepted part
from y-axis

The straight line has a slope m and intersects the 𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 at the point (𝟎, 𝒄)

intercepts from 𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 a part of length = the absolute value of the number 𝒄

𝒚−𝒄
then by substituting in the cartesian form we find that 𝒙−𝟎 = 𝒎

𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄

The equation of the straight line given the two intercepted parts from the two
coordinate axes

Let the straight line intersect 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 at the point (𝒂, 𝟎), and 𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 at the point (𝟎, 𝒃) ,
𝒃−𝟎 𝒃
The slope of the straight-line 𝒎 = 𝟎−𝒂 = − 𝒂

𝒚−𝟎 𝒃
Substituting in the cartesian form 𝒙−𝒂 = − 𝒂

𝒙 𝒚
𝒃𝒙 + 𝒂𝒚 = 𝒂𝒃 «𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒚 𝒂𝒃» + =𝟏
𝒂 𝒃

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Remarks:

The equation 𝒂 𝒙 + 𝒃 𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎, where a and b not equal to zero together is called the
general form of the straight line.
𝒄
▪ If 𝒂 = 𝟎, 𝒃 ≠ 𝟎 , then 𝒃𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 → 𝒚 = − 𝒃 , which is the equation of a straight line
𝒄
parallel to 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 and passes through the point (𝟎, − 𝒃)
𝒄
▪ If 𝒂 ≠ 𝟎, 𝒃 = 𝟎 , then 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 → 𝒙 = − 𝒂 , which is the equation of a straight line
𝒄
parallel to 𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 and passes through the point (− 𝒂 , 𝟎)

▪ If 𝒄 = 𝟎 , then 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 = 𝟎 , which is the equation of a straight line passing through the

origin point.
▪ To find the point of intersection of the straight line with 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 , put 𝒚 = 𝟎
▪ To find the point of intersection of the straight line with 𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 , put 𝒙 = 𝟎

If the two straight lines 𝑳𝟏 : 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒃𝟏 𝒚 + 𝒄𝟏 = 𝟎 and 𝑳𝟐 : 𝒂𝟐 𝒙 + 𝒃𝟐 𝒚 + 𝒄𝟐 = 𝟎 intersect at a

point, then the general equation of all straight lines which pass through the point of their
intersection is:

𝒎 (𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒃𝟏 𝒚 + 𝒄𝟏 ) + 𝒍 (𝒂𝟐 𝒙 + 𝒃𝟐 𝒚 + 𝒄𝟐 ) = 𝟎

where 𝒎 , 𝒍 ∈ ℝ

• When 𝒎 = 𝟎 , we get the equation of 𝑳𝟐

• When 𝒍 = 𝟎 ,we get the equation of 𝑳𝟏

• When 𝒎 ≠ 𝟎 , 𝒍 ≠ 𝟎 , we get the general equation of any line passing through the point of
intersection of 𝑳𝟏 and 𝑳𝟐 other than 𝑳𝟏 and 𝑳𝟐 in this case the equation can be written as:

𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒃𝟏 𝒚 + 𝒄𝟏 + 𝒌 (𝒂𝟐 𝒙 + 𝒃𝟐 𝒚 + 𝒄𝟐 ) = 𝟎

𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒌 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒏𝒐𝒏 − 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕.

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Measure of the angle between two straight lines

If 𝜽 is the measure of the included angle between the two straight lines 𝑳𝟏 and 𝑳𝟐 whose slopes
are and 𝒎𝟏 and 𝒎𝟐 then:
𝒎𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐 𝝅
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = | | , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝜽 ∈ [𝟎, ]
𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝟐

𝒎𝟏 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽𝟏 , 𝒎𝟐 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽𝟐

Notice That:
▪ If the tangent is positive, then we obtain an acute angle.
▪ If the tangent is zero, then the measure of the included angle is zero, then 𝒎𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 and
the two straight lines are parallel or coincident.
▪ If the tangent is undefined, then the measure of the included angle is 90°, then 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 = −𝟏
and the two straight lines are orthogonal (perpendicular).
▪ The measure of the obtuse angle = the measure of the supplementary angle of the acute angle.

The length of the perpendicular from a point to a straight line

The length of the perpendicular (𝑳) drawn from the point (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) to the straight line whose
equation is: 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 is determined by the relation:
|𝒂𝒙𝟏 + 𝒃𝒚𝟏 + 𝒄|
𝑳=
√𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐

Notice That:
▪ If the length of the perpendicular drawn from the point (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) to the straight line 𝒂𝒙 +
𝒃𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 equals 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐 , then the point lies on the straight line.
▪ The length of the perpendicular drawn from the origin point (𝟎, 𝟎) to the straight line:
|𝒄|
𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 equals
√𝒂𝟐 +𝒃𝟐

▪ The length of the perpendicular drawn from the point (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) to 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 = |𝒚𝟏 |
▪ The length of the perpendicular drawn from the point (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) to 𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 = |𝒙𝟏 |

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