Microcomputer Troubleshooting (DCA 3302)

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

BANGLADESH OPEN UNIVERSITY

 MICROCOMPUTER TROUBLESHOOTING

Diploma in Computer Science and Application Program

DCA 3302

Course Development Team

Writer
Professor Dr. Muhammad Mahbub Alam
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Islamic University of Technology

Dr. Abu Raihan Mostofa Kamal

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Islamic University of Technology

Coordinator
Professor Dr. K.M. Rezanur Rahman
School of Science and Technology
Bangladesh Open University

Editor
Dr. Md. Abdur Rouf
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology

Over All Supervision

Professor Dr. K.M. Rezanur Rahman
School of Science and Technology
Bangladesh Open University

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

BANGLADESH OPEN UNIVERSITY
 MICROCOMPUTER TROUBLESHOOTING
Course Code : DCSA 3302

Edition
First Edition:September, 1998
2nd and Revised Edition: November, 2016

Published by
Publishing, Printing and Distribution Division
Bangladesh Open University
Gazipur-1705

Cover Design
Md. Monirul Islam

Graphics & Computer Layout

Abdul Malek

Computer Compose
Sabina Yesmin

Printed by
xxxxxxxxxxx

ISBN: 948-34-4001-3

©Bangladesh Open University

 Preface
In today’s society the importance and impact of computers has become an
undeniable fact of the time. The most amazing side of this technology is that
it has dominated almost all parts of our lives. Education system, for exam-
ple, enjoys huge benefits of computers. Teaching has become more effective,
easy and interactive. Communication, on the other hand, has obtained un-
precedented improvement because of this technology. Same argument applies
for other sectors such as media and entertainment, business and social media.
Moreover the computer applications are rapidly increasing every day in all
parts of the world.
With the growth of computers, the problems associated to them are also
increasing. In most of the cases the problems can be substantially reduced if
they are handled with adequate knowledge of computer troubleshooting. This
text is the first step in this regard.
To troubleshoot a computer problem one must know how a computer works.
It is also important to know about different components of a computer. Unit
1 and unit 2 are dedicated to these needs.
Unit 3 discusses motherboards, its classification and its major components.
It also highlights how to install or replace it.
Processor is one of the most important components of a computer. Memory
is also another vital component used to store data. Unit 4 is dedicated to
explore these two issues.
Unit 5 explores different storage devices and their related problems. Pe-
ripheral devices enhances the capability of a computer. Since they are ex-
ternal components, often they experience different types of problems. Unit 6
addresses it.
Unit 7 explains basic hardware troubleshooting approaches of a computer
in general. It also highlights troubleshooting different components such as
power supply, processor and memory.
Unit 8 discusses operating system problems. It also explains some basic
security problems. Troubleshooting network problems is relatively challenging
and time-consuming. Unit 9 addresses troubleshooting network issues.
I would like to convey thanks to all concerns who helped in various ways
such as reviewing, editing, coordinating and publishing of this book.

i
Summary of the Contents

Unit 1 Introduction to Computers ................................................ 1

Unit 2 Microcomputer Troubleshooting ................................................ 13

Unit 3 Motherboards ................................................ 28

Unit 4 Processor and Memory ................................................ 44

Unit 5 Storage Devices ................................................ 66

Unit 6 Peripheral Devices ................................................ 90

Unit 7 Hardware Troubleshooting ................................................ 102

Unit 8 Operating System Troubleshooting ................................................ 126

Unit 9 Networking and Troubleshooting ................................................ 147

Answer to MCQ ................................................ 165

ii
Contents

1 Introduction to Computers 1
1.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Types of Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.1 Supercomputer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Mainframe computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.3 Minicomputer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.4 Microcomputer or Desktop Computer . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.5 Embedded Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 How Computer Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.1 Computers and their Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.2 Hardware and Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Microcomputer Troubleshooting 13
1.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2 Troubleshooting Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 Components of a Microcomputer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.2 Motherboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.3 Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.4 Random Access Memory (RAM) . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.5 Hard Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

iii
 CONTENTS

1.3.6 Expansion Slots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 Hardware Tools used for Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Heat Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.1 Cooling Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3 Motherboards 28
1.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2 Motherboard Types and Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.2.1 AT Motherboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.2.2 ATX Motherboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.2.3 Micro ATX Motherboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.2.4 ITX Motherboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.3 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.3.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.3.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2 Major Components of a Motherboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3 How to install or replace motherboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

4 Processor and Memory 44

1.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

iv
 1.2 Processor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.2.1 Processors and their characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.2.2 Generations of Processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.2.3 Installing a Processor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.3 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.3.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.3.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2 Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2.1 Memory Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2.2 Upgrading Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.3 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.3.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.3.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

5 Storage Devices 66
1.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.2 Various Storage Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.2.1 Magnetic Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1.2.2 Optical Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.2.3 Solid State Storage Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.2.4 Flash Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.3 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.3.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.3.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.2 Hard Drive Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.2.1 Components of a Hard Drive System . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.2.2 Basic Construction of a Hard Disk . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.2.3 Standard Interfaces for Hard Drives . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.2.4 Install and Configure a Parallel ATA Drive . . . . . . . 81

v
 CONTENTS

2.2.5 RAID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.3 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.3.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.3.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

6 Peripheral Devices 90
1.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
1.2 Expansion Cards: Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
1.2.1 Expansion Cards for Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1.2.2 Expansion Cards for Multimedia . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1.2.3 Expansion Cards for I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1.2.4 Expansion Cards for Communication . . . . . . . . . . 95
1.3 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
1.3.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
1.3.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.2 Installing and Configuring Adapter Cards . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.3 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.3.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.3.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

7 Hardware Troubleshooting 102

1.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
1.2 Troubleshooting Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
1.3 Hardware Problem Symptoms and Causes . . . . . . . . . . . 104
1.3.1 Excessive Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
1.3.2 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
1.3.3 Odors and Smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
1.3.4 Status Light Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
1.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
1.4.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

vi
 1.4.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.2 Troubleshooting at the Startup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.2.1 POST Routines Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.2.2 STOP (Blue Screen) Errors at Startup . . . . . . . . . 110
2.2.3 Other BIOS Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.3 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.3.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.3.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.1 Troubleshooting Different Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.1.1 Troubleshooting Motherboard and Processor . . . . . . 115
3.1.2 Troubleshooting Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.1.3 Troubleshooting Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.1.4 Troubleshooting Hard Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.1.5 Troubleshooting Video Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.2 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.2.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.2.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

8 Operating System Troubleshooting 126

1.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
1.2 Operating System and Its Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
1.2.1 Operating System Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
1.3 Installation of Operating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
1.3.1 Planning the Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
1.3.2 Beginning the Installation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
1.4.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
1.4.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
2.2 Operating System Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

vii
 CONTENTS

2.2.1 Operating System Problem Symptoms . . . . . . . . . 137

2.3 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2.3.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2.3.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.2 Troubleshooting Security Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.2.1 Symptoms of Security Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.2.2 Tools for Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.3 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.3.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.3.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

9 Networking and Troubleshooting 147

1.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
1.2 Computer Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
1.3 Network Protocols and TCP/IP Protocol Suite . . . . . . . . 148
1.4 Network Topology and Interconnection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
1.5 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
1.5.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
1.5.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2.2 Network Media and Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2.2.1 Coaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2.2.2 Twisted Pairs Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2.2.3 Fiber Optic Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2.3 Wiring Standard for UTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
2.4 Criping a CAT5 Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
2.5 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
2.5.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
2.5.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

viii
3.2 Network Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.2.1 Network Interface Card (NIC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.2.2 Repeater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.2.3 Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.2.4 Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.2.5 Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.2.6 Router . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.3 Troubleshooting of Network Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.3.1 Network troubleshooting: An example . . . . . . . . . 162
3.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.4.1 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.4.2 Analytical Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

ix
UNIT 1
Introduction to Computers
This unit highlights the working principle of a computer in a very general
point of view. Since there are different types of computers, it also discusses
this issue. Many reader may not have any background on computer technology.
To help them prepare for the course this unit is a foundation work.

Lesson 1: Computers and its classification

1.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Know about different types of computers.

Understand the hardware and software part of a computer.
Know how a computer works.

In today’s society, the term ’Computer’ becomes an inseparable part of our

life. Computers have unprecedented impacts on our personal life, educational
system, business and transaction, entertainment and so on.

1.2 Types of Computers

Since this course is about Microcomputer Troubleshooting, before we start the

main lesson the most obvious question should arise in our minds: what are
other types of computers are? This section answers this question.
 Computers can be as big as a large building and as small as a laptop or
a microcontroller in mobile and embedded systems. Based on size, processing
capability and application they are classified into following five categories:

1. Supercomputer
2. Mainframe Computer
3. Minicomputer
4. Microcomputer or Desktop Computer
5. Embedded Computer

1.2.1 Supercomputer

Supercomputers are the most powerful computers in regard to performance

and data processing capacity. Unlike the computers we use on daily basis,
Supercomputers are designed for a specific task and use by some large orga-
nizations or countries. They are mainly used for scientific research purposes.
For example, NASA uses supercomputers for launching and controlling space
shuttles.
The supercomputers are very expensive and very large in size. For instance,
Titan is a supercomputer built by Cray at Oak Ridge National Laboratory that
costs about 97 million USD. And it takes upto 402 squire meter of space.
Seymour Cray designed the first Supercomputer ”CDC 6600” in 1964. CDC
6600 is known as the first ever Supercomputer
Use of Supercomputers

Space Exploration
Earthquake studies
Weather Forecasting
Other scientific research

Supercomputers: Examples

Cray’s Titan by Oak Ridge National Laboratory in United States

IBMs Sequoia in United States
Fujitsus K Computer in Japan

2
 IBMs Mira in United States
IBMs SuperMUC in Germany

Figure 1 .1: Supercomputer

1.2.2 Mainframe computer

Mainframe computers are mainly used by large firms and government orga-
nizations to run their business operations. The Mainframe computer can be
fit inside a large air-conditioned room because of its size. These computer
are also very powerful. For example, IBM’s latest Mainframe z13 can process
2.5 billion transactions a day. Mainframes are used by large organizations
for critical applications, massive data processing such as census, industry and
consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning, and transaction processing.
Figure 1 .2 shows the latest Mainframe z13 by IBM.
Mainframe computers: Examples

IBS’s z13
Fujitsus ICL VME
Hitachis Z800

1.2.3 Minicomputer

Minicomputers are used by small businesses & firms. Minicomputers are also
called as “Midrange Computers”. These are small machines and can be ac-

3
 Figure 1 .2: z13: Mainframe computer by IBM

commodated on a disk with not as processing and data storage capabilities

as super-computers and mainframes. These computers are not designed for a
single user. Individual departments of a large company or organizations use
mini-computers for specific purposes. For example, a production department
can use mini-computers for monitoring certain production process.

Figure 1 .3: Programmers Panel of TI-990 (A Minicomputer)

Minicomputer: Examples

Texas Instrument TI-990

IBM Midrange computers

1.2.4 Microcomputer or Desktop Computer

A microcomputer is designed on a small scale and generally used by an individ-

ual. It has a microprocessor, memory and input/out facilities. Advancement
of increasingly powerful microprocessors with declining cost is the main factor
for the popularity of microcomputers. Desktop computers, laptops,Netbooks,
Gaming consoles belong to this category.

4
 The Micro-computers are specially designed for general usage like edu-
cation, entertainment and office work purposes. Popular manufacturers of
microcomputer are Dell, Apple, Samsung, Sony and Toshiba.

Figure 1 .4: Commodor-64: one of the most popular early microcomputers (1982)

Figure 1 .5: A Modern Microcomputer

1.2.5 Embedded Computers

Microprocessor embedded in personal mobile devices (PMD), personal digital

assistant (PDA), tablet PCs, smart phones, networking devices, printers, and
other hand-held or household devices are generally called embedded comput-
ers.

1.3 Exercise

1.3.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. Which is not true about a Supercomputer?

a) It is large in size.
b) Supercomputer is a specialized computer.
c) It is used by common people.
d) It is very expensive.

5
 2. Which statement is false about a Mainframe computer?

a) It is larger than desktop PC.

b) It is used for home entertainment.
c) It can compute billions of transaction per day.
d) It is expensive.

1.3.2 Analytical Question

1. Describe different types of computers.

2. Prepare a note regarding the power and capacity of a Supercomputer.
Then compare it with that of your desktop PC. (Need Internet Access)

Lesson 2: Working Principle of a Computer

2.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Know how a computer works.

2.2 How Computer Works

Most gadgets are rather simple: A toaster heats bread; a microwave oven heats
water or the water inside of things; a car provides transportation; a telephone
allows you to talk with someone else, from across the globe to sitting across
the table. The purpose of any device can be boiled down to the simplest
description. But what about a computer? It is very hard to make one single
statement on its purposes.

2.2.1 Computers and their Basics

Before we begin to learn the different parts that make up a computer system
it is important to realize the fact that what a computer really does.
What Computers really do! To understand how computers work, it
is important first to realize what they do. In fact, the list would be very

6
very long. To mention a few, they are: word processing, video editing, game
playing, image processing, web surfing and so on. Although these applications
are very diverse in nature there is one thing in common from computer’s
perspective: information processing or simply processing.

It has been said that it is hard to describe a computer perfectly. At one

time, the computer was considered the ultimate solution for which there was
no solution. But that is not quite correct. The computer does basically one
thing: It takes input and then modifies that input to create some form of output
(see Figure 1 .6). Between the input and output the most important part of
the computer system is done and that is processing.

Figure 1 .6: How a Computer Works: Input → Processing → Output

To help you grasp the notion of what a computer does, you should under-
stand three basic computer concepts you should remember as shown in the
Figure 1 .7. It has three aspects:

I/O
Processing
Storage

I/O: Input/output is commonly written as I/O which are the two things a
computer does the best. Remember the following points about I/O:

– Any device connected to your computer can be classified either input

device or output device.

7
 Figure 1 .7: How a Computer Works: A General Diagram

– Input devices are used to send information to the computer. The key-
board, mouse, scanner and digital camera are some examples of input
devices.

– Output devices are those the computer uses to show its output, such as
the screen and printer.

– Some devices can do both input and output, such as a hard drive, floppy
disk and a modem. The computer can use those devices to supply input
as well as send output to those devices.

Processing: Processing is the stage where the input data is manipulated to

generate meaningful information called output.

– Processing is handled by a processor which is called the brain of the

computer.

– The processor does not have any processing capacity unless you instruct
it. Telling the computer what to do is the instruction set. By using a lot
of instructions a software is developed.

8
Storage: The final part of the computer equation is storage, which in a com-
puter is referred to as memory. The storage is necessary on the most basic
level because the processor needs a place to perform its operations.
On a modern computer, storage comes in two forms: temporary and per-
manent.
RAM is the temporary storage, where the processor does its work, where
programs run, and where information is stored while it is being used. You can
imagine that RAM is the microprocessors’ playground.
Disk drives provide long-term storage also called secondary storage. The
disks also allow information to be saved and recalled for later use like a
closet or storage unit. Disk storage is the place where things go when the
microprocessor is not directly working on them but from where stuff can be
retrieved later, if needed.
A good analogy of temporary and permanent storage is shown in Figure
1 .8.

Figure 1 .8: Storage of Computer: A General Comparison

2.2.2 Hardware and Software

A computer system is a blend of two different things: hardware and software.

Hardware and software must go well together to create the full computer sys-
tem.

9
Hardware: The physical parts of a computer and related devices are collec-
tively called computer hardware. The internal hardware parts of a computer
are often referred to as components, while external hardware devices are usu-
ally termed as peripheral devices or simply peripherals. But in general, they
all fall under the category of computer hardware. Computer case and power
supply are the typical examples of computer hardware. We will explore this
idea in more detail very soon.

Software: Software refers to the set of instructions or programs that make

the computer perform specific tasks. Some programs are designed to ensure
that the computer works. They are termed as system programs, while other
programs do very specific tasks called application programs. When you turn
on your computer a system program called Operating System (i.e. Windows
7, Linux) is automatically loaded to ensure that you can do other tasks effi-
ciently. If you start writing a document using a word-processing program (i.e.
Microsoft Word in Windows or LibreOffice in Linux ) you are actually using
one application program.
A musical orchestra is a good analogy to think of hardware and software
in a computer. For hardware, you have the musicians and their instruments.
The software is the music. As with a computer, the music (software) tells the
musicians and their instruments (hardware) what to do.

Hardware Explored: Since the course objective is confined in the area of

computer hardware troubleshooting it is essential to further explain computer
hardware.

Figure 1 .9: Basic Hardware of a Computer

10
 Figure 1 .9 shows a typical computer system. The big, important pieces
have been labeled for your enjoyment. It is important that you know which
piece does which task and its proper terminology.

– Computer Case: It is the large box that contains most of the essential
components of a computer. In more formal language it is also called
Computer Console. Although in general the term console is used to
indicate the basic terminal where you can issue commands directly.
– Monitor: The monitor is the device where the computer displays infor-
mation, its output.
– Keyboard: It is the device by which you can type something. It is the
most primitive way to communicate with the computer, hence keyboard
is often referred to as an input device.
– Mouse: The computer mouse is a helpful device that lets you work with
graphical objects that the computer displays on the monitor.
– Speakers: For audio output we need speakers, either external or built-in
(mostly for Laptops).
– Printer: It prints and produces hard copy.

2.3 Exercise

2.3.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. What is the general task that all computers do?

a) Gaming
b) Information Processing
c) Video Editing
d) Word Processing

2. Which of the following is an example of an application program?

a) Windows 95
b) Windows 7
c) Mirosoft Office
d) Linux

3. Which is an example of a software?

11
 a) Mouse
b) Hard disk
c) Linux
d) Keyboard

4. Which of the following can be used both as storage and I/O?

a) Mouse
b) Hard disk
c) Monitor
d) Keyboard

2.3.2 Analytical Question

1. Briefly explain how hardware and software work together in a computer.

2. What do you understand by system program and application program?
Explain with suitable examples.

12
UNIT 2
Microcomputer Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting of microcomputer is a challenging task. This is due to the
fact that computer is a very high-precision and complex system consisting of
a number of different components. A particular problem may be caused by a
number of reasons. This unit describes the general approach of troubleshoot-
ing. It explores the major components of a computer. Before you start the
troubleshooting you must have a number of tools or devices. They are also
summarized here.

Lesson 1: Troubleshooting Approach, Components of a

Computer

1.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Understand basics of troubleshooting approaches.

Know about the different components of a computer.
Know the tools used for hardware troubleshooting.
Understand sources of heat for a computer and the cooling methods.

1.2 Troubleshooting Approaches

In today’s world of automation if a computer does not function properly, en-

tire system is suspended. In personal level the user can not do his/her daily
important jobs. For instance, if the Server of the result processing system of a
university becomes non-functioning all students’ results should be suspended
until the system is restored again.
Hence, in order to troubleshoot a microcomputer it is important to under-
stand the present situation, diagnose the problem and finally find a suitable
solution to the issue. A step-by-step methodical approach is always better
than some random guess to the underlying problem.
Followings are the standard six step for microcomputer troubleshooting:

Step 1: Problem Identification. This is the first step and success of

the entire process depends on how clearly the problem is identified. Ex-
haustive questions to the user of the computer about the problem is an
effective tool. It is important to take the important backups at this stage.

Step 2: Establish a theory of probable cause. To establish the theory

the user experience or responses to questions at Step 1 can be used.
Additional questions may be asked in this case.

Step 3: Test the theory to determine cause. Use different cases to

identify the root cause of the problem.

Step 4: Act for the solution. Establish a plan of action to resolve the
problem and implement the solution.

Step 5: Test and prevent. Verify full system functionality and implement
preventative measures

Step 6: Report. Findings, actions, and outcomes should be clearly

documented with proper explanation and time-line. This document is
very useful for troubleshooting similar type of problem in the near future.

1.3 Components of a Microcomputer

Major objective of this section is to make the reader familiar with the in-
ternal and external components of a typical microcomputer. Details of each
component will be discussed in more details in the subsequent chapters.
The next part of these notes will explore different hardware components of
a typical computer.
It is strongly advisable to finish this lesson in presence of a computer so
that you can readily map the instruction to the corresponding component.

14
1.3.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is also called miro-processor or simply a processor. It is located

inside the computer case on the motherboard. It is termed as brain of the
computer because it is one of the most important parts of any computer. The
primary job of processor is to carry out the instructions. Whenever you run
any application such as Micrsoft Word or Power Point Presentation you are
actually sending instructions to the processor.

Figure 2 .1: Floor Plan of Intel Pentium P54C Processor

The processor is very small in size. A typical processor is a two-inch ceramic

square with a silicon chip located inside. The chip is normally about the size
of a thumbnail. The processor fits into the motherboard’s processor socket
(also called CPU socket). Each socket is covered by the heat sink to absorb
heat from the processor.
The speed of a processor is measured in megahertz (MHz), or millions of
instructions per second; and gigahertz (GHz), or billions of instructions per
second. A faster processor takes less time to execute instructions. However, the
actual speed of the computer depends on the speed of many different components
of computer system.
There are many processor manufacturers for personal computers, but the
most well-known ones are Intel and AMD.

1.3.2 Motherboard

The motherboard is the main circuit board. It holds the CPU, memory, hard
drive connectors, expansion cards to the video and audio, and connections to

15
other ports (such as USB ports).

Figure 2 .2: Motherboard

1.3.3 Power Supply

The power supply is located at the back of the computer, where the power
cord is connected. It transforms the 240 Volt AC main power supply into the
various DC voltages required by the machine. This is why you will notice a
number of power cables coming out of the power supply and going to various
parts of the computer.
The power supply is the ultimate energy supplier to the computer, so it
runs as long as the machine is on. To prevent overheat damage each power
supply includes a fan that circulates air through the case.
Be careful to open the computer case. You must unplug the computer first
and before touching the inside you should touch a grounded metal object to
discharge any static charge.

1.3.4 Random Access Memory (RAM)

In order to process information the computer requires to store partial or pre-

computed information. And the access to these information should be very
fast. For this purpose, a special memory chip called Random Access Memory
(RAM) is used. It is also called primary storage.
RAM is termed as short-term memory or volatile memory because the
contents of RAM are lost whenever the computer is turned off or rebooted.
RAM Slots: The RAM area of the system board contains a number of

16
 Figure 2 .3: Computer Power Supply

Figure 2 .4: Random Access Memory (RAM)

memory slots rather like expansion slots, but they dont have to be along the
back of the case. Depending on how much memory your computer has, some
of the slots may be empty.

Figure 2 .5: RAM slot inside the Motherboard

17
 How much RAM? RAM is measured in megabytes (MB) or gigabytes
(GB). The computer can finish more tasks in less time if it has higher RAM. On
the other hand, computer without enough RAM often gets sluggish especially
when multiple tasks are run in parallel. In todays desktop and laptop com-
puter, RAM ranges from 4 GB to 16 GB. Additional RAM normally improves
performance of the computer.

1.3.5 Hard Drive

Inside the case, you will notice a solid and heavy rectangular metal box as
shown in figure 2 .6. This is called hard drive where data are stored perma-
nently and programs are installed. Hard Drive is called permanent storage
or long-term storage. Since the data stored in hard drive are not lost if the
computer is turned off or rebooted.
When a particular program (e.g. Word Processor) is executed or a file
is opened, some relevant portion of data is copied from the hard disk to the
RAM. This is why computer with faster hard drive can start up and load
program quickly.

Figure 2 .6: Hard Drive

Hard Drive Manufacturer: Major manufacturers of hard drive today

are: Western Digital, Seagate, and Toshiba.

1.3.6 Expansion Slots

Additional hardware can be connected to the computer through the expansion

slots. These hardwares come as expansion cards that properly fit into their
designated expansion slots. Followings are some common types of expansion
cards:

18
 Video Card: It is responsible for the visual display of your computer
monitor. Now-a-days, most computers do not have dedicated video card,
instead its motherboard has a GPU (graphics processing unit) built into
it.

Sound Card: The sound card is responsible for all sorts of audio sound
in your computer. Most motherboards, in recent days, have their built-in
audio card.

Network Card: This card facilitates to communicate with other com-

puters on the same network. It is also responsible for the access to the
Internet.

1.4 Exercise

1.4.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. In hardware troubleshooting the success depends mainly on:

(a) Establish the theory

(b) Problem Identification
(c) Report Generation
(d) Test the theory

2. Find out the component of a computer which is very smaller in size but
very important in capability:

a) RAM
b) Power Supply
c) Motherboard
d) Processor

1.4.2 Analytical Question

1. What is the purpose of troubleshooting? Describe the steps of trou-

bleshooting.

2. Discuss the different components of a computer inside the case.

19
 Lesson 2: Hardware Tools for Troubleshooting, Heat
Management

2.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Know the tools used for hardware troubleshooting.

Understand sources of heat for a computer and the cooling methods.

2.2 Hardware Tools used for Troubleshooting

Hardware tools are helpful to identify performance trends and problems. This
section describes the most common of these tools which are very helpful in
isolating defective hardware components.
The commonly used tools are :

Multimeter

Cable tester

POST Card

Other Tools

Multimeter: Multimeter is a very basic electronic troubleshooting equip-

ment. They can be either analog or digital. Figure 2 .7 is a digital multime-
ter. It is used to directly measure electrical values of voltage (V), current in
milliamperes (mA) or amperes (A), and resistance in ohms. Therefore, these
devices are referred to as VOMs (volt-ohm-milliammeters) for analog types,
or DMMs (digital multimeters) for digital types.
In computer troubleshooting, use of multimeter mainly involves DC voltage
readings. These measurements usually involve checking the DC power-supply.
It can also be used to check the voltage level across a system board capacitor
to verify that the system is receiving power properly.

20
 Figure 2 .7: A Digital Multimeter

Cable Tester: Many hardware problems are caused by faulty cabling and
connector especially in the networking. Connectivity and functionality can
be tested using some specialized hand-held devices commonly termed as cable
tester. These devices range from moderately priced Data Cabling Testers to
very expensive Time Domain Reflectometers (TDR).

– Data Cabling Tester: Data Cabling Testers are mainly used to perform
a number of different types of tests on twisted-pair and coaxial cables.
Data Cabling Testers normally consist of two units: a master test unit
and a separate load unit, as illustrated in Figure 2 .8.
The master unit is attached to one end of the cable and the other end
is attached with the load unit. The master unit sends patterns of test
signals through the cable and reads them back from the load unit. In
case of twisted-pair cabling this device is used to detect:

• Broken wires
• Shorted connections
• Improperly paired connections

– Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR): TDRs are more advanced and so-
phisticated cable testers that can be used to determine the distance to
a break in a cable. It sends signals along the cable and waits for them
to be reflected. Then the physical distance can be calculated using the
time between sending the signal and receiving it back.

21
 Figure 2 .8: Cable Tester

POST Card: POST card is a diagnostic device that displays error codes and
progress during its power-on self-test (POST) process. Hardware technician
uses POST card when the computer does not start up or it can not read from
the hard drive. The system generates codes to a specified I/O port (usually
80 hex) during startup, indicating different stage of startup or error message.
The codes are well-documented, so the technician can easily understand what
is going on.
The value of the card lies in the fact that the tests can be carried out even
if the system is completely disconnected from its hard drive.

Figure 2 .9: POST Card

Other Tools: To disassemble and inspect any component of a computer a

wide range of accessories are needed. They include:

22
 Screwdrivers
Pliers
Cutters
Torch Light

Figure 2 .10: Other Tools for Troubleshooting

2.3 Heat Management

Heat is a major factor. At first you might think why a hardware trou-
bleshooter is ever careful about the heat inside the computer. May be your
computer runs 1/2 hours a day, not even 7 days a week. But that is not the
general case. Primarily computers specially in university, research center and
corporate service provider run for very long time.
Inside the computer there are components such as CPUs, graphics pro-
cessors, drive motors and power supply circuits. Heat has adverse effects on
these components. For each of these components the manufacturers set the
maximum operating temperature. In most cases, beyond 80°C they may stop
normal functioning. Common symptoms are hard disk read/write error, un-
reasonably slow response time for each program.

Sources of Heat:

The Processor and Graphic card cause the maximum heating in a com-
puter.

23
 Each component experiences higher temperature with increasing load
(i.e. more tasks at a time).

In gaming the graphics processing unit (GPU) do a lot of operations that

generate heat higher than CPU.

Hard drive is another major contributing factor for generating heat.

Optical Disk Drives also generate excessive heat for reading and writing
from and into CDs and DVDs.

2.3.1 Cooling Methodology

There are a number of cooling methods. Each of them has its own advantages
and disadvantage.

Active Air Cooling

This method can be considered as the cheapest and the most commonly used
method for cooling a computer. It has a cooling plate and a fan. The fan
blows air on the plate over the component to be cooled. The cooling plate
consists of a flat surface that touches the component to be cooled. A number
of fins are attached on the other side and those fins increase the surface of the
plate. As a result, the heat exchange capability of the plate is also increased.

Figure 2 .11: Active air cooling components

Active air cooing is an efficient way of cooling in terms of power saving.

Disadvantage: It can only reduce the temperature of a part to a level
that are always higher than its surrounding temperature. This is a major
problem specially when the computer is operated in a hard environments (i.e.

24
the surrounding temperature is very high). In this case the temperature may
not be reduced as required by a particular component.
Advantage: It is very cheap and energy-efficient (i.e. uses less power to
operate). It is easy to maintain the system. One can easily replace the faulty
fan that involves very less cost.

Passive Air Cooling

In passive air cooling, a plate is used as mentioned in active cooling. But the
plate is much bigger in size than the ones in active air cooling. This is because
there is no fan to blow within the fins. The fins should be large enough and
should have adequate space between them to allow the natural flow of air.

Figure 2 .12: Passive Air Cooling Components

Disadvantage: Weight and size are the main problems of this system.
Since a heavy and large plates are fixed over a smaller area (i.e. component to
be cooled), it increased the total weight of the computer. It also reduces usable
area inside the case.
Advantage: The reliability of this system is very high. Moreover the
maintenance cost is as low as 0.

Water Cooling

This is relatively a new technique for cooling computer systems.

The components of this system are:

Cooling plates
Hoses that the coolant (that makes component cool) flows within
A small tank for coolant
A circulation pump

25
 A radiator

First the components that require cooling are identified. Then each of
these components is connected to a cooling plate which is normally made of
aluminum or copper. It is a hollowed plate with an input and output for the
coolant. The pump circulates the coolant from the radiator, to the cooling
plates, then to the tank and back to the radiator. The coolant will lower its
temperature in the radiator.

Figure 2 .13: A radiator: water cooling component

Disadvantage: It requires high power to operate the pump. Reliability of

the system is questionable in case of failure of the pump. In that case, the
component temperature will rise instantly.
Advantage: It can rapidly reduce the temperature of the component into
its ambient or even lower temperature when water cooling is used.

2.4 Exercise

2.4.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. Which of the following tools is not used by a hardware troubleshooter?

a) Scale
b) Multimeter
c) POST Card
d) Cable Tester

2. Which component generates maximum heat inside a computer when you

play computer game?

a) RAM

26
 b) GPU
c) Motherboard
d) CPU

2.4.2 Analytical Question

1. Explain why cooling system is very important in a computer? Discuss

various cooling methods with their advantages and disadvantages.
2. Write short notes on:

Multimeter
Cable tester
POST

27
UNIT 3
Motherboards
Motherboard is the foundation of a computer. It is the area where most of the
essential components are set. Processor, for instance, is inserted on a specific
area of the motherboard. Therefore it is essential to understand the features of
a motherboard. It is also important to explore different types of motherboard.
These are pre-requisites to successfully troubleshoot the motherboard.

Lesson 1: Classification of Motherboard

1.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Learn about different types of motherboard and their features

Motherboard, also known as the system board or mainboard is the backbone

of the computer. Motherboard is a printed circuit board (PCB) that lines the
bottom of the computer and is often of a uniform color, such as olive, brown,
or blue. For those who are unfamiliar with the term PCB, it is a conductive
series of pathways laminated to a nonconductive substrate. It connects all the
components of a computer and thus it is the most important component of a
computer. Figure 3 .1 shows a typical mother board, as mentioned above. All
other components are attached to this circuit board.
 Figure 3 .1: Motherboard

1.2 Motherboard Types and Features

Motherboards are classified based on its form factor. Let us begin our dis-
cussion about various types of motherboard by understanding the term form
factor.
Form Factor: The specifications for a motherboard’s general shape and
size is determined by its form factor. Various other aspects of motherboard is
also specified by its form factor like supported type of case and power supply,
the placement of mounting holes, the physical layout and organization of the
board etc.

1.2.1 AT Motherboard

It is impossible for an AT motherboard to fit in mini desktops because it

is big enough to have dimensions in the order of some hundred millimeters.
It is difficult for new drivers to be installed in this motherboard due to its
dimensions. The concept of six pin plugs and sockets is implemented as the
power connectors for this type of motherboards.
The inherent difficulty in distinguishing power connector sockets results in
numerous cases of faulty connections, which lead to the damage of the device.
This motherboard went into production in mid 80’s and lasted a good span

29
from the Pentium P5 to the times when Pentium 2 had been started to be
used.

1.2.2 ATX Motherboard

ATX, popularly known as Advanced Technology Extended, were produced by

the Intel in mid 90s as an improvement from the previously working mother-
boards such as AT.
The smaller dimensions of this motherboard along with the flexibility in
interchanging the connected components make ATX motherboard different
from AT motherboard. Moreover, The smaller dimension in this motherboard
allowed proper place for the drive bays.
Some good changes made to the connector system of the board included a
keyboard connector and extra slots on the back plates and they were provided
for various add-ons.

1.2.3 Micro ATX Motherboard

Micro ATX is a form factor that is designed to work in standard ATX cases,
as well as its own smaller cases. Though micro ATX follows the ATX principle
of component placement for enhanced cooling over pre-ATX designs and it has
a smaller footprint. This is because the smaller form comes with some trade-
offs. For the compact use of space, the quantity of memory slots, motherboard
headers, expansion slots, integrated components were decreased. There are
fewer micro ATX chassis bays, although the same small-scale motherboard can
fit into much larger cases if your original peripherals are still a requirement.
Micro ATX systems tend to be designed with lower wattage power supplies
to help keep down power consumption and heat production. This is generally
standard requirement for reduced micro ATX suite of components. However,
as more offboard USB ports are added and larger cases are introduced with
additional in-case peripherals, a larger power supply might be incorporated.
Micro ATX motherboards and their larger cousins, ATX motherboards, share
their width, mounting hole pattern, and rear interface pattern but are shal-
lower and square, measuring 9.6 ′′ × 9.6 ′′ (244mm × 244mm). They were
designed so that they can be fit into full-size ATX cases.

30
1.2.4 ITX Motherboard

The ITX line of motherboard form factors was developed for special uses, such
as home-theater systems and as embedded components by VIA as a low-power,
small form factor (SFF) board. ITX itself is not an actual form factor but a
family of form factors consisting of the following form factors:

Mini-ITX 6.7 ′′ × 6.7 ′′ (170mm × 170mm)

Nano-ITX 4.7 ′′ × 4.7 ′′ (120mm × 120mm)
Pico-ITX 3.9 ′′ × 2.8 ′′ (100mm × 72mm)
Mobile-ITX2.4 ′′ × 2.4 ′′ (60mm × 60mm)

1.3 Exercise

1.3.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. What is PCB?

a) A programming language
b) Conductive series of laminated paths
c) A speical chipset
d) Non of the above

2. What is the primary criteria to classify motherboards?

a) Form Factor
b) Price
c) Color
d) Power Consumption

1.3.2 Analytical Question

1. Based on form factor how can we classify different types of motherboards?

Briefly describe them.

31
 Lesson 2: Components of Motherboard, Installation
of Motherboard

2.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Learn about different motherboard types and their features

Understand major components of a motherboard
Install or replace motherboard

2.2 Major Components of a Motherboard

By this time, you have understood the basic types of motherboards and their
form factors, let us look at the components found on the motherboard and
their locations relative to each other. Many of the following components can
be identified on a typical motherboard as shown in Figure 3 .2.

Figure 3 .2: Major Components of a Motherboard

The following section describes each major components.

A CPU socket - this socket houses the actual CPU, directly soldered
into it. There are heat sinks and mounting points for fans right next to
the CPU socket because of the fact that high speed CPUs generate a lot
of heat.

32
 A power connector to distribute power to the CPU and other compo-
nents.
Main memory slots, typically in the form of DRAM chips.
The interface between the CPU, the main memory and other components
can be created by a chip which is referred to as the Northbridge on
many types of motherboards. This chip also contains a large heat sink.
A second chip, which controls the input and output (I/O) functions of
a computer, is referred to as the Southbridge. It is not connected
directly to the CPU. Rather it is connected to the Northbridge and the
Northbridge and Southbridge combined are referred to as the chipset.
Slots for one or more hard drives to store files. Integrated Drive Elec-
tronics (IDE) and Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) are
the most common types of connections.
A Read-only memory (ROM) chip, which contains the firmware,
or startup instructions for the computer system. This is also called the
BIOS.
A slot for a video or graphics card. There are a number of different types
of slots, including Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) and Periph-
eral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe).
Additional slots to connect hardware in the form of Peripheral Com-
ponent Interconnect (PCI) slots.
Peripherals Connectors. These connectors are the bridge between the
outside of your computer and the inside. External peripherals such as
keyboard, mouse, monitor, speakers and so on are all connected via these
connectors.

2.3 How to install or replace motherboard

Since other components plug into the motherboard, it is very important to

understand the methodical steps to install or replace a motherboard which we
will learn in this section.

Step 1: Open your computer case.

Remove both side panels for easy access to the motherboard tray. To avoid
having to work at weird angles, remove the motherboard tray from the case.

33
This will allow you to easily install the motherboard. However, keep in mind
that not all cases have removable motherboard trays.

The motherboard tray is typically held in with two screws. Be mindful

enough to set these aside so that you dont lose them.
Installing a motherboard typically means building a new computer. You
will need to reinstall your operating system if you are upgrading, and to
format any system drives since upgrading to a new motherboard without
reinstalling everything on your computer is generally impossible.

Figure 3 .3: Motherboard Installing Step 1

Step 2: Ground yourself.

Before starting to work on the interior of a computer or handle the mother-

board, you should make sure to discharge any electrostatic charge you may
have. You can easily do that by simply touching a water tap.

In order to prevent any electrostatic damage, wear an antistatic wrist strap

while working on the computer.

Step 3: Replace the I/O panel shield.

I/O panel shield is located at the rear of the case, where the connectors for the
motherboard extend out for your monitor, USB devices, and other peripherals.
In most cases, you will find a default panel shield installed, which will need to
be removed and replaced with the panel that came with your motherboard.

34
 Figure 3 .4: Motherboard Installing Step 2

Apply pressure to all four corners of the panel and it should snap into
place which secures it into the case.
Installing the panel in the correct direction is very important and you
should be mindful of it. To make sure the panel is in the correct direction,
compare it to the actual layout of the connectors on the motherboard.

Figure 3 .5: Motherboard Installing Step 3

Step 4: Install the standoffs.

It has 3 sequential steps as follows:

a) Find the standoffs. The motherboard should be kept above the case
which is done using standoffs and this prevents the motherboard from
shorting out and helps cooling. In some cases will find standoffs, while

35
 others may not have them. Nevertheless, your motherboard should come
with its own standoffs which can be used.

Figure 3 .6: Motherboard Installing Step 4.a

b) Install the standoffs. Match the holes on the motherboard with the
available standoff locations on the motherboard tray. However, every
case and motherboard tray is different with different hole configurations.
Line up the motherboard to find a perfect location from which you can
use standoffs to secure it. Your motherboard should have a standoff in-
stalled on every hole possible.

Figure 3 .7: Motherboard Installing Step 4.b

Most standoffs screw into their holes while some are pushed in like
pegs.
Be advised that not all of the available holes will be attached with
every motherboard. Thus, Connect as many standoffs as possible,
and leave the idea of using any extra standoffs. A standoff should be
installed on a motherboard only with a corresponding hole.

36
 c) Place your motherboard on the standoffs. As we mentioned, you
should check whether the holes and the standoffs are all line up. Should
your motherboard tray does not come out of the case, gently force the
motherboard against the I/O panel on the back of the case and check if
it fits. Start securing the motherboard with screws.

Figure 3 .8: Motherboard Installing Step 4.c

Do not over tighten the screws. Make sure it is firm but not too tight.
Using an electric screwdriver will only harm your motherboard.
Holes without metal on them requires cardboard washers between the
screw and the motherboard. In fact, try to avoid using non-metallic
holes at all.

Step 5: Install your components

Before reinserting the motherboard tray with the newly-fastened motherboard

into the case, make sure to install the following: your CPU, CPU cooler, and
RAM. If you do this now, it will be much easier for you to reach everything.
If your motherboard is not on a removable tray, install your components after
wiring.

Step 6: Connect the power supply.

After securing your motherboard, you can start connecting your components
to it. The recommended order to connect the components is that you connect
the power supply first, as the plugs will be difficult to reach later. Make
sure that both the 20/24-pin connector is attached as well as the 4/8-pin 12V
connector.

37
 Figure 3 .9: Motherboard Installing Step 5

Figure 3 .10: Motherboard Installing Step 6

Refer to your power supplys documentation if you are unsure which cables
to use.

Step 7: Connect your front panel.

You will need to connect the front panel switches and indicators in order to
turn on your computer with the front power button or see when the hard
drive is being accessed. Locate the following wires and connect them to the
appropriate pins on the motherboard:

Power switch
Reset switch
Power LED
Hard drive (HDD) LED

38
 Figure 3 .11: Motherboard Installing Step 7

Speaker

Step 8: Connect the front USB ports.

Make sure to connect any front USB ports to the appropriate connectors on
the motherboard. This is easy since these are typically labeled and also make
sure that the correct plugs are placed on the correct pins.

Figure 3 .12: Motherboard Installing Step 8

Step 9: Connect the fans.

Any case and CPU fans should be connected to the appropriate pins on the
motherboard. There are typically several places to plug in chassis fans, as well
as a two-pin connector near the CPU for the CPU fan.

39
 Figure 3 .13: Motherboard Installing Step 9

Step 10: Install your drives.

After making sure that the motherboard is secure and connected, you can
start attaching your drives to it. Make sure that you distinguish betwen your
SATA and optical drives while attaching them to the correct SATA ports on
your motherboard.

Figure 3 .14: Motherboard Installing Step 10

Step 11: Install a video card.

One of the last components you should install is the video card. The card will
take up the most space, and will make reaching other areas difficult. Installing
a video card may be optional, depending on your system and needs.

Step 12: Adjust your wiring.

Now that everything is connected to your motherboard, you should carefully

move the wiring around and make sure that heat does not get trapped or wires

40
 Figure 3 .15: Motherboard Installing Step 11

do not get stuck in fans. Tuck excess cable into spare drive bays and use zip
ties to bundle cables together. Be generous to leave enough space for each of
your components to breathe.

Figure 3 .16: Motherboard Installing Step 12

Close up the computer.

As the final step, return the side panels of the case to their original positions
and fix them with screws. Plug your computer and components in and turn
your computer on. Now that you have installed all your components as pre-
scribed, prepare for operating system installation. Follow the guides below for
specific instructions for your operating system:

Linux

Windows

41
2.4 Exercise

2.4.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. Which one of the following is not a major component of a Motherboard?

a) CPU Socket
b) Power Connector
c) Chipset
d) SATA Hard Disk

2. Which chip inside a motherboard is used to work as an interface between

the CPU and memory?

a) Northbridge
b) Southbridge
c) ROM chip
d) None of the above

3. Why do we use StandOffs for?

a) To connect CPU with I/O Devices

b) To keep motherboard from short circuiting
c) To keep the CPU cool
d) All of above

4. Which of the following is part of Chipset?

a) SATA port
b) North Bridge
c) Optical Drive
d) CPU slot

5. Where is BIOS stored?

a) ROM Chip
b) North Bridge
c) Chipset
d) Hard Disk

42
2.4.2 Analytical Question

1. Discuss different components of a motherboard.

43
UNIT 4
Processor and Memory
Processor is called the brain of the computer since all computations are per-
formed by this component. A processor is characterized by a number of fea-
tures such as speed, cores and generations. Although installing a processor is
not a difficult task, but proper methodologies must be maintained to do it.
Memory, on the other hand, is the storage of a computer. Some memory can
store information or data for a very longer duration while other may contain
only for a while.

Lesson 1: Processor

1.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Understand basic concept of processor in a computer.

Know the main features of processor.
Learn how to classify processor.
Know the installation process of processor.

1.2 Processor

In the previous chapter you have learned the basics of motherboard, its classifi-
cation and installation. Now it is time to learn about the most important com-
ponent of the motherboard: the Processor also termed as Central Processing
 Table 1: Number of Transistor in Intel Processors
Processor Number of Transistor
Mobile Intel Core 2 Duo 291 million
Intel Core 2 Duo 410 million
Intel Core 2 Extreme 582 million
Intel Core 2 Quad 820 million
Intel Core i7 731 million

Unit (CPU). Both the terms Processor and CPU will be used interchangeably
in this chapter.
The main task of the Processor is to control and direct all the activities
of the computer. CPU executes all its tasks using both external and internal
buses. Bus is a communication system that transfers data between components
inside a computer system.
CPU is essentially is a processor chip consisting of huge number of transis-
tors, often counted in millions. For example, Intel Core i7 processor contains
731 million transistors. Table 1 presents this number for a number of Intel
processors.
The largest PC-compatible processor manufacturers are Intel and Advanced
Micro Devices (AMD).

1.2.1 Processors and their characteristics

There are a number of ways to describe a CPU. It can be, for instance, char-
acterized by: bit width, clock cycles and the number of execution cores used.
Locate the processor in your computer: If you open up the case of your
computer you can locate the position of the processor as shown in the Figure
4 .1.

Speed:
The clock speed is the most common way to characterize a processor. It
is measured in hertz, which is the number of times per second that the
electrical voltage in the processor switches back and forth between low
and high. High value and low value correspond to zero and one which
constitute the binary instructions. The processor uses these oscillations
(from one to zero and vice-versa) to physically carry out the instructions.
In modern processors clock speed is measured is Mhz or GHz. The mega-

45
Figure 4 .1: Location of the processor inside the case (as marked in squire)

herz value, for instance, tells how many million clock ticks a processor
can work with in one second. In the same way, the clock inside a 2.5GHz
processor ticks 2.5 billion times each second.
Cores.
Some processors are dual- or quad-core in single chip. A dual-core or
quad-core indicate that the system has two or four separate processors
to work together. Computers with multi-core arrangement can work more
efficiently because it can assign one or more cores to each particular task
but can leave other cores free for other tasks. Multi-core processors can
carry out a computation-intensive task such as video editing or graphics
programming without significant delay.
Besides the number of core, some processors have features termed as
hyperthreading that allows the operating system to execute more than
one tasks per one physical core in parallel. Each logical subdivision of
the processor is called thread. For this reason in the manual of modern
processors you will find its one of the features marked as # of cores / #
of Threads. For instance in Intel i7-6700T Processor this value is 4/8. It
implies the processor has 4 physical cores and in each core works like 8

46
virtual processors in parallel using multi-threading features.

Host-bus speed: The host-bus speed, also called the Front-Side Bus
(FSB) speed determines the data transfer rate between the processor and
the chipset. A higher FSB contributes to a higher processor performance.

Word Size: It is the largest number of bits that the processor can
process at a time. The evolution of Intel processors has incremented the
word size of the processors from 16 bits to 64 bits.

Data Path Size: It is the number of bits of data that can go into or
out of the processor at a time from the data bus which is usually the
same as the data bus size. Normally the word size and data path size
are often the same, but not necessarily that is always true. Data path
size has increased from 8 bits to 64 bits with the evolution of the Intel
processors.

32-bit and 64-bit processors: The set of data lines between the pro-
cessor and the primary memory of the system can be 32-bit or 64-bit
wide, among other widths. If the bus is wider, more work can be per-
formed, because more data that can be processed per unit of time. For
example, an internal registers size in the processor might be only 32 bits,
but with a system bus of length 64-bit, two separate pipelines can receive
information simultaneously.

Memory Cache: Ordinary RAM is dynamic RAM and cheap but rela-
tively slow. Additionally, there is more expensive but faster static RAM
which is called memory cache. It is a small amount of static RAM that
holds a small portion of dynamic RAM that are currently used (or likely
to be used in near future). Processors have two levels memory cache
such as: Layer 1 (L1) and Layer 2 cache (L2). The size of L1 cache, is
a feature of the processor architecture that cannot be changed without
redesigning the processor while L2 is external to processor core. It means
the manufacturer can make new processor with different amount of L2
cache. Some processors have a third level (L3 cache), which is used to
share data between different processor cores. Figure 4 .2 explains the
concept in simple diagram. Note that L1 cache can either be for Data
(D Cache) or for Instruction (I Cache).

47
 Figure 4 .2: Processor Cache: A Conceptual Diagram

1.2.2 Generations of Processors

The first Pentium V processor from Intel (product code:80501, Code Name:P5)
was officially released in 1993. Its clock speed was 60 MHz!. And today, your
smart phone’s processor speed is more than 1 GHz. The modern processor is
the result of decades of research and innovation. This section summarizes the
history of processors in brief.

1st Generation: The first generation spans from 1971 to 1973. In 1971,
Intel created the first microprocessor 4004 running at a clock speed of
108 KHz. Other contemporary microprocessors in the market included
Rockwell international PPS-4, INTEL-8008 and National semiconductors
IMP-16 were in use.
2nd Generation: During the period from 1973 to 1978, very efficient
8-bit microprocessors like Motorola 6800 and 6801, INTEL-8085 and
Zilogs-Z80 were implemented and were among the most popular ones.
They were costly yet very fast as they were based on NMOS technology
fabrication.
3rd Generation: From 1979 to 1980, 16-bit processors were created and
designed using HMOS technology. Examples of this period are: INTEL
8086/80186/80286 and Motorola 68000 and 68010. These processors were
four times faster in speed than their counterparts from 2nd generation.
4th Generation: From 1981 to 1995 this generation developed 32-bit

48
 processors using HCMOS fabrication. Among those processors INTEL-
80386 and Motorolas 68020/68030 were the popular ones.
5th Generation: From 1995 to until now this generation has been
bringing out high-performance and high-speed processors that make use
of 64-bit processors. Such processors include Pentium, Celeron, Dual and
Quad core processors.

6th Generation: Very recently (September 2015), Intel Corporation

introduced the 6th Generation Intel Core processor family. 6th Gen Intel
Core processors have:

– Thinner design.
– 2.5 times better performance.
– 3 times longer battery life.

Figure 4 .3: Intel Core i7: a 6th generation processor

1.2.3 Installing a Processor

Followings are the steps for installing a processor in your computer:

Step 1: Check motherboard compatibility.

Though every motherboard created in today’s world has a computer processor

socket, not all processors fit in all motherboards. Thus, before purchasing
either the motherboard or the processor or both, one should be sure that her
computer processor is compatible with the processor socket on the mother-
board.

49
Step 2: Prepare the motherboard.

In the scenario where you’re simply upgrading an old computer processor on

an old motherboard, the best procedure is to disassemble the computer and
remove the motherboard from the computer case. The computer should be
worked on in a non-carpeted area. A carpetted area increases the chance
of static electricity surge and it can damage your computer processor, your
motherboard and other components. Additionally, you should also get rid of
static electric charge from your body by touching an unpainted metal surface
like a water pipe.

Step 3: Locate the CPU Chip.

The chip will be mounted onto the motherboard in a socket and depending on
the type of computer you have, the socket may be shaped in various forms.
Some CPU chips are soldered onto the motherboard and can only be up-
graded by removing and installing a new motherboard. This type of chip is
referred to as the Proprietary CPU Chip.

Figure 4 .4: Install a processor: Step 3

Step 4: Check the Computer Manual before Upgrade.

Before you consider upgrading to a more powerful processor, check your com-
puter’s manual for instructions. Your processor is most likely a propriety
Central Processing Unit, If the manual tells you to consult with the manufac-
turer. What this means is that the processor can only be as specified by the
manufacturer manual.

50
Step 5: Remove Additional Components.

Components like the hard drive or an expansion slot should be removed before-
hand to gain full access to the chip if necessary. Additionally, by only removing
a couple of screws and sliding the panel with the motherboard down, newer
and fancier tower units allow easy access to the chip.

Figure 4 .5: Install a processor: Step 5

Step 6: Pull the Socket Up.

Once you bring the CPU into plain view, grasp the lever on the Zero Insertion
Force sockets and carefully but firmly pull the lever straight up. You can find
this lever on the side of the chip. Be on look for a clamp because some other
chips may contain one and that must be removed as well before you want to
remove the CPU. Consult your owner’s manual to see the components of your
CPU.

Figure 4 .6: Install a processor: Step 6

Some chips are covered by a Heat Sink and/or a Cooling Fan. Make sure
to remove these components set aside.

51
Step 7: Insert the Chip.

Place the beveled end of the chip to match the beveled end of the socket when
inserting the new chip. This design was incorporated to enable the chip to be
installed in only one direction.

Figure 4 .7: Install a processor: Step 7

1.3 Exercise

1.3.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. Which are the two major processor manufacturers?

a) Intel and AMD

b) Intel and HP
c) AMD and NVIDEA
d) AMD and Microsoft

2. Which statement is not true about L1 cache?

a) It is faster than secondary storage.

b) It is relatively expensive.
c) It is not as bigger as RAM of a typical computer.
d) It can easily be modified.

3. Which cache memory lets processor cores to share information among

themselves?

52
 a) L1 cache
b) L2 cache
c) L3 cache
d) All of them

1.3.2 Analytical Question

1. What is the basic function of a processor? Describe different features of

a processor.
2. Present a short discussion on different generations of processors.

Lesson 2: Memory

2.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Get an introduction to memory technology.

Know how to upgrade memory.

2.2 Memory

Just like a human brain, a memory is used to store data and instructions. In
Computer, there are data that are to be processed and instructions that are
required for processing. Memory is the storage space in computer where these
data and instructions are stored. The memory is divided into cells which
are essentially large number of small parts. Each of these cells or memory
locations has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus
one. For example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 *
1024=65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0
to 65535.

2.2.1 Memory Types

Memory primarily is of three types:

53
 i) Cache Memory
ii) Primary Memory/Main Memory
iii) Secondary Memory

Cache Memory

One of the recommended ways to speed up CPU is to incorporate Cache mem-

ory. Cache memory is essentially a very high speed semiconductor memory and
it acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. The most frequently
used parts of data and program by CPU are held inside the cache memory.
The operating system decides which parts of data and programs are to be
transferred from disk to cache memory from where CPU can access them.

Figure 4 .8: Cache Memory-Location

Features of Cache Memory:

Cache memory is faster than main memory.

It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
It stores data for temporary use.
Cache memory has limited capacity.
It is very expensive.

How Cache Memory Works. Caching strategies can be remarkably effec-

tive, no matter how simple it is. For example, the CPU fetches instructions
continuously from memory and the next instruction usually resides in the ad-
dress next to the current one. The simple caching strategy dictates that this
memory location (and the following ones) are good candidates for caching.
The same goes for holding data into the cache. Data from memory locations,
who are neighbours to the location, from where data has recently been fetched,

54
are good candidates for caching. By exploiting these techniques it is possible
to achieve cache hit rates of well over 90%. Hit rates are calculated by mea-
suring the percentage of data required by the CPU is found in the cache and
a DRAM access is not required

Figure 4 .9: Cache Memory-A bridge between CPU and RAM

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Data and instructions, on which computer is currently working, are held by

one of the primary memory. However, it has limited capacity and volatile
which means data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up
of semiconductor device. Though these memories are not as fast as registers,
CPU can find the data and instruction required to be processed reside in main
memory. There are two subcategories of Primary memory: RAM and ROM.

Read Only Memory (ROM): It cannot normally be changed, is capable of

holding onto its data even when the computer is switched off. This is used for
BIOS programs. Though traditional ROMs donot support writing into them,
some ROM chips (Flash ROM) can be reprogrammed electronically.

Random Access Memory (RAM): It is also known as primary memory. It

is the place where programs and data are temporarily stored and waiting to be
executed by the CPU. RAM is volatile and loses its contents when the power
is switched off.

Features of Primary Memory:

These are semiconductor memories.

It is known as main memory.

55
 Figure 4 .10: RAM

Usually volatile memory.

Data is lost in case of power is switched off.
Faster than secondary memories.
A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Classification of RAM

RAM is basically divided into 2 types:

1. Static RAM
2. Dynamic RAM

Static RAM (SRAM). It stores bits using two-state logical circuits called
flip-flops. These circuits are stable and will retain their states until there
is power. The state can deliberately be changed by software. However, the
contents of SRAM are lost if it loses power.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM). It stores data bits using minuscule electric charges.
These charges leak away rapidly, and so they must be refreshed or rewritten
constantly. Memory module has dedicated circuitry to do so automatically.
Though for large quantities, dynamic RAM is much cheaper than static RAM,
the need to constantly refresh the contents makes it slower than static RAM.
However to cut cost, the main memory of a computer is always DRAM.

56
DRAM physical formats. One of the most important components of the
computer is the dynamic RAM. Overall system performance is critically de-
termined by the amount of DRAM installed in a computer. Dynamic RAMs
are made of silicon chips which are nowadays supplied in the form of memory
modules and are grouped as memory chips mounted on small circuit boards.
They plug into the system board in much the same way as an expansion card.
Two forms of module are in common use:

SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module) has a data path of 32 bits (the
card has 32 data lines).

DIMM (Double Inline Memory Module) has a data path of 64 bits (the
card has 64 data lines).

Asynchronous DRAM. Asynchronous DRAM (ADRAM) is independent of

the CPUs external clock. Asynchronous DRAM chips are created with codes
which end in a numerical value that is related to the access time of the mem-
ory(often 1 10 of the actual value). The difference between the time when
the information is requested from memory and the time when the data is re-
turned, is essentially known as the access time of the DRAM. Common access
times attributed to asynchronous DRAM were in the 40- to 120-nanosecond
(ns) vicinity. A lower access time is obviously better for overall performance.
ADRAM is not synchronized to the frontside bus and this ensures that it
often requires wait states to be inserted through the BIOS setup for a faster
CPU to be able to use the same memory as a slower CPU. These wait states
represent intervals when the CPU had to mark time and do nothing but waiting
for the memory subsystem to become ready again for subsequent access.
Common asynchronous DRAM technologies included Fast Page Mode (FPM),
Extended Data Out (EDO), and Burst EDO (BEDO).

Synchronous DRAM. Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) shares a common

clock signal with the computers system-bus clock. This ecosystem is ensured
by the common signal that all local-bus components use for each step that
they perform. For this reason, SDRAM is tied to the speed of the FSB and
hence the processor and eliminates the need to configure the CPU to wait for
the memory to catch up. FSB is the short for Front Side Bus, which is also
known as the Processor Bus, Memory Bus, or System Bus. FSB essentially
connects the CPU (chipset) with the main memory and L2 cache.

57
SDRAM: Further Classification.

Single Data Rate SDRAM: With SDR SDRAM, for each data pin,
1 bit of data can be transmitted, for every time the system clock ticks.
This limits the bit rate per pin of SDRAM to the corresponding numerical
value of the clocks frequency.
Double data rate (DDR) SDRAM: It earns its name because it
doubles the transfer rate of ordinary SDRAM; This is achived by double-
pumping the data and transferring a bit per pin on both the rising and
falling edges of the clock signal. This lets the system to obtain twice the
transfer rate at the same FSB clock frequency.
DDR2 SDRAM: The 2 in DDR2 can be thought of as yet another
multiplier of 2 in the SDRAM technology, which uses a lower peak voltage
in order to keep power consumption down (1.8V vs. the 2.5V of DDR).
Still like DDR, double-pumping DDR2, uses both sweeps of the clock
signal for data transfer. Internally, DDR2 further splits each clock pulse
in two which enables the RAM to double the number of operations it
can perform per FSB clock cycle. DDR2 nominally produces four times
the throughput that SDR is capable of producing, through enhancements
in the electrical interface and buffers, as well as through adding off-chip
drivers.
DDR3 SDRAM: This naming convention proved that the 2 in DDR2
was not meant to be a multiplier. Rather it was a revision mark of sorts
for DDR2 was the second version of DDR, and thus DDR3 is the third
version. DDR3 memory type was designed to be twice as fast as the
DDR2 memory but operates with the same system clock speed. Similar
to DDR2, DDR3 is required to lower power consumption to make up for
higher frequencies. In fact, the peak voltage for DDR3 is only 1.5V.

Secondary Memory

Secondary memory, also known as external memory or non-volatile, is slower

than main memory but can be used for storing data/information permanently.
CPU access these memories via input-output routines for they are not accessed
by the CPU directly. In order to access the data in secondary memory, contents
of it are first transferred to main memory, and then accessed by the CPU.
Examples of secondary memory are: disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.
Further details of secondary memory (more specifically Hard Disk) will be

58
covered in the next chapter.

Figure 4 .11: Memory-HDD

Features of Secondary Memory:

These are magnetic and optical memories

It is known as backup memory.
It is non-volatile memory.
Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
It is used for storage of data in a computer.
Computer may run without secondary memory.
Slower than primary memories.

2.2.2 Upgrading Memory

Upgrading memory, in other words, increasing the amount of RAM in a com-

puter, is one of the most common tasks an IT person has to perform.

Basic Inquiries Before Upgrade. Before you start memory upgrading you
should ask the following questions. The asnwers should govern your decision
to upgrade.

i) How much additional memory can the system board accommodate?

ii) What kind of memory does the system board require? What form does
the present memory take?

59
 iii) How much memory does the computer have now? Does it need to be
replaced?

iv) How much more memory is required? How much memory would be
cost effective. If a computer is only lightly loaded, there is no point in
increasing its memory too much.

Answers to the Basic Inquiries. Question i and ii can be dealt with manual
of the system board. While for the later 2 questions (i.e. iii and iv) we need
to identify the current status of the computer being used. Here we consider
both Windows and Linux operating system to get this information.

In Windows 8 and 10. In window 8 and 10, use the following 2 steps to find
out the RAM status on your computer:

1. Open Task Manager by right-clicking the taskbar, and then clicking Start
Task Manager.

2. Click the Performance tab. The bottom two graphs display how much
memory is being used in megabytes (MB). The percentage of memory
being used is listed at the bottom of the Task Manager window. It is
shown in Figure 4 .12.

In Linux. In Debian Linux family like Ubuntu 14.04 LTS, you need to invoke
the utility called “System Monitor.” It show the performance of your computer
in terms of its processor, memory and network traffic. The middle panel shows
your RAM performance. Figure 4 .13 will appear for this purpose.

Time to Upgrade. Once you have answers to these questions you can start
to add extra memory in your computer. For this purpose, we maintain the
following 8 steps:

Step 1: Open the case.

Open the case (you may need a screwdriver for this step).

60
Figure 4 .12: Windows Resource Monitor: Shows RAM performance

Figure 4 .13: Ubuntu System Monitor: Shows RAM performance

61
Step 2: Check how many sockets you have for RAM.

Your motherboard has a limit to the number of RAM sticks you can install.
Some motherboards support only two, while others support four, six, or even
more.
Most motherboards have a limit to the amount of memory that they support,
regardless of the number of slots. Consult motherboard manual for further
details.

Step 3: Locate your RAM sockets.

Most motherboards have 2 or 4 RAM slots. RAM sockets are typically located
near the CPU, though their location may vary depending on the manufacturer
or model. Refer to your motherboards layout diagram in your documentation
if you are having difficulty locating the sockets.

Figure 4 .14: Step 3 of RAM installing: Locate RAM Sockets

Step 4: Remove old RAM (if upgrading).

If you are replacing old RAM, remove it by releasing the clamps on each side
of the socket. The RAM will be released from the socket, and you will be able
to lift it straight out of the motherboard with little to no effort.

Step 5: Unpack the New RAM.

Carefully remove the Ram from the shielded packaging. Grip it from the sides
to avoid touching the contacts on the bottom or the circuitry on the board.

62
 Figure 4 .15: Step 4 of RAM installing: Remove Old One (if upgrading)

Step 6: Insert the RAM into the RAM slot.

Line up the notch in the stick of RAM to the break in the slot. Set the stick
into the slot and then apply equal pressure onto the stick until the clamps on
the side click and lock the RAM in. You may have to apply a fair amount of
pressure, but never force it in.
Make sure matching pairs are inserted into their matching sockets. Most
are labeled on the board or by color, though you may need to refer to your
motherboard layout diagram. Make sure that they are facing the same way.

Step 7: Close up the computer and Restart.

Now close the case and restart the computer.

Step 8: Check the New RAM on Your System.

After the computer is rebooted, right-click on the ”My Computer” icon and
select Properties from the pop-up menu to verify that the computer recognizes
the RAM you’ve just installed.
For Linux users run Details under Settings Option. It shows the total
memory installed in your computer. You should see a similar figure as shown
in Figure 4 .17.

2.3 Exercise

2.3.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. Which type of memory needs to be refreshed and rewritten continuously?

a) SRAM

63
 Figure 4 .16: Step 8 of RAM installing: Check new RAM in your OS

Figure 4 .17: Step 8 of RAM installing: Check new RAM in your Linux Machine

b) DRAM
c) Hard Disk
d) ROM

2. What is the peak voltage for DDR3 RAM?

a) 2.5 volts
b) 2.0 volts
c) 1.5 volts

64
 d) 1.0 volts

3. Which is not a feature of Secondary Memory?

a) These are magnetic and optical memories

b) It is known as backup memory.
c) Computer may run without secondary memory.
d) Faster than primary memories.

2.3.2 Analytical Question

1. Describes the key points to consider before deciding to upgrade computer

memory. Also mention the steps to upgrade memory.
2. What are the different types of Primary memory? Describe them in your
own words.
3. What is Asynchronous DRAM? Explain its working principle.

65
UNIT 5
Storage Devices
This unit highlights the working principle of a computer in a very general
point of view. Since there are different types of computers, it also discusses
this issue. Many reader may not have any background on computer technology.
To help them prepare for the course this unit is a foundation work.

Lesson 1: Storage Device- Different Technologies

1.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Understand various types of storage devices for a computer.

Understand the difference between optical and magnetic storage technol-
ogy.

1.2 Various Storage Devices

By this time you are familiar with memory technology of a computer. As for
RAM, the main property is that i) it is very fast and ii) they are volatile i.e.
the contents are lost if the computer is turned off. In fact, the most essential
part of a computer is its data. Imagine a situation when you have written
your final year thesis in Microsoft word and just before the final submission
it is no longer available in your working computer. Hence storage devices are
very important components of any computer system.
1.2.1 Magnetic Storage

It is most commonly used storage media because of its availability and price.
The surfaces of these devices are coated with a magnetically sensitive material,
like iron oxide, that reacts to a magnetic field.

Tracks and Sectors

When you format a magnetic disk, the disk drive creates a set of concentric
rings, on each side of the disk. These concentric rings are called tracks. The
type of disk governs the number of tracks required. A hard disk may have
several hundred tracks on each side of each platter. Each track is a separate
circle. The tracks are numbered from the outermost circle to the innermost,
starting with 0.

Figure 5 .1: Tracks and Sectors in Magnetic Storage

Examples of Magnetic Storage. Floppy diskettes (almost obsolete now),

hard disks and magnetic tape.
Diskettes contain a single thin disk, usually made of plastic. This disk is
flexible and thus the name floppy disks. A diskette stores data on both sides
of its disk which are numbered as side 0 and side 1. Each of these sides has
its own read/write head.
Hard disks usually consists of multiple disks, called platters since they are
made of a rigid material like aluminum. Subsequent sections will explain Hard
Disk Storage in further details.
Magnetic recording is done using magnetic tape which are made of a thin
magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic film.

67
 Figure 5 .2: Magnetic Storage: Floppy Disk

Figure 5 .3: Magnetic Storage: HDD

Figure 5 .4: Magnetic Storage: Magnetic Tape

1.2.2 Optical Storage

Magnetic storage systems has a popular counterpart named optical systems,

which includs CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, and their variants. These devices are
categoized as optical storage because they store data on a reflective surface
so it can be read by a beam of laser light. A laser uses lenses, prisms, and
mirrors to produce a concentrated, narrow beam of light, focused and directed

68
at a specific surface.

1.2.3 Solid State Storage Device

Solid state storage devices are unique among today storage devices with no
moving parts and devoid of any disks or tapes. Thus, Solid-state storage
is neither magnetic nor optical. Rather, it utilizes integrated circuits to hold
data. Some solid-state storage devices are nonvolatile, meaning they can retain
their data even when the system’s power is turned off. Others are volatile,
meaning data are lost when the constant supply of electricity is taken off. The
devices volatility depends on the type of memory circuits it uses.

Figure 5 .5: SSD Drive

Byte for byte, standard magnetic or optical storage is more cost effective
and reliable than solid-state storage. However, when it comes to the matter of
speed, solid-state storage devices have a big advantage over standard storage
devices. Since Solid-State Memory devices have no moving parts, they can
move data in much less time than any mechanical storage device. Another
advantage of Solid State drive in terms of speed is that it already stores data
electronically which is the way it is used by the CPU. Unlike standard devices,
solid-state devices do not need to move a head or sensor to find data or to
convert it from magnetic or optical form into electronic form.

1.2.4 Flash Memory

Flash memory, a special type of memory chip, combines the best features of
RAM and ROM. Like RAM, flash memory can randomly access data when
asked by a user or program. Moreover, flash memory can overwrite any or all
of its contents at any time, just as we can see in a RAM. Additionally, flash
memory is nonvolatile and thus data is not lost even when power is off, which
is essentially a characteristics of a ROM.

69
 Figure 5 .6: Flash Drive

1.3 Exercise

1.3.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. Which of the following reads the data by a beam of laser light?

a) Solid State Drive

b) Magnetic Storage
c) ROM
d) DVD ROM

2. Which of the following is a replacement for hard disk drive (HDD)?

a) Solid State Drive

b) CD ROM
c) Floppy Disk
d) RAM

3. Which storage device does not have any moving part in it?

a) Floppy Disk
b) CD ROM
c) Solid State Drive
d) Hard Drive

1.3.2 Analytical Question

1. Discuss the basics of Solid State Drive (SSD).

70
 Lesson 2: Hard Drive

2.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Have a concrete idea about the basic functions of Hard Drives.

Know the interface standards used by a Hard Drive.

Install and configure a Hard Drive.

2.2 Hard Drive Storage

When it comes to store data permanently and accessing them quickly, Hard
disk drive (HDD) systems (hard disks or hard drives for short) are used as
one of the most popular options. Although there are instances of external
and removable hard drives, hard disks typically reside inside the computer,
where they are semi-permanently mounted with no external access. HDD can
hold more information than other forms of storage. Hard drives are known as
conventional drives to contrast them from newer and fancier solid-state drives.
HDDs use a magnetic storage medium and thus it has become convention in
today’s world.

2.2.1 Components of a Hard Drive System

Although we see a Hard Drive as a single object, actually it consists of the

following three essential components of a Hard Drive:

Controller

The component that controls the drive to operate and to encode data onto the
platters is known as controller chip. It controls the process of sending signals
from data to the various motors in the drive and receiving signals from the
sensors inside the drive. Most of todays hard disk technologies incorporate the
controller and drive into one assembly. The most common and well-known of
these are PATA and SATA.

71
Hard Disk

This is the physical storage medium where data is stored. The drive systems of
Hard disk store information on small discs which are under 1 inch to 5 inches
in diameter, and called platters which are stacked together and placed in an
enclosure.

Host Bus Adapter (HBA)

This is the translator that converts signals from the controller to signals the
computer can understand. The host adapter is incorporated into the moth-
erboards circuitry which can be found in most modern-day motherboards,
offering headers for drive-cable connection. Legacy host adapters and certain
modern adapters house the hard drive controller circuitry.

Figure 5 .7: Hard Drive Host Controller

Figure 5 .7 shows a hard disk drive and host adapter.

72
2.2.2 Basic Construction of a Hard Disk

With every computer the hard disk is sealed to prevent any sort of physical
damage. To describe the basic construction of a hard disk the following list of
terms will be used:

Platters
Read/write heads
Tracks
Sectors
Cylinders
Clusters (allocation units)

Platters, also called surface, lie inside the sealed case of the hard drive,
where the actual data is stored by the read/write heads. Their quantity can
be one or more. Each platter has its own read and write head with each surface
containing a large number of concentric tracks. The heads can move together
along both in and out directions of the radius of the surfaces. If we place
the head in a given position, the corresponding tracks on each surface can be
accessed. This group of tracks is called a cylinder.
The tracks are divided around their length into sectors where inner tracks
are shorter than outer ones which generally have fewer sectors. In other words,
sectors are the magnetic domains representing the smallest units of storage on
the disc platters. Magnetic-drive sectors commonly store only 512 bytes ( 21 KB)
of data each.

Capacity of a Hard Disk

The basic hard disk geometry consists of three components:

i) The number of sectors that each track contains.

ii) The number of read/write heads in the disk assembly.
iii) The number of cylinders in the assembly.

This set of values is known as CHS (Cylinders/Heads/Sectors).

The number of cylinders is the number of tracks that can be found on any
single surface of any single platter. Because the number of cylinders indicates

73
 Figure 5 .8: Hard Drive Components

only the number of tracks on any one writable surface in the assembly, the
number of writable surfaces must be factored into the equation to produce
the total number of tracks in the entire assembly. This is where the number
of heads comes in. There is a single head dedicated to each writable surface,
two per platter. By multiplying the number of cylinders by the number of
heads, you produce the total number of tracks throughout the disk assembly.
By multiplying this product by the number of sectors per track, you discover
the total number of sectors throughout the disk assembly.
Dividing the result by 2 provides the number of kilobytes the hard drive can
store. This works because each sector holds 512 bytes, which is equivalent to
12KB. Each time you divide the result by 1024, you obtain a smaller number
but the unit of measure increases from kilobytes to megabytes, from megabytes

74
to gigabytes, and so on.

cylinders (tracks/surface)
X heads (surfaces/drive)
total tracks (tracks/drive)
X sectors (sectors/track)
total sectors (sectors/drive)

Example: For example, a drive labeled with the maximum allowed CHS ge-
ometry of 16383/16/63, respectively, results in only 7.9GB. Using the equation
and multiplying the number of cylinders by the number of heads, you arrive at
262,128 total tracks on the drive. Multiplying this number by 63, the result is
that there are 16,514,064 total sectors on the drive. Each sector holds 12KB
for a total capacity of 8,257,032KB. Dividing by 1024 to convert to MB and
again by 1024 to convert to GB, the 7.9GB capacity is revealed.

HDD Speeds

The electronics within the HBA and controller get faster and they are capable
of requesting data at higher and higher rates. The platters, spinning at a con-
stant rate, can access information as fast as a given fixed rate. Manufacturers
increase the speed at which the platters spin from one generation of drives to
the next to make information available to the electronics more quickly. Thus,
multiple speeds coexists in the marketplace for an unpredictable period until
demand dies down for one or more speeds.
The following spin rates have been used in the industry for the platters in
conventional magnetic hard disk drives:

5400 rpm
7200 rpm
10,000 rpm
12,000 rpm
15,000 rpm

The higher the RPM, the faster the data can be read from the platters,
which increases overall performance. Hard disks found in today’s personal

75
computer spin around 7200 rmp and 10,000 rmp. Beyond this, it is used by
the servers or workstation systems.

2.2.3 Standard Interfaces for Hard Drives

Standard interfaces define the physical and logical means by which a hard
drive is connected to the motherboard.
Basically they are 3 types:

i) Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA)/PATA / IDE

ii) Serial ATA (SATA)
iii) Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA)

The ATA interface was introduced in 1986 and was the first successful attempt
at standardizing the interface between a motherboard and its hard drives.
During the 1990’s up to the mid-2000’s, virtually every PC manufactured had
an IDE interface to pass information back and forth between the motherboard
and the higher volume storage devices such as hard drives, CDROMs, and
tape drives.
This interface is also referred to as the Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE)
interface. With advent of Serial ATA (will be discussed later) the traditional
ATA is termed as Parallel ATA or simply PATA.
Most of the motherboards that are ATA-equipped will contain one or two
built in 40-pin IDE host adaptors. The image below shows two IDE host
adaptors side-by-side on a motherboard, one labeled IDE1 and other labeled
IDE2. IDE1 is the primary interface. Each interface can handle up to two
devices, so a motherboard with two IDE host adaptors can handle up to four
drives.
IDE standard (or ATA) has a number of enhancements as follows:

IDE (ATA-1): IDE is the original definition where each adapter had
two devices on them, one assigned as a master (device 0) and the other
as a slave (device 1). The devices themselves usually had to have jumper
or some mechanism, to determine which was which. The interface used

76
 Figure 5 .9: IDE Adapter in the Motherboard

DMA to allow devices to transfer data directly to memory bypassing

processor intercession. The interface allowed for data transfer rates up
to 4.16 Megabytes per second.

EIDE (ATA-2): EIDE increased performance over IDE by increasing

the total hard drive size supported to 137.4 Gigabytes and increasing
the maximum data transfer rate to 16.67 Megabytes per second. BIOS
limitations, however, limited drive size to 8.4 Gigabytes.

ATA-3: ATA-3 provided for improved reliability and password protec-

tion to access drives.

ATA-4: ATA-4 used better DMA support and integration of AT Attach-

ment Program Interface (ATAPI). A common interface for CDROMs is
provided by this. Data transfer rates were allowed as high as up to 33.33
Megabytes per second. ATA-4 also defined the use of 80 conductor cables
where alternating wires in the cable are connected to ground in order to
reduce the effects of electrical interference.

ATA-5: ATA-5 added auto detection for the cable type and increased
data transfer rates (up to 66.67 Megabytes per second).

IDE Connections: The connection for the IDE interface is a 40-pin connector
on the back of the hard drive. The pins are spaced 0.1" apart and are in two
rows of twenty. The pins are numbered, and typically (but you should verify
this before you connect the drive) pin 1 is located nearest the connector for the
power. The ribbon cable used to connect the hard drive to the motherboard
has a single red wire identifying ”pin 1”. The power connector also has a
red wire. These red wires should be next to each other when connected to a
standard hard drive.

77
 Figure 5 .10: IDE Connector Pins

Jumpers: Each IDE interface allows up to two drives on a single cable which
will be needed to be able to configure the drives to make one device as device
0 and the other as device 1. A small plastic clip called a jumper can configure
a device as a primary or secondary drive as an usual approach. A jumper, the
blue block as shown in Figure 5 .11, is used to straddle two pins on a circuit
board to create a ”short circuit” or electrical connection that the hard drive
controller can detect. The jumper with plastic coating on the outside has a
metal strip inside of the plastic which connects the two pins.

Figure 5 .11: Jumper in IDE Hard Disk

Jumper Protocols: Two different protocols can be used for jumpering PATA
devices.

i) Master-slave: With this protocol, one device is jumpered as master

and the other is jumpered as slave. If you have only one hard drive then
it should be set as master. When connecting more than one hard drive

78
 to a computer on the same IDE controller, you generally have to assign
one as the primary (master) and one as the secondary (slave).
ii) Cable Select: The second protocol known as cable select is the protocol
where both devices are jumpered as cable select. The position on the
cable dictates which is the master and which is the slave as shown in the
Figure 5 .12. The end device is master while the device on the middle of
the cable is slave. You can use either of these protocols but you cannot
mix them on the same data cable.

Figure 5 .12: Cable Select: Position of Connection select one as Master or Slave

Serial ATA (SATA)

Serial ATA, introduced in 2003, was a replacement for ATA which is now
sometimes referred to as PATA for parallel ATA. The benefits of such technol-
ogy are smaller cabling and faster transfer times. The smaller cabling meant
better air flow unlike ribbon cables which are wide and block air flow inside of
the computer case. Benefits of serial interface include fewer conductors which
resulted in allowing for a smaller cable and more airflow inside the case. Ad-
ditionally, smaller cables means smaller connectors providing more space on
the motherboard and simpler wiring.
As for the faster rates, remember from our description of crosstalk that the
higher the frequency, the worse the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
With fewer conductors running next to each other, crosstalk becomes much
less of an issue.
A brief description of the changes in the SATA interface is presented below.

The original SATA definition allowed for a data transfer rate of 1.5 gi-
gabits per second (Gbit/s). This generation of SATA was not noticeably
faster than the last generation of ATA devices.
The second generation of SATA allows multiple device transactions to
occur simultaneously in addition to increasing the bit rate to 3.0 Gbit/s.
Because of the faster data rate, 3.0 Gbit/s SATA requires a cable that is
capable of supporting the higher rate. (1.5 Gbit/s cables will work, just
not for high demand applications.)

79
 Figure 5 .13: SATA Hard Disk Interface

6.0 Gbit/s SATA exists, but for the most part, this data rate far exceeds
that which today’s hard drives are capable of driving.

Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

Another interface definition that computers use to communicate to hard drives

is the Small Computer System Interface or SCSI. Like ATA, there are a number
of variations on the interface definition, but unlike ATA, not all of the interfaces
are backwards compatible with earlier drives or controllers.

Figure 5 .14: SCSI Hard Disk Interface

The initial standardization of the interface was made as SCSI-1 which had
an 8-bit wide data bus and a clock speed of 5 MHz. Two primary evolutions
of the SCSI interface have been present since then, SCSI-2 and SCSI-3. There
are also many sub-variations that defined different speeds and bus widths. The

80
current iteration is the SCSI-3 Ultra 320 which has a 16 bit wide data bus and
a clock speed of 80 MHz. This allows for a transfer rate of 320 Megabytes per
second. In addition, up to 16 devices may be connected to this interface.
SCSI has better support for multiple drives making it a superior interface
for applications such as RAID systems. RAID (Redundant Array of Inde-
pendent Discs) is a system which uses multiple hard drives and make them
appear as one. Different configurations of RAID can be found which are meant
to improve performance and reliability. Aditionally, SCSI can be used as an in-
terface to peripherals like scanners, CD-ROM/RW drives, printers, and other
storage devices. The SCSI interface tends to be more expensive than ATA,
and as such tends to be used for high-performance applications such as servers.

2.2.4 Install and Configure a Parallel ATA Drive

In this section we will explore the steps for installing and configuring Parallel
ATA (PATA) drive. We have already mentioned why the original version of
ATA is now called PATA.

Step 1: Mount the Drive

The drive can be mounted in a standard 3.5” device bay in sideways, on end,
or even upside down as long as the mounting screws are used properly. To
support the drive and to prevent vibration and provide additional electrical
grounding, use either the four bottom screws or four of the side mounting
screws.

Figure 5 .15: Install and Configuration of SATA: Step 1

81
Step 2: Set the Jumper

Now it is the time to select your new hard drive either as master or slave. The
rules have been already discussed in Section 2.2.3. For a new installation of
a hard drive in your computer you need to set it as master. Accordingly you
have to set the jumper. It should look somehow like Figure 5 .16.

Figure 5 .16: Install and Configuration of SATA: Step 2

Step 3: Install hard drive

Before you install the new drive make sure you unplug the power connector
from the computer.
First open up your computer case. Now you should be able to find an open
3.5” slot somewhere to fit your hard drive.
After the drive is secured by the screws, go ahead and connect the power
and IDE cables. On the edge of one of the cables you will see a line. Normally
it’s red on the grey cables and white on black cables etc there will be some
kind of colored line to indicate pin 1. This pin always goes on the same side
as the power connector. It should look like the Figure 5 .17.
To connect the IDE cable to the motherboard you’ll have to find something
that looks like Figure 5 .18

Step 4: Check the Setup Status in BIOS

Once the above steps are done, power on the computer and enter in its BIOS
using the suitable short-cut key (i.e. F1, F2, F12 ) to inspect if the system

82
 Figure 5 .17: Install and Configuration of SATA: Step 3

Figure 5 .18: Install and Configuration of SATA: Step 3 (Cont.)

has detected the hard drive correctly. Once you’re in the BIOS you’ll want to
go into standard CMOS where you should see something like Figure 5 .19.

Figure 5 .19: Install and Configuration of SATA: Step 4

2.2.5 RAID

A Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) puts multiple hard drives

together to improve on what a single drive can do on its own. It has different
purposes and they are driven by the way RAID is configured.

83
Benefits of RAID:

Higher Fault Tolerance: RAID provides that identical redundant data

must be copied to a number of other devices. Where and how data
are written depends on the RAID configurations. This means that in a
RAID system the data survives even in the case of the complete failure
of one hard disk (or sometimes more) without any data loss, and without
requiring any data to be restored from backup.

Increased, Integrated Capacity: RAID allows to add up capabilities

of individual hard disks and configure the system in a way that the
operating system considers the added capacity as if one large hard disk
is installed.
Suppose that, you need 700 GB of space for a large database. And also
imagine that no hard disk manufacturer makes a drive nearly that large.
You could put five 140 GB drives into the system, but then you’d have to
find some way to split the database into five pieces, and you’d be stuck
with trying to remember what was were. Instead, you could set up a
RAID 0 array containing those five 140 GB hard disks; this will appear
to the operating system as a single, 700 GB hard disk.

Improved Performance: Last, but certainly not least, RAID systems

improve performance by allowing the controller to exploit the capabili-
ties of multiple hard disks to overcome performance-limiting mechanical
issues of individual hard disks.
Performance is increased because the server has more spindles to read
from or write to when data is accessed from a drive.

Classification of RAID

There are a number of RAID levels. Each level ultimately is defined by the
following three ways of RAID storage principles:

i) Striping is the splitting the flow of data into blocks of a certain size
(called ”block size”) then writing of these blocks across the RAID one
by one. No redundant data are stored in stripping.

ii) Mirroring is a storage technique in which the identical copies of data

are stored on the RAID members simultaneously. This type of data
placement affects the fault tolerance as well as the performance.

84
 iii) Parity is a storage technique which is utilized striping and checksum
methods. In parity technique, a certain parity function is calculated for
the data blocks. If a drive fails, the missing block are recalculated from
the checksum, providing the RAID fault tolerance. It implies that lost
data can be recovered back from the checksum value.

Based these storage techniques we describe the most popular RAID Con-
figurations in the following way:

RAID 0: It is based on Stripping. Here, data are divided into smaller

blocks. Instead of writing each block into one disk, blocks are almost
uniformly distributed over multiple disks. A minimum of two disks is
required for RAID 0. Figure 5 .20 shows the process.

Figure 5 .20: RAID 0: Stripping

Advantage:

– RAID 0 offers great I/O performance, both in read and write opera-
tions. This performance can be enhanced further by using multiple
controllers, ideally one controller per disk. There is no overhead
caused by parity controls.
– All storage is utilized. RAID 0 incurs no additional overhead in
terms of storage.
– It is easy to implement this technology.

Disadvantage:

85
 – RAID 0 is not fault-tolerant. If one drive fails, all data in that drive
are lost since it does not provide redundant data storage. It should
not be used for mission-critical systems.

Appropriate Application: RAID 0 is a perfect solution for non-critical

storage of data that require fast read/write operations such as live video
streaming and stream data processing.
RAID 1: RAID 1 is a fault-tolerance configuration known as disk mir-
roring. With RAID 1, data is copied seamlessly and simultaneously, from
one disk to another, creating a replica, or mirror. If a drive fails, the con-
troller uses either the data drive or the mirror drive for data recovery and
continues operation. You need at least 2 drives for a RAID 1 array.

Advantage:

– In case a drive fails, data do not have to be rebuild, they just have
to be copied to the replacement drive.
– It is relatively low cost.

Disadvantage:

– The main disadvantage is that the effective storage capacity is only

half of the total drive capacity because all data get written twice.
For instance, if a server with two 1TB drives is configured with RAID
1, then total storage capacity will be 1TB instead of 2TB.

Appropriate Application: RAID-1 is suitable for mission critical data

storage such as accounting system of a corporate office.
RAID 5: RAID 5 is by far the most common RAID configuration for
business and enterprise servers. It requires at least 3 drives but can work
with up to 16. Data blocks are striped across the drives. For each data
block a summary text is calculated which is technically termed as parity
checksum. Parity checksum of each data block is also written on one
drive. Parity data are also distributed across the disks. Using the parity
checksum it is possible to re-calculate the original data. In case of disk
failure it has two options to recover: i) redundant data in some other
disk and ii) recalculate the data (if all redundant copies are lost) from
the checksum data.

86
 Figure 5 .21: RAID1: Conceptual Diagram

Advantage:

– Read data transactions are very fast while write data transactions
are somewhat slower since the parity must be computed for each
data block.
– It ensure very high degree of fault-tolerance.

Disadvantage:

– The downside to RAID 5 is that it experience delay to store data in

applications involving a lot of write operations.
– The technology is complex for implementation. It is also relatively
expensive.

Appropriate Application: RAID 5 is a good choice for systems that

combine efficient storage with excellent security and decent performance.

2.3 Exercise

2.3.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. Which of the system should user a Hard Drive with 15000 rpm?

a) Server System
b) Home PC used for Games

87
 Figure 5 .22: RAID5: Conceptual Diagram

c) Netbooks
d) None of them

2. Which of the following is not a Magnetic Storage?

a) Floppy Disk
b) Hard Disk
c) Solid-State Drive
d) All of them

3. Which of the following is not a standard interface for a hard drive?

a. SATA
b. RAM
c. PATA
d. EIDE

4. For RAID 0 you must have at least:

a) 1 hard disk
b) 2 hard disks
c) 3 hard disks
d) 5 hard disks

5. Which of the following is part of RAID storage principles?

88
 a) Stripping
b) Mirroring
c) Parity
d) All of them

2.3.2 Analytical Question

1. Discuss different standard interfaces for hard drives.

2. Explain how the capacity of a hard drive is calculated from its physi-
cal specification. Suppose you have a hard disk with CHS geometry of
32383/24/128. Show detail steps to calculate its total capacity in GB.
3. What is RAID? Explain different standards of RAID with their advan-
tages and disadvantages.

89
UNIT 6
Peripheral Devices
When you use your own computer you use a number of components which
are external to the main PC such as mouse, keyboard. These are generally
termed as peripheral devices. These devices add more functionalities to the
computer. Since the devices are external, they must be connected to the
computer through suitable expansion cards.

Lesson 1: Expansion Cards

1.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Understand the difference between a peripheral device and a main com-

ponent of a computer.
Learn different types of expansion cards for modern computers.

Peripheral Device: A computer has a number of essential components such

as the central processing unit, power supply, motherboard and the computer
case that contains them. Typically a computer has some other devices con-
nected to it termed as peripheral devices. In other words, a peripheral device
is a device external to the computer case. Peripheral devices enhance the
functionality of a computer. For instance, you can write a document in your
computer but you must need a printer to print it. There is another way to
consider the peripheral devices: these devices are entirely dependent on the
computer system. For example, a mouse is only useful when it is connected to
the computer.
Figure 6 .1 is an overview of peripheral devices used in computer today.

Figure 6 .1: Different Peripheral Devices for a Computer

Expansion Cards and Peripherals: To better understand this section you

are advised to recall the lesson from Unit 3. Remember that in a motherboard
there are a number of expansion slots to connect external devices or peripheral
devices. To connect a device in its suitable expansion slot the device must be
designed to have a suitable expansion card.
An expansion card (also known as an adapter card) is a circuit board in-
stalled into a computer to increase the functionality of the computer system.
Expansion cards appear in different formats for different purposes. But irre-
spective of the function, the card must match the bus type of the motherboard.
For instance, a PCI network card can only be set into a PCI expansion slot.

1.2 Expansion Cards: Classification

Now-a-days computers are very powerful both in storage and computational

capacity. Peripheral devices are also getting more functional. They increase
both in power and number. But in general, the peripheral devices can be

91
classified into 4 groups such as:

i) Video
ii) Multimedia
iii) Input Output (I/O)
iv) Communication

1.2.1 Expansion Cards for Video

A video adapter (also called a graphics adapter) allows the computer to display
information (i.e. text, image and video) on the monitor. It is also termed as
video card. It is responsible for converting the data sent by the processor into
the pixels, addresses and other information needed for display. In some cases,
dedicated chips are used for enhanced display quality.

Figure 6 .2: Video Expansion Card

Although video adapters with PCI (stands for Peripheral Component In-
terconnect) interfaces operate sufficiently, PCIe (PCI Express) offer more re-
sources to the adapter. So, most of the manufacturers today prefer PCIe for
video card attachment. Figure 6 .2 shows an example of a PCIe-based video
card.

1.2.2 Expansion Cards for Multimedia

The most basic and most widely used multimedia adapter is the sound card
or simply audio card.TV Tuner Card and Video Capture Card are relatively

92
newer types of multimedia adapters. And they are gradually gaining higher
popularity because of deceasing cost and increasing usage of content sharing.

Sound Card: A sound card is an expansion card used for producing sound
on a computer so that it can be heard by the speakers or headphones. Figure
′′
6 .3 shows a typical sound card. A sound card typically has small, round, 81
jacks on the back of it for connecting microphones, headphones, and speakers
as well as other sound equipments.

Figure 6 .3: Sound Card for Computer

TV Tuner Cards and Video Capture Cards: The TV tuner card allows
to connect a broadcast signal, such as cable television, to the computer and
display the output on the computer monitor. TV tuner cards are available
both as internal or external. They appear in analog, digital and hybrid va-
rieties. Most of the TV tuner cards are also used as video capture cards. A
video capture card can also be used without a computer (i.e. as a standalone
device) and is often used to store a video stream to the computer for future
manipulation or sharing. These cards often are available in the market with
their own software to aid the processing of such multimedia data stream.

1.2.3 Expansion Cards for I/O

I/O card is a general term often used accommodate a number of I/O devices
to increase the capability of the system. Since they expand the capability of
the computer they are also called I/O expansions. Classical port such as serial
(RS-232) and parallel (such as printer) ports and drive interface connections
are used for I/O expansion.

93
 Figure 6 .4: TV Tuner Card

Input Devices: An input device is one that carries information or command

from outside the computer system to an internal storage location such as
RAM, video RAM, flash memory, or disk storage. Then it may go for further
processing.

Common input devices:

Mouse
Keyboard
Card reader
Biometric devices
Touchscreen
Scanner

Output Devices: An output device is any device used to send data or com-
mand from a computer to another device or user.

Common output devices:

Printers

94
 Speakers
Display devices

1.2.4 Expansion Cards for Communication

Communication adapter enables a computer to transmit information to other

devices that might be far away from the sender or may have a direct cable
connection.
Communication Expansion Cards include:

Network Interface Card (NIC)

Modem

Network Interface Card (NIC)

A network interface card (NIC) connects a computer to a specific network.

Network is a collection of computers where a computer can communicate with
others for resource and content sharing, load balancing and for other purposes.
NIC can also stands for Network Interface Controller. It is also termed as LAN
adapter. In early days, NICs were commonly implemented on expansion cards
that were plugged into a computer bus. Because of the low cost and wide-
spread use of this standard now-a-days most of the computers have a network
interface built into its motherboard.
Since both expansion slots and network type are different, a NIC must
meet these two specifications. One connector on it should match the expansion
slots on the motherboard (i.e. PCIe, PCI, and so on) while the other connector
should be of type of the network (such as fiber connectors, antenna for wireless,
RJ-45 for UTP and so on) An NIC requires both physical installation and
software installation ( for its driver). Figure 6 .5 shows a typical NIC.

Modem

A modem is necessary device to connect a computer to the Internet using

dial-up connection. It is observed that at present time dial-up connection
has been mostly replaced by broadband service. The term modem stands for
modulator/demodulator. For sending purpose, the modem converts the digital
signal from a computer into analog signal so that the signal can be transmitted
over the phone lines. It performs the reverse process (i.e. converts analog signal
to digital) for reception.

95
 Figure 6 .5: Network Interface Card (NIC)

It has one connector for the expansion bus being used (such as PCI, PCIe)
and the other connector for the telephone line.
Any computer that connects to the Internet using an analog dial-up con-
nection needs a modem. A modem is a device that converts digital signals
from a computer into analog signals that can be transmitted over phone lines
and back again. Figure 6 .6 shows an old ISA modem. It has two RJ-11 ports:
one for telephone line and the other for the telephone set. This is because
a phone can access the same wall jack that the computer connects without
exchanging their cords. Remember, you will not be able to access your phone
while you are using the Internet using the dial-up connection.

1.3 Exercise

1.3.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. Which one is not a peripheral device?

a) Processor
b) Mouse
c) Monitor
d) Printer

2. Which statement is not true for a peripheral device?

a) They are external devices

96
 Figure 6 .6: Modem

b) They are used for a number of purposes

c) Different types of slots are used for different devices
d) All peripheral devices can function without computer

1.3.2 Analytical Question

1. Explain the term “peripheral device”. Is RAM a peripheral device? Ex-

plain your answer.
2. What are the major peripheral devices for communication? Briefly ex-
plain them.

Lesson 2: Adapter Cards

2.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Know the general conditions before installation of a new adapter card.

How to install and configure adapter cards.

97
2.2 Installing and Configuring Adapter Cards

Although most desktop computers are equipped with a wide range of I/O ports
and integrated adapters, it is still often required to install adapter cards to
perform specialized tasks with better performance.
The following sections describe the steps involved in a typical installation
of adapter card.

Pre-installation Steps: Before installing an adapter card, the following is-

sues should be considered:

Does the computer have a built-in adapter already? Modern

desktop computers have a number of built-in adapters such as graphics
card, sound card and so on. In this case, if you install an external adapter
it may conflict with the built-in hardware. To avoid such hardware con-
flict the built-in adapter should be disabled either from BIOS or Device
Manager of the Windows operating system. Changing it from the BIOS
eliminates the dependency of the operating system.
Type of expansion slots for the expansion cards. Typically in a
computer system there are three types of expansion slots such as PCI,
PCIe (with its several variants) and AGP as shown in Figure 6 .7. The
selected adapter card must match the available slots in your computer.

Figure 6 .7: Different Types of Slots

When both PCI and PCIe slots are available. If your system has
both PCI and PCIe slots available for new hardware it is advisable to
use PCIe because of superior performance of PCIe over PCI.

98
Steps for Installation: The general process of installing an adapter card
involves the following steps:

Step 1. Shut down the system.

Step 2. Disconnect it from AC power, either by unplugging the system
or by turning off the power supply with its own on/off switch.
Step 3. Remove the system case. Depending upon the motherboard
design and case design, the exact method varies:

– If the case has a one-piece design, remove the entire case.

– If the case is a tower design, the left side panel (as seen from the
front) should be removed first to install cards into an ATX system.
For a BTX system, the right side panel is to be removed.

Step 4. Locate the expansion slot for the device. Notice if any header
cable is attached in the slot cover then it should be removed to another
slot to free this one. Figure 6 .8 illustrates a typical system that has
some available slots.

Figure 6 .8: Not all slots are available

Step 5. Remove the slot cover corresponding to the slot to be used for
the adapter card.
Step 6. Now unpack the card carefully and hold it by the bracket. An
adapter card has mainly three zones such as:

1. Card Bracket
2. Card Circuit & Chips
3. Card Connector

99
You should hold the card on its Card Bracket part as shown in the Figure
6 .9. Do not touch either Card Circuit & Chips or Card Connector. Now
insert it into the expansion slot. Make sure you push the card connector
firmly into the slot.

Figure 6 .9: Hold the card in the right way to insert

Step 7. Secure the card bracket by the set of screw as shown in Figure
6 .10.

Figure 6 .10: Correct and Incorrect way of Card Installation

Step 10. Connect any cables required for the card. Reconnect the AC
power and restart your computer. After restarting you should provide
the appropriate driver for your newly installed device.

100
2.3 Exercise

2.3.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. What happens if both external and built-in adapter cards exist in a

system?

a) The system will complain about hardware conflict.

b) The system will complain about unknown reasons.
c) The system will function smoothly.
d) The system will be more powerful because of multiple copies of same
hardware.

2. Which part of an adapter card is safe to hold for installing (i.e. inserting
into the appropriate slot)?

a) Any part of the device

b) Card Bracket
c) Card Circuit & Chips
d) Card Connector

2.3.2 Analytical Question

1. Before installing an adapter card you should consider a number of facts.

Explain them.

101
UNIT 7
Hardware Troubleshooting
After general conception of the major computer components it is important
to concentrate on the troubleshooting the computer as a whole. Systematic
approach to hardware troubleshooting is very vital for any successful hardware
technician.

Lesson 1: Troubleshooting Approach, Hardware

Problems

1.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Organize the hardware troubleshooting approach systematically.

Know the common causes and symptoms of hardware troubleshooting.

Earlier Units introduced various parts of the computer. More specifically

by this time you know about i) Motherboard & Processor ii) Memory and
Storage and iii) Peripheral Devices in the preceding Units. Now it is time to
turn the attention to troubleshooting the the hardware problems of a computer
in general. Following Unit will explore more about the specific troubleshooting
of a computer such as operating system and networking.
1.2 Troubleshooting Approaches

Computer is a very smart and useful device but it may not work as expected
due to many reasons. To solve such problems a hardware troubleshooter should
proceed in systematic way as outlined below:

Logical thinking. After all a computer is a logical machine, if it does not

work properly there must be some causes behind it. The first task of a
troubleshooter is to identify these cases and their explanations for the
problem.
Never accept the problem description at face value or on assumption. You
should ask for a demonstration of the problem. Ask exactly what was
happening at the time the problem occurred. Try to collect all informa-
tion regarding the problem so that you can reproduce the problem. The
hardest problems of all are those that does not happen very often and
sometimes very tough to demonstrate at a desired time.
First consideration: the most obvious one. This is an effective strategy
because obvious things are easy to check, and if they are the real causes
then the problem is quickly solved. For instance, your monitor is not
displaying anything, so first check if the cable connection is correctly
working.
Problem Isolation. In the area of troubleshooting the most valuable
step is the isolation of the problem in the system. It deals with non-
trivial problems. When a device malfunctions, it is important to observe
whether it misbehaves in the same way with all other programs that
use the device. Then replace the device with a good one. At the same
time try to use the suspected device to another good machine. After
these tests, you will be able to isolate the problematic component of the
system more accurately.
Gather additional information. The use of on-line search and any other
sources are helpful in this context. But you should not accept any on-line
solution readily. Investigate more if this is the same problem (with your
computer) as you have searched in the Internet.
Do not panic. Remember a computer is a very sophisticated, advanced
and complex system. So, some problems may seem very hard to detect
even after a number of repeated trials in many ways. And it is, of course,
disheartening. In this case, there is a change you will be psychologically
biased towards a number specific approaches and you are ignoring some

103
 other way of looking the problem. Take a break, have a cup of tea and
relax for sometimes. Then come back again to start it with a fresh mind.

1.3 Hardware Problem Symptoms and Causes

Before we get into specific components, let us find out the common hardware
symptoms and causes.

1.3.1 Excessive Heat

When computer runs substantial amount of heat is generated from various

electronic components. This has already been discussed in Unit 2. There are
two generic approaches to reduce heat inside computers: i) heat sink and ii)
case fan and fan for other components such as processor.

Figure 7 .1: Heat Sink for Processor

Any component with its own processor will have a heat sink. It is typically
made of aluminum or other metal and attached to the processor as shown in
Figure 7 .1. Heat sink absorbs heat as much as it can to reduce the processor
temperature. The processor has also a fan attached to it. Generally a processor
temperature should not exceed 50-55 degrees Celsius under heavy load. There
is a thumb-rule for processor temperature: powerful processor produces higher
temperature. Table 2 shows the average temperature for different processors.
If you put your hand at the back of your computer while it is running you
will feel warm air coming out from inside the case. This is due a case fan
which takes hot air from the inside the case and blow it out to reduce overall

104
 Figure 7 .2: Case fan for cooling

Table 2: Temperature range for different processors

Processor Average Temperature
Intel Core 2 Duo 45◦ C - 55◦ C
Intel Core i3 50◦ C - 60◦ C
Intel Core i5 50◦ C - 62◦ C
Intel Core i7 50◦ C - 65◦ C

temperature of the computer components inside the case.

1.3.2 Noise

There is always noise from the running computer. Some noise are normal
while others are symptom of danger for your computer. The POST beep,
noise from the hard drive and power supply always creates noise. These are
normal noise. Remember that the components that move are likely to generate
noise because of their movement and rotation. If excessive noise come from
any of such components they should be thoroughly examined and tested.

1.3.3 Odors and Smoke

Sometimes, bad smells or smokes come from inside the computer. Although
inside the case the components get heated, but they should never be hot
enough to melt plastic components. Unfortunately it happens very often. On
the other hand, power problem can generate smoke inside the case. When
you smell an odd odor or see smoke you should immediately shutdown the

105
computer and look for the damage inside the case.

1.3.4 Status Light Indicators

Status light indicators attached to the hardware devices help to identify prob-
lems. For instance, when you power on the system, the power light should
appear. If it does not appear, something is wrong with the system. Same
principle applies for external hard drives, printers and wireless routers. Al-
ways apply the first rule of troubleshooting: check the cable connections first.
Apart from power indicators, there are other several types of hardware
devices that have higher number of status indicating LED. These hardware
include network hub, router, switch and so on. Figure 7 .3 shows the LED
layout for Cisco 3800 Series Router. Table 3 describes the meanings of SYS
LEDs that stands for system status of the router. And you will notice here
LED color and style (solid or blinking) are both indicators of different status.

Figure 7 .3: LED layout for Cisco 3800 Series Router

Table 3: LES Spec. for Cisco 3800 Series

LED Color Meaning
SYS Off Router not receiving power
Steady green Normal operation
Blinking green Booting state immediately after power-up
Amber Powered but malfunctioning

1.4 Exercise

1.4.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. In hardware troubleshooting which step is the most valuable?

a) Logical thinking

106
 b) Do not rely on some assumptions
c) Collecting more information about the problem
d) Problem isolation

2. Which processor does produce maximum temperature?

a) Intel Core Two duo

b) Intel i3
c) Intel i5
d) Intel i7

3. Which of the following statement is true about noise?

a) Components with rotation and movement release noise

b) All components of a computer produce noise
c) Only larger components produce noise
d) Each noise is a symptom of hardware problem for a computer

1.4.2 Analytical Question

1. Briefly describe various hardware problem symptoms and their possible

causes.

Lesson 2: Troubleshooting at the Startup

2.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Deal the problems with particular components and devices.

2.2 Troubleshooting at the Startup

When a system has problems starting, it may display error messages at startup.

107
2.2.1 POST Routines Failure

Write with bullets what it does from the following.

Every computer has a set of basic computer instructions in its firmware

called basic input/output system (BIOS). BIOS has a diagnostic process called
the power-on self-test (POST). Many steps are performed by POST of the
BIOS such as:

Check the processor status

Check the RAM and Hard Drive

Check the presence of video card

Check the other hardware functionality

If POST encounters any problem it is normally detected by beep sounds

with some error codes called beep codes. Determining the point failure is a
good clue to start a successful troubleshooting.

Beep Code: If the BIOS POST is not successful, the beep code (sound) can
determine the source of the problem. This is a number of beeps from the
computer’s speaker, not from the external speaker of your system. Single beep
indicates successful POST. In case of more beeps, indicating a problem, you
should observe:

– The number of beeps

– Duration of the beeps

– Pattern of the beeps

Each BIOS has its own beep codes. Table 4 and 5 present the beep codes
for AMI BIOS.

108
 Table 4: Beep Codes for AMI BIOS
Beeps Error Meaning
1 short DRAM refresh failure The programmable interrupt timer or pro-
grammable interrupt controller has proba-
bly failed
2 short Memory parity error A memory parity error has occurred in the
first 64K of RAM. The RAM IC is proba-
bly bad
3 short Base 64K memory failure A memory failure has occurred in the first
64K of RAM. The RAM IC is probably bad
4 short System timer failure The system clock/timer IC has failed or
there is a memory error in the first bank of
memory
5 short Processor error The system CPU has failed
6 short Gate A20 failure The keyboard controller IC has failed,
which is not allowing Gate A20 to switch
the processor to protected mode. Replace
the keyboard controller
7 short Virtual mode processor The CPU has generated an exception error
exception error because of a fault in the CPU or mother-
board circuitry
8 short Display memory The system video adapter is missing or de-
read/write error fective
9 short ROM checksum error The contents of the system BIOS ROM
does not match the expected checksum
value. The BIOS ROM is probably defec-
tive and should be replaced
10 short CMOS shutdown register The shutdown for the CMOS has failed
read/write error

109
 Table 5: Beep Codes for AMI BIOS (Cont..)
Beeps Error Meaning
11 short DRAM refresh failure The shutdown for the CMOS has failed
1 long, 2 Failure in video system An error was encountered in the video
short BIOS ROM, or a horizontal retrace failure
has been encountered
1 long, 3 Memory test failure A fault has been detected in memory above
short 64KB
1 long, 8 Display test failure The video adapter is either missing or de-
short fective
2 short Hardware Failure One of the hardware tests have failed in
POST
1 long POST has passed all tests Successful Test

POST card: POST process can also be launched from external POST card to
determine a problem during startup. POST card is a circuit board (normally
fits into ISA or PCI slot) that generates numeric codes as the boot process
goes on. Each numeric value corresponds to a specific hardware being checked.
For instance, codes such as 01 and 08 represent processor and RAM testing
namely according to AT&T BIOS POST Codes. Complete list of codes is
beyond the scope of this book. Table 6 presents a number of the most widely
used error codes for AT&T BIOS. The codes are in hexadecimal numbers.
Note that both test and error are indicated by the codes.

Table 6: Few POST Codes for AT&T BIOS

Code Meaning
01 CPU Test
02 System I/O port test
0C Keyboard controller test
0E Battery power test
13 Primary display error
18 Internal memory address test
1F Internal memory error

2.2.2 STOP (Blue Screen) Errors at Startup

When you turn on your computer instead of seeing the Windows Login screen
you might have seen an unexpected blue screen as shown in Figure 7 .5. This

110
 Figure 7 .4: POST Card

is termed as STOP error or Blue Screen or BSOD (Blue Screen of Death).

Figure 7 .5: Blue Screen

Causes of Blue-screen error: Blue-screen errors can be caused by many

problems as such corrupt applications, corrupt device drivers, or memory prob-
lems and so on.

111
 Table 7: STOP error messages
Error No. Error Name Explanation
0xA IRQL_NOT_LESS_OR_EQUAL Check device drivers or services used by
backup or antivirus utilities.
0xD1 DRIVER_IRQL_NOT_LESS_OR_EQUAL Check device drivers or services used by
backup or antivirus utilities.
0x1E KMODE_EXCEPTION_NOT_HANDLED Illegal or unknown instruction; check
the driver referenced in the error mes-
sage.
0x24 NTFS_FILE SYSTEM Test the hard disk for errors.
0x2E DATA_BUS ERROR Test memory modules; disable memory
caching in system BIOS; check hard-
ware configuration.
0x50 PAGE_FAULT_IN_NONPAGED AREA Check printer drivers.
0x7B INACCESSIBLE_BOOT_DEVICE Incorrect or missing hard disk device
driver.

Solution: After an BSOD error occurred, you should record the error
number listed after the STOP message, such as STOP: 0x0000001E. If available
record the name of the error, such as KMODE_EXCEPTION_NOT_HANDLED. Now
you can search the error code and name on the official website of the Microsoft
Support Site (http://support.microsoft.com) for recommended solution.
Table 7 represents a few such STOP error messages.

2.2.3 Other BIOS Issues

BIOS performs POST routine to check the different components status. Be-
sides this, BIOS may experience some other issues as depicted below:

Problem: BIOS may be out-of-date. This is not a critical issue for

the existing hardware components since it will continue to support these
hardware. It becomes an issue when you want to install a new hardware
and the BIOS does not support it, for instance installing a larger hard
drive.
Solution: BIOSs are normally written to an EEPROM. It can be updated
using appropriate software. This process of BIOS updating is termed as
flashing the BIOS. Each manufacturer has its own method for flashing of
BIOS.
Problem: Sometimes BIOS fails to retain the computer’s settings such
as time & date and hard drive configuration. Each BIOS uses a battery

112
(like the battery of a watch) on the motherboard to store the settings
when the machine is powered off. When the battery fails BIOS also fails
to preserve its system settings.

Solution: Simply replace the battery to solve the problem.

Problem: Along with the system settings mentioned above the BIOS
also stores the boot sequence for the system. Boot sequence determines
which is the drive to start up the operating system. The system can
be booted from the First hard drive, the Second hard drive or from CD
ROM. If the computer is attempting to boot from the wrong device, the
boot sequence must be changed appropriately in the BIOS.

Solution: You need to change the boot order from the BIOS. Follow
these simple steps for changing the boot order of your computer:

i) Reboot the system.

ii) Look for the message telling you to press a certain key to enter the
BIOS (usually something like F2, F1, F12).
iii) Once you are in the BIOS, find the menu with the boot sequence
and set it to the desired order. It should look like Figure 7 .6.

Figure 7 .6: Boot Sequence in BIOS

113
2.3 Exercise

2.3.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. Which of the followings is not performed by POST process of BIOS?

a) Check the processor status

b) Check the Internet connection
c) Check the RAM and Hard Drive
d) Check the presence of video card

2. Suppose the system clock of your computer is not working and you want
to be sure about the problem. Which of the following is the right indi-
cation for it?

a) 1 short beep
b) 2 short beeps
c) 3 short beeps
d) 4 short beeps

3. What does the POST Code 13 stand for?

a) Keyboard controller test

b) Primary display error
c) Battery power test
d) Internal memory address test

2.3.2 Analytical Question

1. The beep (i.e. sound) can determine the source of the problem specially
at the start up of the computer - Explain it with suitable example.

Lesson 3: Troubleshooting Different Components

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Deal the problems with particular components and devices.

114
3.1 Troubleshooting Different Components

So far, we have discussed hardware problem in general. In this section problem

with different components will be explored.

3.1.1 Troubleshooting Motherboard and Processor

Motherboard and CPU (processor) are the two essential components of a com-
puter. Failure any of them normally results in a completely dead state of the
machine. Other times, motherboard or CPU failure may completely lock up
or hang the system requiring a hard reboot.

Motherboard: When a motherboard fails, it is usually because it has phys-

ical damage. In most of the cases, motherboard damage is beyond repair, in
that case it must be replaced. Motherboards can be damaged because of phys-
ical mishandling, exposure to electrostatic discharge (ESD) or short-circuiting.
Steps to follow: To minimize the risk, observe the following rules:

Handle a motherboard as little as possible, and keep it in an anti-static

bag whenever it is removed from the computer case.

Keep all liquids away from the motherboard, they can cause short cir-
cuits.

Wear an antistatic wrist strap when handling or touching a motherboard.

While installing a motherboard in a case, make sure to use brass standoffs

with paper or plastic washers to prevent any stray solder around the screw
holes. Otherwise, it may cause a short circuit with the metal of the screw.

Processor: A CPU (also called processor) may fail because of physical dam-
age or short-circuiting. But the most common cause for a CPU malfunction
is improper way to install it. With a PGA- or LGA-style CPU, ensure that
the CPU is oriented correctly in the socket. With an SECC-style CPU, make
sure the CPU is completely inserted into its slot.
Like motherboard processor if physically damaged can not be repaired by
the technicians because of the very advanced and high precision technology
behind the processor manufacturing.

115
3.1.2 Troubleshooting Power Supply

Troubleshooting the power supply basically means isolating the supply as the
cause of problems within a system and, if needed, replacing it with a new one.
It is never recommended that an inexperienced user open a power supply
to make repairs because of the dangerous high voltages present inside. Even
when power supply is unplugged, it can retain hazardous voltage and must be
discharged before any sort of servicing. Internal repairs of power supply are
beyond the scope of this book and are specifically not recommended unless the
technician knows what he/she is doing.

Symptoms of Power Supply Problem There are some common symptoms

for power supply failure. Sometimes the symptoms are hard to correlate with
the power supply problem. The symptoms can be grouped into the following
three ways:
Group A: The problems directly related to the power supply. The fol-
lowings are some obvious symptoms that point right to the power supply as a
possible cause:

System is completely dead (no fan, no cursor)

Smoke

Blown circuit breakers

Group B: Other computer problems due to power supply failure or prob-

lems. They can be described as follows:

Any power-on or system startup failures or lockups.

Spontaneous rebooting or intermittent lockups during normal operation.

Intermittent parity check or other memory-type errors.

Hard disk and fan simultaneously failing to spin (no +12v).

Overheating due to fan failure.

Small brownouts cause the system to reset.

Electric shocks felt on the system case or connectors.

Slight static discharges disrupt system operation.

116
 Group C: Symptoms hard to correlate with the power supply failure.
Apparently the symptoms seem to have very little connection to the power
supply. Only experienced technicians can deal this sort of problems. For
example, a parity check error may indicate power supply problem. Initially
it may seem very strange since the parity check message specifically refers to
memory failure. But the fact is that the power supply powers the memory and
memory with insufficient/faulty power fails.

Solution: If you suspect a power supply problem, some of the simple and
straightforward measurements and the more advanced and sophisticated tests
outlined in this section can help you determine if the power supply is faulty.
Because these measurements might not detect some intermittent failures.
Intermittent failures occurs rarely without any particular pattern or frequency
of occurrence. In this case a spare power supply helps a lot for a long-term
evaluation. If the symptoms and problems disappear when a known good spare
unit is installed, you have found the source of your problem.
Following is a simple flowchart to help you determine common power supply
related problems:

i) Check AC power input. Make sure the cord is firmly fixed in the wall
socket and in the power supply socket. Try a different good and working
cord.
ii) Check DC power connections. Make sure the motherboard and disk drive
power connectors are firmly seated and the contact is good. Check for
loose screws.
iii) Check DC power output. Use a digital multimeter to check for proper
voltages. Replace the power supply if it is below the specified level.
iv) This is the final and most important step of the entire system. Check
the installed peripherals. Remove all boards and drives and retest the
system. If it works, add back in items one at a time until the system fails
again. The last item added before the failure returns is likely defective.

3.1.3 Troubleshooting Memory

Comparing with other computer problems memory problems are less common
as they have no rotating or moving parts and have fewer points of failure.
For this reason, many RAM problems remain undiagnosed. Normally memory
lasts longer than other computer components.

117
Symptoms of Memory Problem

When you first turn on your computer it runs fine, but over time with
higher loads the overall performance of the computer goes down. The
website takes very longer time to open. Some applications take unusual
amount of time to get launched. This type of slow performance degrada-
tion with memory intensive programs may be caused by a RAM problem.
Computer may randomly restart while you are in the middle of some-
thing. Sometimes it may freeze the entire system (i.e. mouse, key-board
do not work). It may also reboot almost immediately upon opening the
desktop. This could be due to faulty RAM.
A blue screen with white text flashes before restarting the computer.
Blue-screen errors are annoying and hard to trace because you will no
time to read the error message. RAM problem is the main factor of this
situation.
Most frequently accessed files are corrupted due to bad RAM. Situation
can worsen over time.
Attempts to install new applications repeatedly fail for unknown reasons.
You can deduce this fact when you can normally install the same applica-
tion on some other machine with identical configuration. RAM problem
can cause this situation.

Solution: RAM is a component that must be present in a computer system.

With a faulty RAM the system can not run. Hence it is important to know how
to identify if the RAM installed is faulty. How to install RAM in a computer
has already been explored in section 2.2.2. So, it is appropriate to explore the
mechanism to test a RAM.
There are two approaches for testing RAM:

i) Hardware-based
ii) Software-based

Hardware-based solution requires special devices called RAM tester as

shown in Figure 7 .7. Since these devices incur additional cost and exper-
tise we prefer software-based testing. The most available software in this
regard is open-source (i.e. you do not need to buy it). In this section we use
MemTest86+, a free and reliable memory diagnosis tool to explain each step.

118
 Figure 7 .7: Hardware device for testing RAM

Steps for RAM Software-based Diagnosis

Step 1: Download Software. Download the MemTest86+ Auto In-

staller for USB Key .ZIP file from the developers site: http://www.memtest.org/.
Do not download any other version, be sure that you are downloading
the Installer for USB Key version to use in your USB device. If you
prefer using a CD/DVD instead, download the Pre-Compiled Bootable
ISO (.zip) file. Locate the .ISO file within the downloaded .ZIP file and
drag it to the desktop. Now write that .ISO file to the CD/DVD using
your preferred CD/DVD writing software.
Step 2: Create an Installer. Locate the .exe file within the down-
loaded .ZIP file, and double-click it to open the USB installer. The screen
should appear as shown in Figure 7 .8.
Locate the .exe file within the downloaded .ZIP file, and double-click it
to open the USB installer. Insert a USB flash drive (MemTest86+ is
approximately 180 KB in size so any USB flash drive will do) and follow
the prompts to install MemTest86+ to the flash drive. Once it is finished,
close the installer. You should see a screen similar to the Figure 7 .9.
Step 3: Running MemTest86+. Insert the USB flash drive into
a USB2.0 port (or CD/DVD into the CD/DVD drive) and boot the
computer. Enter the BIOS/uEFI and ensure the USB (or CD/DVD)
option is 1st in the boot priority, and save the changed setting if required.

119
 Figure 7 .8: RAM Diagnosis: Step 2

Figure 7 .9: RAM Diagnosis: Step 2 (Cont.)

Reboot the computer.

The system will boot from the USB (or CD/DVD) and MemTest86+
will start automatically - it requires no user intervention. This is what
it looks like Figure 7 .10 when it is completed successfully. With faulty
RAM the errors are highlighted in red color as shown in Figure 7 .11.

3.1.4 Troubleshooting Hard Drive

Hard drive is another very essential component of a computer where data are
stored permanently. Data include photo, video, document, email and so on.
Most of the components in your computer are electronic devices. They do
not fail with time like a mechanical device such as a car. But the hard drive

120
 Figure 7 .10: RAM Diagnosis: Step 3 No Error Found

Figure 7 .11: RAM Diagnosis: Step 3 Errors Found

is one of the few mechanical devices used in modern computer system.

Main Reasons for Hard Drive Failure:

The adapter (that is, the SATA, IDE, or SCSI interface) is bad.
The disk is bad.
The adapter and disk are connected incorrectly.

The first and last reasons are easy to identify, because in either case the

121
symptom will be obvious: the drive will stop working. You will not be able to
get the computer to communicate with the disk drive.
However, if the problem is a bad disk drive, the symptoms are not very
clear. As long as the POST routines can communicate with the disk drive, they
are usually considered to be good. But the POST routines may not identify
problems related to storing information. Even with good POST diagnosis
result, you may find that you are allowed to save information to a bad disk.
The problem arises when you try to read it back, it gets errors. For the same
reason, the computer may not boot as quickly as expected since it can not
read the boot information successfully each time the computer reboots.

Symptoms of Hard Drive Failure:

Loud clicking or scratching noises: These sounds are typically caused

by physical malfunction within the drive itself. If it happens the first step
should be to back up the data as soon as possible.
Slow performance or read/write failures: These symptoms indicate
a failing hard drive. They can also be the result of the fact that the
hard drive is almost full, it has not space left for further data storing.
Normally for performance hard drive more information within the drive
specially the temporary files. But when the drive do not have enough
free space (i.e. at least 10%), its overall performance goes down rapidly.
The most obvious solution is to remove files to free up more space. Also
defragmention of the drive should improve the condition. If the problem
persists you should format the hard drive and reinstall the operating
system. Finally if the problem is not solved it is the time to go for a new
hard drive.
Boot problems: This could be any of a number of problems as follows:

– A complete failure to boot.

– The hard drive not being recognized by the BIOS.
– The operating system is not found or recognized.

Failure of boot because of any of these reasons means a dead hard drive.
Finally, if the system boots normally but it can not locate the operating
system, the most likely problem with the Master Boot Record (MBR). A
bootable disk can be used to boot the system and repair the MBR with
FDISK (pre-Windows XP), FIXMBR (Windows XP), or BOOTREC
/FIXMBR (Windows Vista and 7).

122
3.1.5 Troubleshooting Video Devices

Troubleshooting video problems is usually simple because there are only a

limited number of issues that may come into consideration for troubleshooting.
All video problems can be summarized by the following two statements:

There is either no video or bad video.

Either the video card or the monitor is faulty.

General strategy to deal with display problem: In the vast majority of

cases when you have a video problem, a good troubleshooting approach is to
identify by replacement that works in the following steps:
First check the monitor by transferring it to another working machine. If it
works there, then perhaps the problem is not the monitor. But if the problem
persists then the monitor is faulty. If it goes away, it is certain that the video
card (or possibly the driver) is the problematic. Now check the video card is
seated in the slot properly and the installed driver is the newest driver. You
can download the newest driver of the video card from the manufacturer’s
website.

Symptoms of Video Problems

Followings are some common symptoms and their causes in the context of
video problems:

The system boots only in Video graphics array (VGA) mode.

In VGA mode the display is 640 × 480 with 16 colors. In this case there
are two possibilities: either the card’s resolution is set a level that the
card can not handle or the driver is incorrectly installed. For the first
case, set the resolution at a level the card can handle and for the later
case re-install the correct driver. If the problem is still there you should
replace the video card.
No image on the screen. Troubleshooting this one is relatively easy.
Try another monitor or try this monitor on another computer. That
will narrow it down pretty quickly. Remember, if the monitor is not
problematic then perhaps the video card is faulty. You must make sure
that the system is POST tested.
Monitor that shuts down repeatedly. This is often caused by over-
heating. Monitors have their own internal power supply, and they can

123
 overheat. Although it was more frequent event with CRT displays. But
LCD displays also get overheat in some cases. Take proper precaution so
that the air flow is smooth on the back of the monitor.
Dead pixels or artifacts. These two problems are certainly connected
to monitor. Dead pixels are unwanted spots on a specific area of the
screen. These spots do not fire or light up. It can be tested by setting
the background of the screen as white and observing if those spots are
not still fired up. Artifacts, on the other hand, you will always see the
outlines of a different image no matter what is the background image. In
both cases, the solution is to replace the monitor.
Incorrect colors. This problem occurs when the LCD monitors con-
troller board starts to fail and doe not perform color mapping correctly.
This can also happen if the connector pins are damaged.
Dim or flickering images. This problem is more related to LCD dis-
plays. They are most commonly caused by the backlight starting to fail.
Replacement of the backlight solves the problem.

Other Issues: Other graphics issues are mainly related to memory of the
video card. This memory stores the information of the screens to be displayed
by the monitor. Problems with the memory modules on the video card depends
on how well it works. Occasionally adding more memory to a video card
increases in both quality and performance. Otherwise, you should replace it
with a new one.

3.2 Exercise

3.2.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. Why is it not generally possible to repair the physical damage of proces-

sor?

a) Because it stores data

b) It has movable parts
c) Because of its very high precision manufacturing technology
d) All of the above

2. What component of a computer has some mechanical part in it?

124
 a) RAM
b) Keyboard
c) Hard drive
d) Mouse

3. Which among the following components is less likely to get faulty?

a) RAM
b) Hard drive
c) Power supply
d) CD ROM drive

3.2.2 Analytical Question

1. Sometimes it is very difficult to correlate a symptom with power supply

problem. Explain it with a suitable example.
2. POST diagnosis is useful for getting information about different compo-
nents of a computer. In many cases the POST result is good for a hard
drive but actually there are problems in it. Explain it.
3. Describe different steps involved in software-based RAM diagnosis.
4. Describe different symptoms of video problems and also state their solu-
tions in each case.

125
UNIT 8
Operating System Troubleshooting
A computer can run properly in presence of a special software program called
operating system. For instance, probably you are using Windows 7 or Windows
10 in your PC. On the top of an operating system all other programs are
installed. The operating system works like a manager of the computer system.

Lesson 1: Operating System: Basics and Installation

1.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Understand the basic concept of operating system and its functions.

Learn how to install an operating system.

1.2 Operating System and Its Functions

Before we start operating system problems and troubleshooting it is important

to have a clear idea about what is an operating system and what functions it
performs.

Operating System: An operating system is a program that acts as an inter-

face between the user and the computer hardware and controls the execution
of all kinds of programs.
Example: Followings are the some popular operating systems:
 Figure 8 .1: Operating System: Concept

Microsoft Windows: Such as Windows XP, Windows 7, Windows 10.

Unix and its variants: Such as HP-UX, IBM’s AIX, Red Hat, Debian,
Ubuntu, Linux Mint.
Mac OS X: It is developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc.,

Terminology: Before we get too far into our discussion of operating systems,
it is essential to define a few key terms. The following are some terms you will
come across as you study this chapter:

Version, Build No and Release Date: A particular revision of a

piece of software, normally described by a number that indicates how
new the product is in relation to other versions of the product in the
market. This number has three parts: the first part is called Version
Number, the second one is called Build No. and the last one indicates
its Release Date. Table 8 shows some version information for Windows
operating system.
Source: The actual code that defines how a piece of software works.
Computer operating systems can be open source, meaning the OS can
be examined, enhanced and modified by anyone, or they can be closed
source. In the later case, only an owner or developer can modify or
examine the code. A word often used interchangeably with closed source
is proprietary. Again, open source are free while proprietary copies are

127
 Table 8: Version Information of Windows
Operating System Version / Build / Date
Windows Vista 6.0.6000 (08.11.2006)
Windows Vista, Service Pack 2 6.0.6002 (04.02.2008)
Windows Server 2008 6.0.6001 (27.02.2008)
Windows 7, RTM (Release to Manufacturing) 6.1.7600.16385 (22.10.2009)
Windows 10 10.0.11082 (16.12.2015)

subject to purchase.

Shell: A program that runs on top of the operating system (OS) and
allows the user to issue commands. For instance, commands dir and ls
are equivalent for Windows and Linux namely for displaying a list of a
folder’s files and sub-folders.

Cooperative multitasking: Early versions of Windows operating sys-

tem worked in this fashion for performing multiple tasks. In this case,
the multitasking depends on the application itself for using the processor
and freeing up for others. Sometimes the application is unable to free
the processor it is using due to many reasons. Eventually the processor
fails to process any other application causing an entire system lock.

Preemptive multitasking: In a multitasking method the operating

system controls the use of processor by allocating a specific time for each
application. In means, after that time the control of processor is taken
away from the running application and given to another application. In
this case, if an application crashes the operating system takes control of
the processor away from the locked application and passes it on to the
next application. It removes the possibility of locking the entire system,
rather only a specific application can be locked up.

Multithreading: Thread is a light weight process. Operating system

that supports multithreading performs more tasks in parallel. Multi-
threading in operating system ensures i) resource sharing and ii) scal-
ability. For example, when you create a word document a number of
threads run, for instance one for spell checking, second one for process-
ing user input and so on.

32-bit & 64-bit: The operating system can be either 32-bit or 64-bit.
As the number of bits increases it ensures two major benefits:

128
 – More bits can process larger chunks of data at a time which results
in higher accuracy.
– More bits means system can address a larger number of locations in
physical memory. Addressing larger amount of physical memory is
often needed by computation-intensive applications such as graphics
processing.

Older operating systems (e.g. Windows 95) are 32-bit while new ones
(e.g. Windows 10) are 64-bit.

1.2.1 Operating System Functions

This section highlights the basic functions of an operating system.

Memory Management: Memory management refers to management

of primary memory or main memory. Main memory is a large array
of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address. Main
memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the
CPU. Operating system performs the following activities for memory
management.

– Stores the statistic of primary memory usage. It includes how much

memory is used and how much is available or free.
– In multiprogramming, operating system decides which process will
get memory when and how much.
– Allocates the memory when the process requests it to do so.
– Frees (de-allocate) the memory when the process no longer needs it
or it is terminated/finished.

Processor Management: In multiprogramming environment, operat-

ing system distributes the processor time for each process. This function
is called process scheduling. Operating system does the following tasks
for processor management.

– Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. Program responsible

for this task is known as traffic controller.
– Allocates the processor(CPU) to a process.
– De-allocates processor when processor is no longer required.

129
 Device Management: Operating system manages device communica-
tion through their respective drivers. The followings are the activities for
device management performed by operating system.

– Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is

known as the I/O controller.
– Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
– Allocates the device in the efficient way.
– De-allocates devices when the current process is terminated.

1.3 Installation of Operating System

In order to install the operating system we have selected Microsoft’s Windows

7 version because of its stability and popularity.
Followings are the steps to install Windows 7 in your computer.

1.3.1 Planning the Installation

As with any OS installation, we must first plan the installation process. Here
are some of the most important things we should take into consideration when
planning for Windows 7 installation:

Check System Requirements

Check Hardware and Software Compatibility
Determine Disk Partitioning Options
Complete a Pre-Installation Checklist

The minimum recommended specifications for Windows 7:

X 1 GHz 32-bit or 64-bit processor

X 1 GB of system memory
X 16 GB of available disk space
X Support for DirectX 9 graphics with 128 MB memory
X DVD-R/W Drive
X Internet access (to activate the Windows and get updates)

130
Select the appropriate version: The very first decision is whether the 32-bit
or 64-bit version of Windows 7 should be installed. As mentioned earlier more
bit means more memory addressing capability, so for machine with higher
amount of RAM (i.e. more than 4GB) is suitable for 64-bit version.

1.3.2 Beginning the Installation Process

Step 1: Boot from the DVD. When installing on a physical computer insert
your Windows 7 DVD media into your DVD drive and reboot your computer.
If you are asked to press a key to boot from DVD or CD, press any key. For
this purpose, you may need to change the boot sequence from the BIOS.
A black window as shown in Figure 8 .2 will appear while the DVD content
is read. Next, a Starting Windows screen will appear as shown in Figure 8 .3.

Figure 8 .2: Windows Installation Step 1

Figure 8 .3: Windows Installation Step 1 (Cont.)

Step 2: Basic Settings of Installation. Previous versions of Windows such

as Vista and Windows Server 2008 had noticeable text phase of the setup

131
process. Windows 7 will boot directly into the Graphical User Interface (GUI)
mode.
After a few moments you will see the first prompt like Figure 8 .4

Figure 8 .4: Windows Installation Step 3

Now click next button and you will see the screen as in Figure 8 .6.

Figure 8 .5: Windows Installation Step 3 (Cont.)

Step 3: License Agreement. After clicking on the Install Now button the
following screen will appear. Mark the checkbox I accept the license terms.

Step 4: Start Installation. Next, unless you are upgrading an existing Win-
dows installation, press the Custom (Advanced) installation type button.
Note that in this case, the Upgrade button is disabled because this specific instal-
lation if performed on a new computer without any previous operating system
on it.

132
 Figure 8 .6: Windows Installation Step 3

Figure 8 .7: Windows Installation Step 4

Step 5: Select the Installation Partition. If the computer has a new hard
disk that has not been formatted before, you will have the option to create a
new partition on it.

If you do not want to specify a specific partition to install Windows on

click Next to begin the installation.
If you want to create, extend, delete, or format a partition, click Drive
options (advanced), click the option you want, and then follow the in-
structions.

The setup process will now begin to copy files from the installation DVD
media to the hard disk. A figure like 8 .9 should appear.
This process may take time depending on the type of hardware your com-
puter uses. The computer will reboot by itself and the you will find the prompt

133
 Figure 8 .8: Windows Installation Step 5

Figure 8 .9: Windows Installation Step 6

to set the user and computer name. By default, the computer name will be
username-PC, where username is the username you have already entered.

Figure 8 .10: Windows Installation Step 7

134
1.4 Exercise

1.4.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. What is the version number of Windows 7?

a) 5
b) 5.5
c) 7
d) 6

2. Which one is true about Cooperative Multitasking?

a All modern operating systems provides Cooperative Multitasking.

b It may experience entire system lock.
c It depends only on processor.
d Application has no control over it.

1.4.2 Analytical Question

1. What is an Operating System? Describe its various functions.

2. Describe the step by step process to install Windows 7 in your computer.

135
 Lesson 2: Operating System Troubleshooting

2.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Learn the common operating system problem symptoms.

Learn troubleshooting issues of operating system.

2.2 Operating System Troubleshooting

An operating system can be considered as a collection of a huge number of

complex programs running together. In windows 7, for example, it has almost
50 million lines of codes and over 2000 programmers worked on it. Same is the
true for Linux operating system: a Linux kernel has more than 15 million lines
of codes. Hence troubleshooting of operating system could be very difficult
task in many cases.
In order to successfully troubleshoot operating system problems it is essen-
tial to understand how booting process works in a typical computer. Before
we begin operating system problems the following paragraph briefly describes
the booting process:

Booting Process: The followings are the sequential steps performed when a
computer starts up:

i) At first it sends a signal to motherboard which in turn starts the power

supply. After supplying the correct amount of power to each device, it
sends a signal called Power OK to BIOS which is located at motherboard.
ii) Once the BIOS receives the Power OK signal, it starts the booting pro-
cess by first initializing a process called POST (Power On Self Test).
POST first checks if every device powered up properly. It also checks
the memory status. Then it initializes each devices and finally it gives
control to BIOS for further booting.
iii) As the final stage of booting the BIOS first finds 512 bytes of image
called MBR (Master Boot Record) or bootsector from hard disk (or from
the floppy disk in old days) which is used for booting. The priority of
boot devices is set by the user in BIOS setting.

136
 iv) Once BIOS locates the bootsector it loads the image in memory and
execute it. If a valid bootsector is not found, BIOS checks for next drive
in boot sequence until it gets a valid bootsector. In case of failure, it stops
the execution and gives an error message Disk Boot Failure. Bootsectors
load the operating system in memory and execute it.

2.2.1 Operating System Problem Symptoms

BSOD: The Blue Screen of Death (BSOD) occurs when Windows fails to
boot properly. At the time of booting various hardware are detected and
loaded. The problem occurs when hardware driver is misconfigured or the
hardware itself is misconfigured.
There are a number of steps that can help to solve this problem such as:

Instead of normal Windows operation, run it in Safe Mode. In Safe Mode,

Windows loads only basic drivers, such as a standard VGA video driver
and the keyboard and mouse. Once you can start the system in Safe
Mode, the suspected driver can be uninstalled to stop the problem.
Another choice is to boot the system into the last known good configu-
ration. Doing this will revert the system drivers back to the state where
they were successful.

Failure to Boot: In the booting process, Windows requires only a few files
to boot, each of which performs specific tasks. These are discussed next in the
order in which they are loaded:

NTLDR/BOOTMGR: It bootstraps the system. In other words, this

file starts the loading of an operating system on the computer. While
Windows 7 and Vista uses BOOTMGR, Windows XP uses NTLDR.
These files are responsible for switching from real to protected mode
during the boot process.
BOOT.INI: This is a text file containing the boot options for the sys-
tem. It also contains the timeout value and the location of the operating
system files with Windows XP. Windows 7 and Vista uses Boot Configu-
ration Data (BCD) in place of the BOOT.INI file and is configured with
BCDEDIT.EXE.
NTDETECT.COM: In Windows XP, this file is used to parses the
system for hardware information each time Windows is loaded. This

137
 information is then used to create dynamic hardware information in the
Registry.
NTBOOTDD.SYS: On a Windows XP system with a SCSI boot de-
vice, this file is used to detect and load the SCSI interface. For EIDE
systems, this file is not needed.
NTOSKRNL.EXE This is known as kernel image. It is responsible
for various system services such as hardware virtualization, process and
memory management and so on. The corrupted kernel can be replaced
by booting from a startup disk (CD/DVD) and then copy the fresh copy
in the appropriate place where the operating system is installed (i.e nor-
mally it is located at C:\Windows\system32\ directory).
NTBTLOG.TXT This is actually a log file. The log marks each file as
successful (“Loaded driver...”) or unsuccessful (”Did not load driver...”).
Following is the content of such a file:

Loaded driver \SystemRoot\System32\DRIVERS\flpydisk.sys

Did not load driver \SystemRoot\System32\DRIVERS\sflpydisk.SYS

“Did Not Load Drive” message indicates that Windows could not load
this driver properly at the startup.

Improper Shutdown: Not shutting down properly can result in data loss
from open applications or corrupted operating system files.
It is highly recommended that each time you shut down the computer you
do it in the proper way. And it is important to train specially novice users
about how to shut down the computer properly.

Spontaneous Shutdown/Restart: Occasionally, a faulty system starts shut-

ting down and/or restarting automatically when you are using it. It could an
indication of both hardware and software problem. First check the sleep set-
tings for hibernation and disable them. If the problem still exists, start looking
for driver problem.
To reduce possibilities of problem sources run the system in Safe Mode and
see if the problem persists. If the problem goes away in Safe Mode, then boot
normally and start testing what occurs as you eliminate drivers/devices one
by one (sound, video, network card etc.) until you discover the problem.

138
Device Fails to Start: When you are using Windows, you are constantly
interacting with a number of different hardware. Each hardware driver must
be loaded to use it properly by the operating system. In addition, the hardware
must be installed and functioning properly.
If the device driver is not installed properly or the hardware is misconfig-
ured, the device will not function properly.
When an updated driver does not function properly, rolling back the driver
installation may solve the problem. To to so, right-click on the device name in
Device Manager and select its Properties. On the Drivers tab, click the Roll
Back Driver button.

Missing DLL: A DLL is a library that contains code and data that can
be used by more than one program in parallel. For example, in Windows
operating systems, the Comdlg32 DLL contains functions related to common
Open Dialog Box. Hence any program can use this DLL to implement an
Open Dialog Box. It enhances code reuse and efficient memory usage.
Most common types of errors you encounter with DLL files is that they
are for some reasons they are missing. And you will see a message like
“... dll file not found”. A straightforward solution is to first search the
missing file in the Internet. An excellent and rich source of DLL files is
http://www.dll-files.com/. You can download the missing file and copy
in your system. Finally restart the system.

Slow System Performance: Over time, the system gets slower for a number
of reasons such as to many drivers installed, lots of background processes,
memory hogs (i.e. most of the memory is used by a specific process) and so
on.
In Windows 7, choose Start =⇒ ControlP anel =⇒ T roubleshooting =⇒
CheckF orP erf ormanceIssues(underSystemAndSecurity). The Performance
Troubleshooter will look for common problems such as more than one anti-
virus programs running, multiple users logged into the same machine and so
on.
If no problems are found, then take the usual steps: uninstall programs that
are rarely used, removing items from startup, defragmenting the hard drive,
and so on. Disk Cleanup can help you free up space by deleting unnecessary
files.

139
Operating System Troubleshooting Tools

This section describes the major tools used to deal with operating system
problems.

Recovery Console: From Recovery Console, you can format drives, stop and
start services, and interact with files. The latter is very important because
many boot/command-line utilities can interact with files stored on FAT or
FAT32 only but not NTFS. The Recovery Console can work with files stored
on all three file systems.
The Recovery Console is not installed on a system by default. To install
it, use the following steps:

i) Place the Windows CD in the system.

ii) From a command prompt, change to the i386 directory of the CD.
iii) Type winnt32 /cmdcons.
iv) A prompt appears alerting you to the fact that 7MB of hard drive space
is required and asking if you want to continue. Click Yes.

Upon successful completion of the installation, the Recovery Console is

added as a menu choice at the bottom of the startup menu. To access it, you
must choose it from the list at startup.
After supplying username and password successfully you will see the screen
as in Figure 8 .11:

Figure 8 .11: Recovery Console in Windows 7

140
 Table 9: List of Some Recovery Commands
Command Explanation
ATTRIB Check device drivers or services used by backup or
antivirus utilities.
DISABLE Allows you to stop a service/driver.
DISKPART Shows the partitions on the drive, and lets you man-
age them.
ENABLE Allows you to start a service/driver.
FIXBOOT Writes a new boot sector.
FIXMBR Checks and fixes (if possible) the master boot record.
FORMAT Allows you to format media or a partition.
LISTSVC Shows the services/drivers on the system.
LOGON Lets you log on.

Now choose the option Command Prompt. You are now ready to use the
Recovery Console commands.
Some computer manufacturers might customize the menu by adding or re-
moving recovery tools, or including their own tools. Here you see an additional
option of DELL company, the manufacturer of the machine.
Recovery Console Commands: A complete list of commands in recov-
ery console is beyond the scope of this course. Interested readers may explore
them at this website https://support.microsoft.com/en-ie. Here we will
highlight only the most important commands which are very frequently used
for operating system troubleshooting. It is shown in Table 9.

DEFRAG When a file is saved to hard drive, the operating system generally
writes the file into the first available space on the disk. For example, you
first create an Excel spreadsheet and save it. It will be written to available
space in the disk. Now you have create a number of word files and power
point presentations and save them all. Now you re-open your excel file and
populate 20 thousand rows. So, the excel file is now larger. Moving all data
of the excel file in one space on the drive is not possible since there is not
enough continuous free space. Instead the operating system will keep part
of the data in the original location and write the remaining data to another
available space on the hard disk. When a file is in several places on a disk, it
is called a fragmented file. It slows down the overall access time.
Defragmenting a disk involves analyzing the disk for free and occupied
space. Then it collects all fragmented files and folders and place them in a
contiguous space. It increases performance during file retrieval. In Windows

141
there are a few different ways you can get to the Disk Defragmenter:

In Windows 7/Vista, click Start and type defrag into the Start Search
box. Choose Disk Defragmenter from the Programs list.
In Windows, open Computer or My Computer, right-click on a hard
drive, choose Properties, select the Tools tab, and click Defragment Now
(Figure 8 .12.

Figure 8 .12: Disk Fragmentation in Windows 7

2.3 Exercise

2.3.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. Which of the following is called kernel image?

a NTOSKRNL.EXE
b BOOT.INI
c NTDETECT.COM
d NTBOOTDD.SYS

2. Which system file stores the log information of hardware driver loading?

a NTOSKRNL.EXE

142
 b NTBTLOG.TXT
c BOOT.INI
d NTDETECT.COM

3. Which command should be used to fix the master boot record?

a DISKPART
b ENABLE
c FIXBOOT
d FIXMBR

2.3.2 Analytical Question

1. What is BSOD? Briefly explain the general approach to solve BSOD

problems.
2. What is DLL? Describe how you should fix missing DLL files.
3. What is Recovery Console? Describe how to install and use it.
4. What is a fragmented file? Explain with a suitable example how it slows
down file access time. Also present a suitable solution in this regard.

Lesson 3: Computer Security and Troubleshooting

3.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Get general idea about troubleshooting security issues for a computer.

Learn how to defend the common security threats.

3.2 Troubleshooting Security Issues

Basic Terminology

143
 Malware:
The term malware is the short form of ”malicious software.” Malware
refers to any computer program that is designed to do things that are
harmful or unexpected or unwanted by a computer’s authorized user.
Virus: A virus is a program that can replicate itself and pass on mali-
cious/harmful code to other nonmalicious programs by modifying them.
The term “virus” has been used because of it behaves like a biological
virus: infecting the healthy computer by attaching itself to the program.
Now this newly infected computer can spread it in the similar way and
the process goes on. The infection usually spreads at a geometric rate,
eventually overtaking an entire computing system and spreading to other
connected systems rapidly.
Worm: A worm is a program that spreads copies of itself using a network
connection. The primary difference between a worm and a virus is that
a worm operates through networks, and a virus can spread through any
medium. Normally virus uses a copied program or data files to spread it.
Spam: While spam is not truly a virus or a hoax, it is one of the most
annoying things. Spam is defined as any unwanted, unsolicited email.
Although in most of the cases it is only annoying but it may open door for
bigger problems. For example, some websites implant virus or worm or
some unwanted program withing their spam mails. If you try to respond
to them it will affect your system.

3.2.1 Symptoms of Security Problems

There are a number of common symptoms you should know for troubleshooting
the security issues.

Pop-Ups: Pop-ups are both frustrating and annoying. When a user

visits a website and another mini-size page (in the form of another tab or
another window) is opened in the foreground, it is called a pop-up. If it
opens in the background then it is termed as a pop-under. Both pop-ups
and pop-unders are pages or sites that the user do not specifically request.
They may only display advertisement for their targeted business. Figure
8 .13 shows one such pop-up.
Slow Performance: Viruses, worms, and other malware can slow down
the system performance because they intentionally occupies resources
from the other applications for indefinite time.

144
 Figure 8 .13: Example of a pop-up

PC Locks Up: When a system is locked up it simply stops responding

to commands and stops processing. It is often caused when a computer
is loaded with too many instructions at once with too very little memory.
Usually, the remedy for a system lock-up is to reboot the computer. If
the lockups are persistent, it is then,perhaps, a hardware-related problem
instead of a software problem.
Operating System Update Failures: Due to setting misconfigura-
tions Windows fails to update. The best solution is to find the error code
being reported in Windows Update Troubleshooter, solve the problem,
and download the update.
System Files Problems: Malware writer can destroy a system by delet-
ing some essential system files. Without these files the the normal op-
erations fail. For instance, you may not be able to save a particular
file.

3.2.2 Tools for Troubleshooting

Already we have explored that Recovery Console can be used for troubleshoot-
ing security issues. Apart from it, followings are the general guidelines in this
context since each security problem requires unique treatment.

Enable Operating System Security Updates: Each new one oper-

ating system is released at a particular time and used for a longer time

145
 unless there is some major flaws in it. Over time, the operating system
discovers a number of bugs and security holes. To ensure smooth func-
tioning of the operating system the manufacturer often releases general
updates and security updates. Depending upon the type of update it
may take very long time to get completed.
It is strongly recommended that you keep your operating system updated
regularly.
Antivirus Software: To prevent virus-related problems, you can install
one of any number of antivirus programs (such as Norton AntiVirus or
McAfee VirusScan). These programs will periodically scan your com-
puter for viruses and report any suspicious activity that may indicate a
virus. Finally, after a full scanning of the system the antivirus shows a
summary report indicating status of of each detected virus.

3.3 Exercise

3.3.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. Which of the followings spreads over the network connection?

a) Malware
b) Virus
c) Worm
d) Spam

2. The primary reason for PC Locks Up is:

a) PC is overloaded with tasks

b) PC is overheated due to weather
c) Pirated Operating Systems
d) None of the above

3.3.2 Analytical Question

1. What is the basic difference between a worm and virus? Prepare a dis-
cussion on the latest five most notorious worm/virus attacks withing the
last decade. Each attack should be mentioned with date,place,attack
mechanism,estimated loss. You should search Internet for this purpose.

146
UNIT 9
Networking and Troubleshooting
Computer and network are now two inseparable entities. This is because the
networking capability offers enormous benefits for the computer users. For in-
stance, you can browse any website from your own computer if it is connected
to the Internet. Because of the ever expanding network size, its inherent com-
plexity and the inter-dependency among various network standards, a major
portion of the computer problems fall in this category.

Lesson 1: Networks, Protocols and Topology

1.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Understand computer networks and TCP/IP protocol suits

Understand network topology

1.2 Computer Networks

A computer network is a set of communicating devices (for example, comput-

ers, printers, tablets) interconnected by some communication media (such as
coaxial cables, wireless) and connecting devices (such as hubs, switches) to en-
able the transmission of data or sharing of data among the devices. Depending
on the size of the network it can be broadly classified as follows:
 Local Area Network (LAN) is confined in a small area (such as home,
office) and it directly connects devices by hub or switches.
Wide Area Network (WAN) spans over a large geographical area and
typically interconnect multiple LANs by routers.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) refers to a network that covers
a single city or metropolitan area.

1.3 Network Protocols and TCP/IP Protocol Suite

A network protocol (or simply protocol) is a set of rules that defines how
network devices communicate. Protocols set the standard for communication
between network devices.
The transmission of data from a computer or its reception in a computer in-
volves a number of entities (hardware and software) and each of which requires
a protocol. The TCP/IP protocol suite is a five layers protocol architecture
defined for the Internet. Figure 9 .1 shows the layers of the TCP/IP protocol
suite.

!!"#$%&#'(

)*%(+!'*&

,(&-*(-&

.-&/'*01,(&-*2%$-

Figure 9 .1: Layers in TCP/IP protocol suite

Physical Layer defines the network topology, cabling, encoding for data
into signal etc. Network hardware such as network interface card (NIC),
cables, hubs are associated with the physical layer.
Network Interface Layer(Data Link Layer) handles the framing of
data (known as data frame), error detection and correction, medium ac-
cess control (controls the transmission in a shared medium), etc. This
layer mainly facilitate the transmission of frame between directly con-
nected devices based on their MAC address in a LAN. Example protocols
in this layer are CSMA/CD or CSMA/CA.

148
 Internet (Network) Layer interconnects networks (or LANs) to create
an internetwork (or WAN). It facilitates the forwarding of packets from
a computer of one network to a computer of another network. The Inter-
net Protocol (IP) is the most important protocol in this layer. Internet
Protocol uses IP address to identify the connected devices and to forward
data to them. Protocols in this layer are implemented in the operating
system.
Transport Layer provides error-free and in-order data delivery between
applications of two computers. The transmission control protocol (TCP)
provides the above services along with congestion control. Another well-
known protocol in this layer is user datagram protocol (UDP). Both the
protocolsNare implemented in the operating system.
N
Application
N Layer facilitate the applications to access the network.
Well-known
N protocols are FTP, HTTP, DNS, etc.
N
N
1.4 Network Topology and Interconnection

Network topology defines the physical layout of the networking devices. It il-
lustrates the arrangement of the networking devices and their interconnection.
There are various types of network topologies. A network with hybrid
topologies is also possible - the network is built using multiple topologies.

Bus Topology: In a bus topology, a single cable connects all the devices.
The single cable is called the bus and is shared by the devices. At each
end of the bus, a 50-ohm resistor known as the terminator is installed.
Figure 9 .2 shows a network with bus topology.

Figure 9 .2: A bus topology

Ring Topology: In a ring topology, interconnection of the devices form

a ring. Each device is connected to two other distinct devices in a way
so that the devices create a circle, as shown in Fig. 9 .3. Data circulate
in one direction in a ring network. Each device, after receiving a packet,

149
 accepts it if it is the ultimate destination or forwards it to the device.
Eventually, the packet reaches the destination.

Figure 9 .3: A ring topology

Start Topology: In a star topology, all the devices are connected

through a central device, for example, a hub or a switch. Each device
is connected to the central hub by a separate cable. A break in a cable
only affects the device connected to it. Figure 9 .4 shows a typical star
topology network with a hub as a central device.

Hub

star topology are

Figure 9 .4: A star topology network

Mesh Topology: In a complete mesh network, every device has a sep-

arate connection to every other device. Figure 9 .5 shows a network of
mesh topology.

1.5 Exercise

1.5.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. Which network will you use for connecting computers in your home?

a) MAN

150
 are all connected

computer on the

Figure 9 .5: A mesh topology

b) WAN
c) LAN
d) All of the above

2. Which layer of TCP protocol suit does the function of error correction?

a) Data Link Layer

b) Physical Layer
c) Internet Layer
d) Transport Layer

1.5.2 Analytical Question

1. Briefly describe different layers of TCP/IP suit.

Lesson 2: Network Media and Connectors- Standards

2.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Understand network cabling technology.

Understand relative strength and weakness of each technology.

Troubleshoot network problems.

151
2.2 Network Media and Connectors

The network media interconnect the network devices according to the network
topology. The signals (data to be transmitted are encoded into signals) are
transmitted through the medium from one network device to another. Differ-
ent types of network media (also known as cables) are used in a LAN, such
as coaxial cable, twisted pair cable, fiber optic cable. Each type of cable uses
a specific connector to connect the cable to a special device known as the
network adapter or network interface card (NIC).

2.2.1 Coaxial Cables

Coaxial cable, also known as coax, was the foundation fo LAN in the 1980ś. It
consists of a central copper core surrounded by an insulator, which is covered
by a braided wire and metal foil. A final layer of insulator covers the braided
wire. Figure 9 .6 shows a coaxial cable and its different layers. Two types of
coaxial cables are available.

Figure 9 .6: A coaxial cable

Thinnet is a flexible coaxial cable and is used for short distance com-
munications. A British Naval Connector (BNC) is used to connect the
thinnet to the network adapter.
Thicknet is a thicker cable than the thinnet and supports data transfer
over a longer distance. The thinnet cable usually uses a Vampire tap
to connect to a transceiver, which uses a drop-cable to connect to the
adapter unit interface (AUI).

Table 10 summarizes the characteristics of thinnet and thicknet coaxial

cables.

2.2.2 Twisted Pairs Cables

Twisted pair cable consists of color-coded pairs of insulated coper wires. The
cables in a pair are twisted around each other, which helps to reduce the effect

152
 Table 10: Characteristics of thinnet and thicknet coaxial cables

Coax Thickness Segment Transmission Connector

Type Length Length Type
Thinnet 0.25 m 185 m 10 Mbps BNC
Thicknet 0.50 m 500 m 10 Mbps AUI

of crosstalk. In a twisted pair cable there are usually 4 pairs of cables. Twisted
pair cables are available in two forms.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cables consist of twisted wire pairs

individually insulated as well as surrounded by a shielding. The shielding
acts as an antenna which minimizes the noise.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cables consist of insulated twisted
pair inside a plastic seath. The lack of shielding makes it both less
expensive and less resistant to noise as compared to STP. UTP cables
use small plastic connector, known as RJ-45, to connect the cable to the
NIC.

Figure 9 .7: A twisted pair cable

2.2.3 Fiber Optic Cables

Unlike coax or twisted pair, both of which use copper, fiber optic cables use
optical fibers, which carry digital signal in the form of light. An optical fiber
consists of a thin cylinder of glass, the core, surrounded by a concentric layer
of glass, the cladding. There are two types of fiber optic cables.

Single-mode Fiber uses a single ray (frequency) of light, known as

mode, to transmit longer distance.

153
 Multi-mode Fiber uses multiple rays (frequencies) of light (multi-
modes) to transmit data over a shorter distance.

Fiber optic cables can use many types of connectors. Two major types of
connectors are the straight-tip (ST) and the subscriber(SC) connector.

2.3 Wiring Standard for UTP

An UTP cable consists of four pairs of cables. The wiring standards specify
the order in which the pairs are inserted into the RJ-45 connector.
UTP cables can be categorized depending on whether the cable directly in-
terconnects two computers or computers are connected through a hub. Among
the 8 wires of UTP, only four wires are used for sending and receiving data.
Figure 9 .8 shows the necessary four wires according to the pin number of the
connector and their purposes, when the cable is connected to the computer
and hub. When the cable is connected to the computer, wires connected to
pin number 1 and 2 are used for sending data and wires 3 and 6 are used for
receiving data. Whereas if the cable is connected to the hub, wires 3 and 6
are used for sending data and wires 1 and 2 are used receiving data.

Figure 9 .8: Necessary four wires for utp

Straight-through cables connect two computers through a hub. One

piece of cable connects a computer to the hub, and another connects
other computer to the hub. Figure 9 .9 shows interconnection of wires
at the computer and at the hub. The computer uses the wires 1 and 2
for sending data and the hub uses the same wires for receiving data and
vice versa.
Note that if a straight-through cable is used to connect two computers
directly, data will not sent or received.

154
 Computer Hub
Wire Wire
TX ฀฀1 1 RX
TX ฀฀2 2 RX
RX ฀฀3 3 TX
RX ฀฀6 6 TX

Figure 9 .9: Wire setup for a straight-through cable

฀฀
฀฀
Cross-over cables are used to connect two computers directly without
฀฀
using a hub. The sending pair of one computer should be connected to
฀฀
the receiving pair of another computer and vice versa. Figure 9 .10 shows
the cross-over cabling.

Computer A Computer B
Wire Wire
TX ฀฀1 1 TX
TX ฀฀2 2 TX
RX ฀฀3 3 RX
RX ฀฀6 6 RX

Figure 9 .10: Wire setup for a cross-over cable

2.4 Criping a CAT5 Cable

The four pairs of cable in CAT5 have different colors. The pairs are orange,
blue, green and brown. Each pair contains one wire of that color and another
cable with two colors - white and that color. Accordingly, the colors of the
wires are given in Table 11.
The orange pair is used to send data to the hub and the green pair is used to
receive the data from the hub. The following steps can be followed to connect
an RJ-45 connector to a CAT5 cable. For this, a crimping tool (Fig. 9 .11), a
piece of CAT5 cable, and some RJ-45 connectors are required.

1. Cut a little bit of the cable to have a clean-cut end using the wire cutter
(Figure 9 .12)
2. Strip about an inch of hte outer jacket from the cable using the wire-
stripper of the crimping tool. Be sure not to cut any wire.

155
 Table 11: Colors of the wires of CAT5 cable

Pairs Color of Wires

Orange White-orange
Orange
Green White-green
Orange
Blue White-blue
Orange
Brown White-brown
Orange

Figure 9 .11: A crimping tool

Figure 9 .12: Clean-cut end by wire cutter

3. Make the cable straight. Order the cable according to the color shown in
Table 12. Place the wires together tightly so that they will enter inside
the RJ-45 connector.

4. Now cut the tips of the wires a bit to make the ends of the wires equal
as shown in Figure 9 .13).

5. Slide the wires into the connector as shown in Figure 9 .14. Make sure
that all wires reach the metal contacts inside the RJ-45 connector.

6. Finally, crimp the wire by inserting the connector into the crimping tool
as shown in Figure 9 .15 and then squeeze the handle tight.

156
 Table 12: Colors of the wires of CAT5 cable

Pairs Color of Wires

Orange White-orange
Orange
Green White-green
Orange
Blue White-blue
Orange
Brown White-brown
Orange

Figure 9 .13: Cutting the tips a bit with wire cutter

Figure 9 .14: Sliding the wire into RJ-45 connector

2.5 Exercise

2.5.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. What is the segment length of Thinnet?

a) 100 meters
b) 185 meters
c) 300 meters
d) 500 meters

157
 Figure 9 .15: Crimping the wire

2. What is the segment length of Thicknet?

a) 100 meters
b) 185 meters
c) 300 meters
d) 500 meters

2.5.2 Analytical Question

1. There are a number of standards for wiring up UTP. Briefly describe

them.

Lesson 3: Network Devices and Troubleshooting of

Network Problems

3.1 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson of the Unit you will be able to:

Learn about various networking devices.

Set up network in windows environment.

Troubleshoot network problems.

158
3.2 Network Devices

Network devices efficiently deliver the data to the correct destination. The
adapter transmits/receives the data to/from the medium and hub, switch,
bridge, and router deliver the data to the correct destination.

3.2.1 Network Interface Card (NIC)

The network interface card delivers the data from a computer to the medium
and receives the data from the medium. The functionality of the NIC belongs
to the physical and data link layers. Since the NIC connects the computer to
the network, the type of connector determines the type of cable it can use.
NIC associates a physical address of the communicating device. The ad-
dress is known as MAC (medium access control) address. All communication
within a network use the MAC address.

3.2.2 Repeater

A repeater is a connectivity device that perform the regeneration and ampli-

fication of an analog or digital signal. A repeater contains one input port and
one output port. Repeaters belong to the physical layer and are suited for the
bus topology.

3.2.3 Hub

A hub is a multiport repeater that can connect a device in each port. The
devices can communicate with each other through the hub forming a star
topology. A hub usually have special port to connect the hub to the network
backbone. A hub is a physical layer device. It receive data in one port,
regenerate and amplify the data and then forward the data to all ports. Figure
9 .16 shows a typical hub.

3.2.4 Bridge

A Bridge is a layer 2 device, that is it works in both the physical layer and
the network interface layer. It usually contains at least two ports. A two-port
bridge connects two segments of a network. Each segment can have a number
of computers interconnected by hubs. As a layer 2 device, it can filter packets.
It only forwards a packet from one segment to another if the destination is in
the other segment. Therefore, a bridge can divide the collision domain of a

159
 Figure 9 .16: Computers connected by a typical hub

network. Figure 9 .17 shows how a bridge can interconnect different network
segments.

Figure 9 .17: Bridge interconnects network segments

3.2.5 Switch

A switch is a multiport bridge and is a layer 2 device. A computer is connected

to each port of a switch. A switch can selectively forward the data to a specific
port based on the destination MAC address. It reduces the network bottleneck
and increases the network throughput.

3.2.6 Router

A router is a layer 3 device and can forward the packet of one network to
another network based on the IP address of the destination. Therefore, a
router can connect two or more network. IP addresses are of 32 bits and have

160
two parts - the network part and the host part. All the computers in a single
network have the same network part in their IP address. Thus, by comparing
the network part of the destination address of a packet with the IP address the
computer, it can understand whether the destination is outside the network or
not. If the destination of the packet is within the same network, then the MAC
address is used to deliver the packet directly. In contrast, if the destination is
outside the network, then the packet is forward to the router and the router
forwards the packet toward the correct destination.

3.3 Troubleshooting of Network Problems

The successful troubleshooting of a network problem requires to follow a num-

ber of steps logically and methodically. It is better to follow the steps in order,
though an expert troubleshooter might follow a different order or might skip
one or more steps. The steps are:

1. Identify the Symptoms. When troubleshooting of a network problem,

the first step is to identify the specific symptoms of the problem. It helps
to closely pinpoint the problem. In a network, symptoms of a problem
might include a user’s inability to access the file server. Accordingly, the
problem might be related to a faulty NIC, a faulty cable, etc.
2. Verify User Competency. It is natural for a human to make mistakes.
For example, a user may have typed the case sensitive password without
considering the caps lock function is turned on and might get the message
”incorrect password” though the password has been entered correctly.
Therefore, one of the first steps of a troubleshooter is to ensure that
human error is not the source of the problem.
3. Identify the Scope of the Problem. The scope of the problem defines
the affected user group for the problem or a particular period of time
when the problem appears. For example, a problem might affect a certain
group of users or a certain areas of an organization, or the problem might
appear at a certain period of time. If a problem affects only users on one
network segment, then the troubleshooter can concentrate only on that
segment to find the real cause.
4. Recreate the Problem. An excellent way to learn more about a cause
of a problem is to recreate the symptoms. If the symptoms cannot be
created then the troubleshooter might suspect that it was a one-time
problem. In contrast, if the symptoms can be recreated, then it could

161
 give the troubleshooter a clear understanding about the source of the
problem. However, be careful not to recreate a problem that might cause
physical damage of device or data of the network.
5. Verify Physical Connectivity. One of the most straight forward po-
tential flaw in network communications is the physical connectivity of
the network. Physical connectivity might include the cabling between
devices, installation of devices, etc. Physical connectivity problems are
easy to identify and easy to fix.
6. Verify Logical Connectivity. Logical connectivity problems are often
very difficult to isolate and resolve than physical connectivity. A logical
connectivity problem is associated with the software which might include
resource conflict with the NIC configuration, an improperly configured
NIC, network service, network protocol, etc.
7. Consider a Recent Change. Finally consider a recent change of the
system related to the network, which might include introduction of new
equipment, removal of equipment, installment of a new service, address-
ing or protocol changes. Such a change can create problem in the network.
8. Implement a Solution. After finding the problem, a solution can be
implemented.

3.3.1 Network troubleshooting: An example

Perhaps one of the most common problem that a network troubleshooter faces
is the inability of the user to connect to the network or simply unable to
connect or access the network. This problem can be caused by a number
reasons (hardware and software) and situations (user error or changes in the
network infrastructure). The following set of initial information might help
the troubleshooter to identify the problem.

1. The time when the problem begins.

2. The user is only experiencing the problem or other users have the same
problem
3. The kind of error message that the user has received when the user tries
to log on.
4. The connection of the network cable - whether it is accidentally pulled
out.

162
 5. Whether anyone has worked with any other devices of the computer, for
example the sound card.

If the user answers all the above questions and mentions that someone
actually worked with the sound card while all the other answers do not point
to any problem. For example, the physical connection is perfect. Then the
troubleshooter can guess that a configuration change might have caused the
problem.

3.4 Exercise

3.4.1 Multiple Choice Question

1. A repeater is suited for-

a) Bus Topology
b) Ring Topology
c) Mesh Topology
d) Start Topology

2. Which of the followings is a layer 2 device.

a) Repeater
b) Hub
c) Bridge
d) All of the above

3. Which of the followings is a layer 3 device.

a) Hub
b) Bridge
c) Switch
d) Router

3.4.2 Analytical Question

1. Write short notes on the followings:

– Network Interface Card (NIC)

163
 – Hub
– Bridge
– Router

2. Explain the steps for troubleshooting network problems.

164
 Answer to the Multiple Choice Question

Unit 1

Lesson 1 1(c), 2(b)

Lesson 2 1(b), 2(c), 3(c), 4(b)

Unit 2

Lesson 1 1(b), 2(d)

Lesson 2 1(a), 2(b)

Unit 3

Lesson 1 1(b), 2(a)

Lesson 2 1(d), 2(a), 3(b), 4(b), 5(a)

Unit 4

Lesson 1 1(a), 2(d), 3(c)

Lesson 2 1(b), 2(c), 3(d)

Unit 5

Lesson 1 1(d), 2(a), 3(c)

Lesson 2 1(a), 2(c), 3(b), 4(b), 5(d)

165
Unit 6

Lesson 1 1(a), 2(d)

Lesson 2 1(a), 2(b)

Unit 7

Lesson 1 1(d), 2(d), 3(a)

Lesson 2 1(b), 2(d), 3(b)
Lesson 3 1(c), 2(c), 3(a)

Unit 8

Lesson 1 1(d), 2(b)

Lesson 2 1(a), 2(b), 3(d)
Lesson 3 1(c), 2(a)

Unit 9

Lesson 1 1(c), 2(a)

Lesson 2 1(b), 2(d)
Lesson 3 1(a), 2(c), 3(d)

166
Further Reading
1. Mark Minasi, Faithe Wempen and Quentin Docter. The Complete PC Upgrade
and Maintenance Guide (16th Edition). Sybex Publication, 2005.

2. Hans-Peter Messmer. The Indispensable PC Hardware Book (4th Edition).Published

by Addison-Wesley Professional, 2001.

3. Scott Mueller. Upgrading and Repairing PCs (22nd Edition). Que Publishing,
2015.

4. Mark L. Chambers. Build Your Own PC Do-It-Yourself For Dummies, 1st

Edition. Published by: For Dummies, 2011.

5. Peter Norton. Introduction to Computers, 6th edition. McGraw-Hill, 2005.

6. Morris Rosenthal. Computer Repair with Diagnostic Flowcharts, Third Edi-

tion. Foner Books, 2013.

7. Winn L Rosch. The Winn L. Rosch Hardware Bible, 6th Edition. Que Pub-
lishing, 2003.

167