SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION (SCADA)

Introduction
- In modern manufacturing and industrial processes, mining industries, public and private
utilities, leisure and security industries telemetry is often needed to connect equipment and
systems separated by large distances.
- Control system architecture can range from simple local control to highly redundant distributed
control. The SCADA system applies to facilities that are large enough that a central control
system is necessary.
- SCADA refers to the combination of telemetry and data acquisition. It encompasses the
collecting of the information, transferring it back to the central site, carrying out any necessary
analysis and control and then displaying that information on a number of operator screens or
displays. The required control actions are then conveyed back to the process.
- SCADA is a widely distributed computerized system primarily used to remotely control and
monitor the conditions of field based assets from a centralized location.
- The PLC is still one of the most widely used control systems in industry. As need to monitor
and control more devices in the plant grew, the PLCs were distributed and the systems
became more intelligent and smaller in size. PLCs and DCS (distributed control systems) are
used

Components of a SCADA system

- SCADA encompasses the transfer of data between a SCADA central host computer and
number of remote sites (RTU) and the central host and the operator terminals.
- The figure below shows a generic SCADA system that employs data multiplexing (MUX)
between the central host and the RTU.

- SCADA system consist of:

1. Remote terminal unit (RTU): They are primarily used to convert electronic signals received
from field devices into (or from) the language (known as the communication protocol) used to
transmit the data over a communication channel.
- It connects to sensors in the process, converting data to the supervisory system.
- PLC used as field devices because they are more economical, versatile, flexible and
configurable than special-purpose RTU’s
- RTU gathers data from field devices (pump, valves alarms etc) in memory, until the MTU
(master terminal unit) initiates a second command.

2. Communication network / system – used to transfer data between field data interface
devices and control units and the computers in the SCADA host computer (MTU)
- This is intended to provide the means by which data can be transferred between the central
host computer server and field based RTU.
- Communication network refers to the equipments needed to transfer data to and from different
sites.
- The medium used can either be cable, telephone or radio
- The way the SCADA system network (topology) is set up can vary with each system but there
must be uninterrupted, bidirectional communication between the MTU and the RTU for a
SCADA or data acquisition system (DAS) to function properly.
- This can be accomplished in various way i.e private wire lines, underground cables, telephone
radio, modern, microwave dishes, satellite and other atmospheric means and many times,
system employ more than one means of communicating to the remote site.
- Communication systems used for SCADA are often split into two distinct part: WAN and LAN.
- The interface between the two parts is commonly achieved through some form of multiplexing.
- Multiplexing allows different data streams to share single data link. It combines communication
paths to and from many RTUs into a single bit stream, usually using Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM).
- It may itself be a SCADA processing device that manages the local network and not only
combines data, but also reduces the amount of data that be interchanged within the central
host.

3. Central computer or master terminal unit (MTU)

- It is defined as the master or heart of a SCADA system and is located at the operator’s central
control facility.
- Most often it is a single computer or a network of computer servers that provide a man-
machine operator interface to the SCADA system.
- The computers process the information received from or sent to the RTU sites and present it
to human operator in a form that the operators can work with.
- Operators terminals are connected to the central host computer by a computer network so
that the viewing screens end associated data can be displayed for the operator.
- Some examples of the types of display screens offered by most systems include:
 System overview pages displaying the entire system often summarizing SCADA
sites that might be faulty
 Site mimic screens for each individual RTU location showing up to the minute site
information
 Alarm summary pages displayed current alarms and other types of alarms in which
have been acknowledged or not
 Trend screens enabling the operator to display the behaviour of a particular variable
over time.

4. Human machine interface (HMI)

- It is the apparatus which present process data to a human operator, and through which the
human operator controls the process.
- This displays this information in an easily understood graphical form, a rehives the data
received, transmit alarms and permit operator control as required.
- The HMI is essentially a PC system running powerful graphic and alarm software programs.
- It is usually linked to the SCADA system’s database and software programs, to provide
trending, diagnostic data and information management.

5. SCADA software
- SCADA software can be divided into two types: open and proprietary.
- Proprietary software often is configured for a specific hardware platform and may not
interface with the software or hardware produced by competing vendors.
- Commercial off-the shelf (COTS)/open software are more flexible, and will interface with
different types of hardware and software.
- The focus of proprietary software is on process and control functionality while COTS software
emphasizes on compatibility with a variety of equipment and instrumentation.
- Software products typically used within a SCADA system are as follows:-
  Central host computer operating system:- software used to control the central
host computer hardware.
 Operator terminal operating system – Software used to control the central host
computer hardware at the operators terminal. It contributes to the networking of the
central host and operator’s terminal.
 Applications – They are of two types; central host computer application and
operator terminal applications. These handles transmitted and reception of data to
and from the RTU and central computer. It also provides the GU/ which offers mimic
screens, alarm pages trend.
 Communication protocol drives: - required to control the translation and
interpretation of the data between ends of the communication links in the systems.

How does SCADA Work

- SCADA is a computer system for gathering and analyzing real time data
- The ability to monitor the entire control system in real time is facilitated by data acquisition
including meter reading and checking status of sensors that are communicated at standard
intervals depending on the system.
- The collected field data is transmitted through a communication network to the master terminal
unit which the data is processed.
- The MTU monitors and control data from various field devices (sensor) that are either in close
proximity or off site.
- Thus in summary, the SCADA system perform the following four functions:
 Data acquisition
 Networked data communication
 Data presentation
 Control

Data acquisition
- This is the process of sampling signals that measure real world physical conditions and
converting the resulting samples into digital numerical values that can be manipulated by a
computer.
- Data acquisition within SCADA system is accomplished first by the RTU scanning the field
data interface devices connected to the RTU.
- The time to perform this task is called the scanning internal. The MTU scans RTU to access
data in the process referred to as polling the RTU.
- Some systems allow the RTU to transmit field values and alarms to the central host without
being processed by the central host.
- The components of data acquisition systems include:
 Sensors that converts physical parameters to electrical signals
 Signal conditioning circuitry to convert sensor signals into a form that can be converted
to digital values e.g implication, alternation multiplexing.
 Analog to digital converters, which converts conditioned signals to digital values.
 Data acquisition hardware acts as the interface between the computer and the outside
world. It primarily functions as a device that digitizes incoming signal so that the computer
can interpret them.

Types of data acquisition systems (DAS)

These depend on type of communication protocol used.
i) Wireless data acquisition system: consist of one or more wireless transmission sending
data back to a wireless receiver connected to a remote computer.
 ii) Serial communication data acquisition system: are good choices when the
measurement needs to be made at a location which is distance from computer.
iii) USB DAS: The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a new standard for connecting P.C to
peripheral devices such as monitor, DAS.

Processing Data from the field

- Data can be of three main types:
i) Analog data (real numbers) which will be trended (placed in graphs)
ii) Digital data (ON/OFF) which may have alarms attached to one state or the other
iii) Pulse data (e.g. counting revolution of a meter) is analog data normally accumulated or
counted such data are treated within the SCADA operator terminal software displays as
analog data and may be trended.
- Data from the field are processes to detect alarm conditions, and if alarm is predicted, it will
be displayed on dedicated alarm list on the application software running on the central host
computer.
- Where variables in the field have been changing over time, the SCADA system usually offers
a trending system where the behaviour of a particular variable can be plotted on a GUI screen
(graphical user interface screen).

Tasks in SCADA system

i) Input/output task – This program is the interface between the control and monitoring
system and plant floor.
ii) Alarm task – this manages all alarms by detecting digital alarm point and comparing the
values of analog alarm points to alarm thresh hold.
NB: SCADA can be seen as a system with many data elements called points. Each point
is a monitor or sensor and there points can be either soft or hard. Hard data points can
be on actual monitor; soft point can be application or software calculation. Data elements
from hand and soft points are usually always recorded and logged to create a time stamp
or history.
iii) Trend task: it collects data to be monitored over time.
iv) Report task – Reports are produced from plant data. These reports are periodic, event
triggered or activated by the operator.
v) Display task – manages all data to be monitored by the operator and all control actions
requested.
Application of SCADA system
- In essence, SCADA application has two elements:-
i) The process/system/machinery needed to be monitored or controlled: - This can take the
form of a power plant, water system, network, traffic light system.
ii) A network of intelligent devices that interfaces with the first system through sensors and
control output. This network, which is the SCADA system, gives the capability to measure
and control specific elements of the first system.
- SCADA systems control are used in the following industries
i) Manufacturing: SCADA system manages parts inventories, regulate industrial
automation and robots, and monitor process and quality control.
ii) Traffic signals: SCADA regulates traffic lights, controls traffic flow and detects out of
order signals.
iii) Electric power generation, transmission and distribution: Electric utilities use SCADA
system to detect current flow and line voltage, monitor the operation of circuit breakers,
and to take sections of the power grid outline or offline.
iv) Building, facilities and environment: Facility managers use SCADA to control HVAC,
refrigeration units lighting and entry systems.
 v) Water and Sewage: state and municipal water utilities use SCADA to monitor and
regulate water flow, reservoir levels and pipe pressure.
vi) Mass transit: transit authorities use SCADA to regulate electricity to subways, trains and
trolley buses, to automate traffic signals for rail system; to track and locate trains and
buses; and to control rail road – crossing gates.

Benefits of SCADA
i) Improved operation of the plant or process resulting in savings due to optimization of the
system.
ii) Reduces the operating and maintenance cost hence maximize the profits.
iii) Maximize productivity, ensure continuous production and increased productivity of the
personnel.
iv) Improved safety of the system due to better information and improved control.
v) Protection of the plant equipment.
vi) Safeguarding the environment from a failure of the system.
vii) Enhances reliability and robustness of critical industrial processes.
viii) Improved energy savings due to optimization of the plant.
ix) Improved and quicker receipt of data so that clients can be invoiced more quickly and
accurately.
x) Government regulations for safety and metering of gas (for royalties & tax etc).

Creating a functional SCADA system

(i) Phase 1: The DESIGN of the system architecture includes the communication system. Also
involved in this initial phase will be any site instrumentation that is not currently in existence,
but will be required to monitor desired parameters. Design stage translate the design basis
document into a system design and document the design clearly and completely so that it can
be constructed properly, commissioned completely, and operated and maintained reliably and
efficiently.
(ii) Phase 2: The SUPPLY of RTU, communication, and HMI equipment, which consists of a PC
system and the required powerful graphic and alarm software programs.
(iii) Phase 3: The PROGRAMMING of the communication equipment and the powerful HMI
graphic and alarm software programs.
(iv) Phase 4: The INSTALLATION of the communication equipment and the PC system. The
stage involves installing and placing into operation the SCADA system hardware and software
in compliance with the design documents.
(v) Phase 5: The COMMISSIONING of the system, where communication and HMI programming
problems are solved, and the system is proven to the client, and operator training and system
documentation is provided. Commissioning is the formal process of verifying and documenting
that the installed SCADA system complies with and performs in accordance with the design
intent, as defined in the design documentation

Design approaches/strategies for SCADA system

Local control system
- It describes a system architecture in which sensors, controllers and controlled equipments are
within close proximity and the scope of each controller is limited to a specific system or sub-
system.
- Local controllers are typically capable of accepting inputs from a supervisory controller to
initiate or terminate locally.
- Controlled automatic sequence, or to adjust control set points, but the control action itself is
determined in the local controller.

a) Local b) Centralized

Centralized control system

- Describes a system in which all sensors, actuators and other equipment within the facility are
connected to a single controller or a group of controllers located in a common control room.
- This type was common for power plants and other facilities using single-loop controllers.

Distributed control system

- It offers the best features of both local control and centralized control.
- In a DCS, controllers are provided locally to systems or group of equipment but networked to
one or more operator stations in a central location through a digital communication circuit.
- Control action for each system or subsystem takes place in a local controller but the central
operator station has complete visibility of the status of all systems and the input and output
data in each controller, as well as the ability to intervene in the control logic of the local
controller if necessary.
- In a DSC, data acquisition and control functions are performed by a number of distributed
micro-processor-based units, situated near to the devices being controlled or the instrument
from which data is being gathered.
- Input and output wiring runs are short and less vulnerable to physical description or electro-
magnetic interference.
- The data highway is normally capable of high speed
User Configurable Open System (UCOS)
UCOS is a control system that employs object-oriented techniques at every level of its system
architecture. It includes a number of subsystems which segment the functionality of UCOS.
This includes an Engineering Workstation Subsystem, an Operator Workstation Subsystem,
and a Field Control Unit (FCU) Controller Subsystem. The subsystems communicate via a
Control Network.
 Engineering Workstation (EWS) used for project development. The EWS is the
development tool where control schemes are configured then downloaded to the OWS,
FCU, and SDS. The entire project is configured using a single integrated tool based on
graphical Windows standards. Graphical techniques are also used to define the logical
relationships among the devices in a process area. Project configuration begins by defining
the system architecture: workstations, field control units (FCUs), I/O, networking, etc.
Graphical techniques are also used to define the logical relationships among the control
elements for multiple devices.
 Operator Workstation (OWS) for operator interface. This is used to monitor and control
the process. It uses the project screens created during project development and animates
them based on real-time data received from field control units and field data servers.
Authorized operators can monitor detailed activities for many types of devices and send
commands using standard faceplate command windows and group displays.
 Field Control Unit (FCU) for control logic execution and direct scanning of I/O. The FCU
provides I/O services by monitoring and controlling I/O across standard networks and data
highways. The FCU can provide simultaneous support for multiple vendors’ I/O and I/O
networks. The variety of platform and form-factor options supported by the FCU allows
incorporation of distributed, distinct I/O subsystems into common control strategies.
  Control Network. System supports redundant and non-redundant fiber optic and Ethernet
local networks using the TCP/IP networking protocol for standardized, advanced application
connectivity. The LAN/WAN can be extended to other sites inside or outside the plant using
such remote communications technologies as satellite, radio, microwave, and dial-up
running such standard protocols as TCP/IP, Modbus, OPC, DDE
 I/O Subsystem supporting I/O from all industry standard suppliers. The same logic can be
solved to manipulate different I/O subsystems from different manufacturers without having
to change any of the programming or operational parameters of the configured system.
 SCADA Data Server (SDS) for interfacing data from intelligent devices, such as PLCs,
Fieldbus technologies, RTUs, PLC I/O, and other third-party devices
 Process Historical Archiver (PHA) for storing and retrieving historical data collected by
the FCU, SDS or any other intelligent device in the system
 microFCU: is a small, low-powered PLC that executes sequential and regulatory logic and
directly scans onboard I/O. It can replace RTUs at a significant reduction in cost and power
consumption – plus it can provide local intelligent control of devices, which RTUs can't do.

SCADA SECURITY / ACCESS CONTROL

- Access control is the selective restriction to access to a plant/place or other resources. Hence
the security access control is the act of ensuring that an authenticated user accesses only
what they are authorized to and no more.
- SCADA systems are used to control and monitor physical processes, however the security of
these system is important because compromise or destruction of these system may impact
multiple areas of society or industries.
- It is important to be able to detect possible attacks and respond in an appropriate manner in
order to minimize the impacts.
 Protect: Deploying specific protection measures to prevent and discourage electronic
attack against the process control systems.
  Detect: Establishing mechanisms for rapidly identifying actual or suspected electronic
attacks.
 Respond: Undertaking appropriate action in response to confirmed security incidents
against the process control systems.

Defence in Depth
- Where a single protection measure has been deployed to protect a system, there is a risk that
if a weakness in that measure is identified and exploited there is effectively no protection
provided.
- No single security measure itself is foolproof as vulnerabilities and weaknesses could be
identified at any point in time. In order to reduce these risks, implementing multiple protection
measures in series avoids single points of failure.
- In order to safeguard the process control system from electronic attacks (e.g. hackers, worms
and viruses), it may be insufficient to rely on a single firewall, designed to protect the corporate
IT network.
- A much more effective security model is to build on the benefits of the corporate firewall with
an additional dedicated process control firewall and deploy other protection measures such
as anti-virus software and intrusion detection

Remote access
- Maintain an inventory of all remote access connections and types (e.g. virtual private network
or modems).
- Ensure that a valid business justification exists for all remote access connections and keep
remote connections to a minimum.
- Implement appropriate authentication mechanisms (e.g. strong authentication) for remote
access connections.
- Implement appropriate procedures and assurance mechanisms for enabling and disabling
remote access connections.
- Ensure that remote access computers are appropriately secured (e.g. anti-virus, anti- spam
and personal firewalls).

Anti-virus:
- Protect process control systems with anti-virus software on workstations and servers.
- Where anti-virus software cannot be deployed other protection measures should be
implemented (e.g. gateway anti-virus scanning or manual media checking)

E-mail and Internet access

- Disable all email and internet access from process control systems.

System hardening
- Undertake hardening of process control systems to prevent network based attacks.
- Remove or disable unused services and ports in the operating systems and applications to
prevent unauthorized use.
- Understand what ports are open and what services and protocols used by devices (especially
embedded devices such as PLCs and RTUs). This could be established by a port scan in a
test environment. All unnecessary ports and services should be disabled (e.g. embedded web
servers).
- Ensure all inbuilt system security features are enabled.
- Where possible restrict the use of removable media (e.g. CDs, floppy disks, USB memory
sticks etc.) and if possible removable media should not be used. Where it is necessary to use
 removable media then procedures should be in place to ensure that these are checked for
malware prior to use.

Backups and recovery

- Ensure effective backup and recovery procedures are in place, and are appropriate for the
identified electronic and physical threats. These should be reviewed and regularly tested.
- Test the integrity of backups regularly through a full restore process. Store backups at on and
off site locations.
- Media should be transported securely and stored in appropriately secure locations.

Physical security
- Deploy physical security protection measures to protect process control systems and
associated networking equipment from physical attack and local unauthorized access.
- A combination of protection measures is likely to be required which could include, drive locks,
tamper proof casing, secure server rooms, access control systems and CCTV.

Security patching
- Implement processes for deployment of security patches to process control systems.
- These processes should be supported by deployment and audit tools.
- The processes should make allowance for vendor certification of patches, testing of patches
prior to deployment and a staged deployment process to minimize the risk of disruption from
the change.
- Where security patching is not possible or practical, alternative appropriate protection
measures should be considered.

Personnel background checks

- Ensure all staff with operational or administration access to process control systems are
appropriately screened.

Passwords and accounts

- Implement and enforce a password policy for all process control systems that cover strength
of passwords and expiration times.
- It is recommended that passwords are changed frequently, but where this is not possible or
practical, alternative appropriate protection should be considered.
- Regularly review all access rights and decommission old accounts.
- Where possible change vendor passwords from default settings.
- Passwords may not be deemed necessary for some functions (e.g. view only mode).
- Consider stronger authentication methods for critical functions.
Document security framework
- Document a full inventory of the process control systems and components.
- Document the framework that provides the security for the process control systems and
regularly review and update to reflect current threats.
- This document should include details of the risk assessments, assumptions made, known
vulnerabilities and security protection measures deployed.
- Ensure all process control system documentation is secured and access limited to authorized
personnel
Topic 4: INDUSTRIAL COMMUNICATION NETWORK

Introduction
- Industrial communication refers to the wide range of hardware and software products and
protocols used to communicate between standard computer platforms and devices used in
industrial automation.
- Although a communication circuit can involve only two pieces of equipment with a circuit
between them, the term network typically refers to connecting many devices together to permit
sharing of data between devices over a single or redundant circuit.
- The industrial automation systems are often implemented as an open distributed architecture
with communication over digital communication networks.
- It is now common for users connected to a local area network to communicate with computers
or automation devices on other local area networks via gateways linked by a wide area
network.
- As the industrial automation systems becomes large and the number of automation devices
increases, it has become very important for industrial automation to provide standards which
make it possible to interconnect many different automation devices in a standard way.
- Considerable international standardization efforts have been made in the area of local area
networks. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) standards permit any pair of automation
devices to communicate reliably regardless of the manufacturer.
- By definition, an industrial network requires geographical distribution of the physical
measurement I/O and sensors or functional distribution of applications. Most industrial
networks transfer bits of information serially.
- Serial data transfer has the advantage of requiring only a limited number of wires to exchange
data between devices. With fewer wires, we can send information over greater distances.
Because industrial networks work with several devices on the same line, it is easier to add a
new device to existing systems.
- To make all this work, our network must define a set of rules – a communication protocol -
- to determine how information flows on the network of devices, controllers, PCs, and so on.
- With improved communication protocols, it is now possible to reduce the time needed for the
transfer, ensure better data protection, and guarantee time synchronization, and real-time
deterministic response in some applications.
- Industrial networks also ensure that the system sends information reliably without errors and
securely between nodes on the network.

Network levels
- The industrial automation systems can be very complex, and it is usually structured into
several hierarchical levels. Each of the hierarchical level has an appropriate communication
level, which places different requirements on the communication network.
- Industrial networks may be classified in several different categories based on functionality:
field-level networks (sensor, actuator or device buses), control-level networks (control buses)
and information-level networks
Field level
- The lowest level of the automation hierarchy is the field level, which includes the field devices
such as actuators and sensors.
- The elementary field devices are sometimes classified as the element sublevel. The task of
the devices in the field level is to transfer data between the manufactured product and the
technical process.
- The data may be both binary and analogue. Measured values may be available for a short
period of time or over a long period of time. For the field level communication, parallel, multi-
wire cables, and serial interfaces such as the 20mA current loop has been widely used from
the past.
- The serial communication standards such as RS232C, RS422, and RS485 are most
commonly used protocols together with the parallel communication standard IEEE488.
- Those point-to-point communication methods have evolved to the bus communication
network to cope with the cabling cost and to achieve a high quality communication.
- Field-level industrial networks are a large category, distinguished by characteristics such as
message size and response time.
- In general, these networks connect smart devices that work cooperatively in a distributed,
time-critical network. They offer higher-level diagnostic and configuration capabilities
generally at the cost of more intelligence, processing power, and price.
- At their most sophisticated, fieldbus networks work with truly distributed control among
intelligent devices like FOUNDATION Fieldbus.
- Common networks included in the devicebus and fieldbus classes include CANOpen,
DeviceNet, FOUNDATION Fieldbus, Interbus-S, LonWorks, Profibus-DP, and SDS.
- Nowadays, the fieldbus is often used for information transfer in the field level. Due to timing
requirements, which have to be strictly observed in an automation process, the applications
in the field level controllers require cyclic transport functions, which transmit source
information at regular intervals.
- The data representation must be as short as possible in order to reduce message transfer
time on the bus.

Control Level
- At the control level, the information flow mainly consists of the loading of programs,
parameters and data.
- In processes with short machine idle times and readjustments, this is done during the
production process. In small controllers it may be necessary to load subroutines during one
manufacturing cycle.
- This determines the timing requirements. It can be divided into two: cell and area sublevels.

i) Cell sublevel:
- For the cell level operations, machine synchronizations and event handlings may require short
response times on the bus. These real-time requirements are not compatible with time
excessive transfers of application programs, thus making adaptable message segmentation
necessary.
- In order to achieve the communication requirements in this level, local area networks have
been used as the communication network. After the introduction of the CIM concept and the
DCCS concept, many companies developed their proprietary networks for the cell level of an
automation system.
- The Ethernet together with TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/internet protocol) was
accepted as a de facto standard for this level, though it cannot provide a true real-time
communication.
- Many efforts have been made for the standardization of the communication network for the
cell level.
- The IEEE standard networks based on the OSI layered architecture were developed and the
Mini-MAP network was developed to realize a standard communication between various
devices from different vendors. Some fieldbuses can also be used for this level.

ii) Area sublevel:

- The area level consists of cells combined into groups. Cells are designed with an application-
oriented functionality.
- By the area level controllers or process operators, the controlling and intervening functions
are made such as the setting of production targets, machine startup and shutdown, and
emergency activities.

- Control-level networks are typically used for peer-to-peer networks between controllers such
as programmable logic controllers (PLCs), distributed control systems (DCS), and computer
systems used for human-machine interface (HMI), historical archiving, and supervisory
control.
- Control buses are used to coordinate and synchronize control between production units and
manufacturing cells.
- Typically, ControlNet, PROFIBUS-FMS and (formerly) MAP are used as the industrial
networks for controller buses.
- In addition, we can frequently use Ethernet with TCP/IP as a controller bus to connect upper-
level control devices and computers.

Information level
- The information level is the top level of a plant or an industrial automation system.
- The plant level controller gathers the management information from the area levels, and
manages the whole automation system.
- At the information level there exist large scale networks, e.g. Ethernet WANs for factory
planning and management information exchange.
- Ethernet networks are used as a gateway to connect other industrial networks.
- With respect to management Information System Communication in automated system, there
are three types of networks used:
o Local Area Network (LAN)
o Wide Area Network (WAN)
o Metropolitan area network (MAN)

1) Local Area Network (LAN)

- These types of networks connect network devices over a relatively short distance.
- Quite often, a networked office building, home or school contains a single LAN although it is
normal to come across a building that contains a few small LANs.
- On a few occasions, a LAN may also span over a group of nearby buildings. Such
networks are usually owned by one organization.
- It interconnects computers and filed devices/peripherals over a common medium so users
might share access to host computers, database, files, applications and peripherals.
- The following characteristics differentiate one LAN from another
o Topology – The geometric arrangement of devices on the network e.g. star, ring etc.
o Protocols – The rules and encoding specifications for sending data. The protocol also
determines whether the network uses peer to peer or client/server architecture.
o Medium/media – Devices can be connected by twisted pain wire, coaxial cable, or fibre
optic cables. Some networks do without connecting media instead communicate
through radio waves.

2) Wide Area Network (WAN)

- WAN is a data communication network that covers a relatively broad geographical area and
often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers e.g telephone companies.
- WAN technologies generally function at the lower layers of the OSI reference model (Open
system Interconnection) the physical layer, data link layer and network layer.
- It’s used to connect LANs and other types of networks together so that users and computers
in one location can communicate with users and computers in other location.
- LANs are connected to a WAN through a device referred to as a router. In IP networking, both
the LAN and WAN addresses are maintained by the router.
- Most WANs exist under distributed or collective ownership and management and unlike the
LANs, are not necessarily owned by one organization.

3) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

- This is a network that spans over a physical area like a city that is smaller than a WAN but
larger than a LAN.
- Quite often, such computer networks are owned and operated by single entities such as
government bodies or large corporations

4) Controller Area Network (CAN)

- The CAN protocol is a priority based bus network using a career sense multiple Access with
collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) medium access scheme.
- In this protocol, any station can access the bus when ever it becomes idle.
- This is a communication protocol specification that defines parts of the OSI physical and data
link layer. It meets real-time requirements encountered in any industries. The network
protocol can detect and correct transmission errors caused by electromagnetic interference
- It is suitable for industrial applications because:
o Low cost
o Suitability for harsh electrical environment
o Good real-time capabilities
o Ease of configuration
- CAN is particularly well suited to networking smart I/O devices sensors and actuators either
in a single machine or plant.

Networks Models/Layers
- Network model defines a set of network layer and how they interact. There are several
different network models depending on what organization/industry want.
- The most important are:
i) The TCP / IP model
ii) OSI network model
1. The TCP/IP model
- TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the basic communication
language or protocol of the Internet. It can also be used as a communications protocol in a
private network (either an intranet or an extranet).
- TCP/IP is the de facto global standard for the Internet (network) and host–to–host (transport)
layer implementation of internet work applications because of the popularity of the Internet.
- The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet) is a layer protocol where it defines 4
layers’

i) Network access/interface layer

- It provides access to the physical-network. The purpose of a network interface is to allow your
PC to in order to access the wireless or fiber-optic network-infrastructure & send data to other
computer systems.
- Its main function is to connect host and devices using some protocol so that data or IP packet
can transmit over it.

ii) Internet layer

- Internet Layer provides connectionless communication across one or more networks. It is
concerned with network-to-network communication. This layer is responsible for addressing
& routing of data on the network.
- It is used to allow hosts to insert packets into any network and have them to deliver
independently to the destination.
- It specifies an official packet format and protocol known on internet protocol. Packet routing
is very essential task in order to avoid congestion.

iii) Transport layer

- It provides the means for the transport of data segments across the Internet-layer. It is
concerned with end-to-end communication.
- This layer sends the data to the internet-layer when transmitting & sends data to the
Application-layer when receiving.
- It specifies 2 end-to-end protocol; TCP and UDP (Transmission Control Protocol and user
datagram protocol).
o TCP is a reliable connection – oriented protocol that permits a byte stream originating
on one machine to be transported without error on any machine in the internet.
o UDP is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that do not want TCPs
sequencing on flow control and wish to offer their own.

iv) Application layer

- It provides the user with the interface to communication. This Application layer is where web
browser, TELNET, FTP, email, or other client application runs. This layer sends to & receives
data from the transport-layer
o The virtual terminal protocol (VTP) permits a user on one machine to log into a
distant machine and work there.
o The file transfer protocol (FTP) permits a user on one machine to log into a distant
machine and work there. It offers a way to more data efficiently from one machine to
another.
o Electronic mail (simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) sends emails to other
computers that support the TCP/IP protocol.
Advantages TCP/IP model:
• It can be used to establish/set up connection b/w different types of computers.
• It operates/works independently of the operating system.
• It support for a number of routing-protocols.
• It enables the internetworking between the organizations.
• It has a scalable, client-server architecture.
Disadvantages:
• It is complex to set up & manage.
• Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) is faster than TCP/IP model.
• The shallow/overhead of TCP/IP is higher-than IPX.

2. OSI network model

- Developed by international standards organization (ISO) to standardize protocols used in
version (TCP/IP) layers.
- The model is known as the OSI (open systems interconnectivity) reference model
because it is related with connecting open system i.e. systems that are open for
communication with other system.
- It describes seven layers as they relate to one host computer communicating to another host
computer.

i) Physical layer
- This is the lowest layer which describes the way actual data in the form of symbols that are
sent over a medium such as copper wire or fibre optic cabling. Item like signal level symbol
representation and connector pinout are defined at this layer. The main functions are
a) Hardware specification – the details of the physical cables, network interface cards,
wireless radios etc are part of this layer.
b) Encoding and signaling – How are the bits encoded in the medium is also decided by
this layer.
c) Data transmission and reception: the transfer of each bit of data and assures the
transmission of each bit with a high probability.
d) Topology and network design: the type of network topologies to be used and which part
of the network in the routes going to be placed, where the switches will be used etc.

ii) Data link layer

- This layer provides reliable transmission of a packet by using the services of the physical layer
which transmits bits over the medium in an unreliable fashion.
- It maintains a reliable connection between adjacent nodes or stations over a physical channel
- To distinguish one from another, a method of node addressing must be defined.
- To ensure only one node has access at any one time, a method of medium access control
(MAC) must be implemented.
- Information sent over the data link layer is called frames. This layer is concerned with:
a) Framing – breaking input data into frames and caring about the frame boundaries and
the size of each frame (a few hundred bytes)
b) Acknowledgement: sent by receiving end to inform the source that the frame was
received without any error.
c) Sequence numbering – to acknowledge which frame was received.
d) Error detection: the frames may be damaged lost or duplicated leading to errors. The
error control is on link to link basis.
e) Retransmission – The packet is retransmitted if the source fails to receive
acknowledgment.
f) Flow control – necessary for a fast transmitter to keep pace with a slow receiver.

iii) Network layer

- It is concerned with logical addressing process of nodes and routing schemes. The basic
functions of the layer are routing and congestion control.
- Routing deals with determining how packets will be routed (transferred) from source to
destination.
- Congestion control involves the control of packets minimizing dropping of packets,
transmitting fine and delays.
- It is required when communication must span multiple networks – interconnecting.

iv) Transport layer

- This layer is concerned with the variable transmission of messages sent between two host
computers.
- It is responsible for the end to end communication control. This is different from the data link
layer which only concerned with the transmission of frames.
- A message usually requires many – frames to be sent before the complete message can be
received.
- This requires fragmenting the message into many pieces to be re-assembled at the other end.
Missing fragments must be re-sent. The transport layer addresses this issue.
- Other functions are:-
o Multiplexing and de-multiplexing
o Error control mechanism on end to end basis
o Flow control – regulate flow of information
o Connection establishment / release.

v) Session layer
- The layer is concerned with the establishment and termination of communication sessions
between processors in host computers.
- It also ensures that the data transfer starts from where it breaks, keeping it transparent to the
end user.

vi) Presentation layer

- The presentation layer translates the format of data between sender and receiver.
- It is responsible for the data interpretation, which allows for inter- operability among different
equipments.

vii) Application layer

- This layer provides the services that are required by specific applications. It contains
application protocols with which the user gains access to the network.
- The choice of which specific protocols end their associated functions are to be used at the
application level is up to the individual user. For example commonly used protocols or HTTP(
for web browsing), FTP (or file transfer)
- HTTP – Hyper text transfer protocol – permits applications such as browser to upload and
download web pages.

Operation of OSI layer

- From the figure, if a node wants to sent a data packet from the application, it must first call for
the sending service of its application layer which in turn will call the sending function in the
next layer, and so on till the data is sent at the physical medium to other node.
- This node will reverse the sequence till the received data reaches the application. Layer of
its node then to the application which will use this data.
- Any communication system that is based on the OSI seven layer has high flexibility and
compatibility with product from different vendors.
- However OSI system is often too complex for network architecture hence has a considerable
overhead in both the communication and the processing.

- Strictly speaking, a network requires only layers 1, 2, and 7 of the protocol model to operate.
- In fact, many device bus networks use only these three layers. The other layers are added
only as more services are required (e.g., error-free delivery, routing, session control, data
conversion, etc.).
- Most of today’s local area networks contain all or most of the OSI layers to allow connection
to other networks and devices.

Advantages:
• It provides wide variety of choice.
• It does not depend or rely on a specific computer system.
• It interprets the product functionality at each-stage.
• It encrypts the data for security purpose.
• It is easy to add multiple-network models.

Disadvantages:
• Many applications do not require/need the data integrity, which is provided by OSI-model.
• In order to fast set up OSI requires agreement between three-parties: users & service
provider.
• Complex.
• This model is not adapted at all to telecommunication applications on computer.
3. Field bus model
- Due to complexity of the OSI model, modification has been done on the industrial networks,
where only three layers are left.
- The resulting fieldbus is referred to as a 3 – layer architecture. These layers are:-
o Application layer
o Data link layer
o Physical layer

- Several characteristics and functions in the data link layer are key to the distributed real time
control capabilities of fieldbus.
a) The data link layer is based on a token passing protocol.
b) The Link Active Scheduler (LAS) is a centralized device that acts as the arbitrator of the
bus.
c) The LAS executes a schedule that makes possible deterministic communication.
d) The LAS distributes time to the network to permit all devices to share the same sense of
time.
- The user application layer defines blocks that represent the functions and data available in a
device.
- Rather than interface to a device through a set of commands as commonly used with
communication protocols, fieldbus user interacts with device through a set of blocks that
define device capabilities in a standardized way.
- The data link layer has important aspect which is medium access control.

Medium Access Control (MAC)

- In a field bus or industrial network, several stations share the same communications media in
order to save wiring costs. However, since the medium is shared, not all devices can
communicate simultaneously.
- Therefore there must be rules to govern who gains access to the medium and those rules are
called medium access control (MAC). Thus MAC addresses identify network devices in LANS.
- This process of media access requires that each node be able to shut down its transmitter
without interfering with the network’s operation.
- This can be done in one of the following ways:
o with a modem that can turn off its carrier
o with a transmitter that can be set to a high independence state
o with a passive current-loop transmitter, wired in series with the other transmitters, that
shorts when inactive
- Although many access methods exist, the most commonly used ones are polling, collision
detection, and token passing.
 1) Polling
- The access method most often used in master/slave protocols is polling.
- In polling, the master interrogates, or polls, each station (slave) in sequence to see if it has
data to transmit. The master sends a message to a specific slave and waits a fixed amount of
time for the slave to respond.
- The slave should respond by sending either data or a short message saying that it has no
data to send. If the slave does not respond within the allotted time, the master assumes that
the slave is dead and continues polling the other slaves.
- Interslave communication in a master/slave configuration is inefficient, since polling requires
that data first be sent to the master and then to the receiving slave.
- Since master/slave configurations use this technique, polling is often referred to as the
master/slave access method.

2) Carrier Sense, Multiple Access (CSMA)

- The basic media access method that uses first-come-first served principle.
- It is probabilistic media access control (MAC) protocol in which a node verifies the absence
other traffic before transmitting on a shared transmission medium, such as an electrical bus
or a band of the electromagnetic spectrum.
- It is based on the principle sense before transmitting or ‘listen before talk’.
- CSMA/CD collision detection – performance by terminating transmission as soon as a
collision detected, thus shortening the time required before a retry can be attempted.
- This method handles collision as they occur, but if the bus is constantly busy, collision can
occur so often that performance drops drastically. Thus this method works well as long as the
network does not have an excessive amount of traffic.
- CSMA/CA collision avoidance – is used to improve the performance by attempting to be
less ‘greedy’ on the channel.
- If the channel is sensed busy before transmission then the transmission is differed for a
random interval.
- If the channels sensed ‘idle’ then the station is permitted to transmit. Once the channel is
clear a station sends a signal telling all other stations not to transmit, and then sends its
packet.

3) Token passing protocol

- With this approach, each participant to the network is guaranteed some time to transmit a
message on a permission basis.
- This permission occurs when a participant receives the one token that exist in the network
(token is a small frame)
- The token is passed from one participant to another in a circular fashion in what is called
logical ring.
- Once a participant receives the token, the participant must initiate a transmission or pair the
token to the next participant in an orderly fashion.
- The token is usually passed from one participant to another with the highest address
regardless of the next participant’s physical location.
- The participant with the highest address will pair the token to a participant with the lowest
address.
- It’s not necessary to have one master to hand out the token.
- Participant could be peer to one another and simply agree that they will not possess the token
for more time than previously agreed.
- Token passing networks are deterministic, which means that its possible to calculate the
maximum time that will pair before any end station will be capable of transmitting.
- Token ring networks are ideal for application, in which delays must be predictable and robust
network operation is important.
- Factory automation environment are examples of such applications.

Physical layer
Physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel.

Types of medium
Medium can be classified into two categories
a) Guided media – means that signals is guided by the presence of physical media i.e.
signals are under control and remains in the physical wire e.g. copper wire
b) Unguided media – means that there is no physical path for the signal to propagate. This
is done through electromagnetic waves.

Communication links
In a network nodes are connected through links.
The communication through links can be classified as
i) Simplex – communication can take place only in one direction e.g. radio, T.V
ii) Half duplex – communication can take place in one direction at a time. Suppose node
A and B are connected, then half duplex communication means that at a time data can
flow from A to B or from B to A but not simultaneously.
iii) Full duplex – communication can take place simultaneously in both direction mobile
phone.

Links can be further classified as

i) Point the point – in this communication only two nodes are connected to each other
side and non else.
ii) Multipoint – It is a kind of shaving communication in which signals can be received by
all nodes. This is also called broadcast.

Media standard
Industry standard for communications media define both the physical and electrical (or optical)
characteristics of both the conductors and the connectors used to mate them to communication
ports.

Some common network conductor, physical standards and then characteristics are listed below:-

Standard Conductor Connection Transmission Maximum Typical

designation type speed distance application
RS – 232 Copper M/C Point to point 265 kbps 15m Laptop comp
with a pin to PLC
connector
RS – 485 Copper UTP or Multi-drop 10 mbps 1000m PLC to field
STD devices
CAT 5 Copper UTP or Multi-drop 100 mbps Depends on PLC to PLC
STD protocol
RG 6 Copper coax Multi-drop 5 mbps 1000m PLC to PLC
video
Single mode Point to point 1 Gbps 50km No typical
fibre applications
 Multi-mode Point to point 1 Gbps 1000m PLC to control
fibre Room and
PLC to PLC

In guided transmission media, two kind of materials used:

I) Copper – twisted pair
Coaxial fibre
II) Optical fibre

Twisted pair
- Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors of a single circuit are twisted
together for the purposes of canceling out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external
sources.
- The wires are twisted together in a helical form and the purpose of twisting is to reduce
crosstalk interference between neighbouring pairs.
- Twisted pair is much cheaper than coaxial cable but it is susceptible to noise and
electromagnetic inference and attenuation is large.
- When electrical current flow through a wire, it creates a small, circular magnetic field around
the wire.
- When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, their magnetic fields are the
exact, opposite of each other.
- Thus the two magnetic fields cancel each other out. They also cancel out any outside
magnetic fields. Twisting the wires can enhance this cancellation effect.
- Twisted pair can be further classified into two categories:
o Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
o Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

i) Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

- UTP cable is a medium that is composed of pairs of wires and used in variety of networks.
- Each of the eight individual copper wires in UTP cable is covered by an insulating material.
In addition the wires in each pair are twisted around each other.
- UTP cable must follow precise specification governing how many twists or braids permitted
per meter of cable
- It is often installed using a registered Jack 45 (RJ 45) connector. The RJ-45 is an eight wire
connector used commonly to connect computers into a LAN especially Ethernets.
- When used as a networks, UTP cable has four pairs of either 22 – or 24 American wire gauge
(AWG) copper wire.
- UTP used as a networking medium has an impedance of 1000 ohms whereas for telephone
is 6000.
- Commonly used type of UTP cabling are as follows:-
i) Category (CAT 1) used for telephone communication. It is not suitable for transmitting data.
ii) Category 2 (CAT 2) capable of transmitting data at speed up to 4 megabits per sec (mbps)
iii) Category 3 (CAT 3) used in 10 BASE – T network. It can transmit data at speeds up to
10mbps, with a possible bandwidth of 16mhz.
iv) Category 4 (CAT 4) used in token ring, 10 BASE – T networks. It can transmit data at
speeds up to 16mbps and performance of up to 20mhz
 v) Category 5 (CAT 5). This type of cable is used in structured cabling for computer network
such as Ethernet. The cable standard provides performance of up to 100mhz and suitable
for 10 BASE-T, 100 BASE – TX(fast Ethernet) and 1000 BASE-T (Gigabit Ethernet)
vi) Category 5e (CAT 5e) – category 5 enhanced used in network running at speeds up to
1000 mbps (1Gbps) in category 6 (CAT 6) – consist of four pairs of 24 American wire gauge
(AWG) copper wire. It provides lower crosstalk, a higher signal to noise ratio, and are
suitable for 10 GBASE – T (10- Gigabit Ethernet)
vii) Category 6 (CAT 6) patch cable is normally terminated in 8P8C module connectors (RJ
45).
Category Speed Use

1 1 Mbps Voice Only (Telephone Wire)

2 4 Mbps LocalTalk & Telephone (Rarely used)
3 16 Mbps 10BaseT Ethernet
4 20 Mbps Token Ring (Rarely used)
100 Mbps (2 pair) 100BaseT Ethernet
5
1000 Mbps (4 pair) Gigabit Ethernet

5e 1,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet

6 10,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet

Connectors use either T568A or T568B pin assignment, although performance is comparable
provided both ends of a cable are the same. RJ45 or 8P8C connector is clipped from left to right
with the plastic latching tab facing away from the viewer. (8P8C – eight positions, eight
conductors)

PIN T568A T568B T568 A T568B

PAIR PAIR COLOUR COLOUR
1 3 2 White green White orange
2 3 2 Green Orange
3 2 3 White orange White green
4 1 1 Blue Blue
5 1 1 White blue White blue
6 2 3 Orange Green
7 4 4 White brown White green
8 4 4 Brown Brown
The following summarizes the features of UTP cable
- Speed and throughput – 10 – 1000 mbps
- Average cost per node – least expensive
- Media and connector size – small
- Maximum cable length – 100m (shout)

ii) Shielded twisted pair cable (STP)

- This cable combines the technique of shielding cancellation and wire twisting.
- Each pain of wire is wrapped in a metal foil. The foil pairs of wires are then wrapped in an
overall metallic braid or foil usually 150R cable.
- As specified for use in Ethernet network installation, STP reduces electrical noise both within
the cable (pair to pair coupling or cross talk) and from outside the cable (EMI or RFI).
- STP usually is installed wire STP data connector which is created especially for the STP cable
- However, STP cabling can also use the same RJ connector that UTP cable uses.
- Although STP prevents interference better than UTP, it is more expensive and difficult to
install.
- In addition, the metallic shielding must be grounded at both ends. If it’s improperly grounded,
the shield acts like an antennae and picks up unwanted signals.
- Because of its cost and difficulty with termination, STP is rarely used in Ethernet network.
- The feature of STP cable are:-
o Speed and throughput – 10 to 100 mbps
o Average cost per node – moderately expensive
o Media and connect to site – medium to large
o Maximum cable length – 100m (short)

2. Coaxial cable (coax)

- It consists of a hollow other cylindrical conductor that surround a single inner wire made of
two conducting elements.
- One of these elements, located in the centre of the cable is a copper conductor surrounding
the copper is a layer of flexible insulation.
- Over this insulating material is a woven copper braid or metallic foil that acts both as the
second wire in the circuit and as shield for the inner conductor.
- This second layer or shield can help reduce the amount of outside interference.
BNC connector
- The cable supports 10 to 100 mbps and relatively
cheap. It can be cabled over longer distances than the
twisted-pair cable.
- It lowers with variety of sizes; the largest diameter (1cm) is specified for use as Ethernet
backbone cable because it has greater transmission length and noise rejection
characteristics. Mostly referred as thicknet coaxial cable with outside diameter of 0.3cm is
thin net.
- The most common connectors used with thinnet are British Naval Connector (BNC) or
(Bayonet Neill Concelman)
- The basic BNC is a made type mounted at each end of a cable.
- This connector has T centre Pin connected to the centre cable conductor and a metal tube
connected to the outside cable shield.
- A rotating ring outside the tube locks the cable to any female connectors.

Optical fibre
- It’s a glass or plastic fibre designed to guide light along its length. The optic fiber therefore
acts as a conduit (or wave-guide) for pulses of light generated by a light source.
- The light source is typically either an injection laser diode (ILD) or LED operating at
wavelengths of 0.85, 1.2 or 1.5 µm (micrometers). The optic fiber is coated with a protective
colored sheath to provide stability and allow easy identification.
- Fibre optics is widely used in fibre optic communication, which permits transmission over
longer distance and at higher data rates.
- Light is kept in the core of the optical fibre by total interval reflection. This causes the fibre to
act as a wave guide.
- A transverse mode of a beam of electromagnetic radiation in a particular intensity pattern of
radiation measure in a plane perpendicular (i.e transverse) to the propagation direction of the
beam.
- Transverse modes occur because of boundary condition imposed on the wave by the wave
guide.
- Fiber optic cables offer the following advantages over other types of transmission media:
o Light signals are impervious to interference from EMI or electrical crosstalk
o Light signals do not interfere with other signals
o Optical fibers have a much wider, flatter bandwidth than coaxial cables and equalization
of the signals is not required
o The fiber has a much lower attenuation, so signals can be transmitted much further than
with coaxial or twisted pair cable before amplification is necessary
o Optical fiber cables do not conduct electricity and so eliminate problems of ground loops,
lightning damage and electrical shock
o Fiber optic cables are generally much thinner and lighter than copper cables
o Fiber optic cables have greater data security than copper cables

- Fibres which support only a single mode are called single mode fibre while fibres which
support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multimode fibre.

Single mode fibre

- It supports one confined transverse mode by which light can propagate along the fibre.
- They are used for most communication links longer than 200 metres single modem fibre is
used in many applications when data is sent at multi-frequent (WDM – wave division
multiplexing)
- So only one cable is needed.

Multimode fibre
- Multimode fibre supports many propagation path end generally have a larger diameter core.
- It is used for short distance communication links or for application when high power must be
transmitted.
- As each mode travels at its own propagation velocity, multimode fibre suffers from modal
dispersion which limits the maximum length a signal can be transmitted through it.
- There are two types:
i) Step Index multimode
ii) Graded Index multimode
i) Step Index Multimode fibre
- A refractive index profile characterized by a uniform refractive index within the core or a sharp
decrease in refractive Index at the core – clad interface.
- In a step index multimode fibre, rags of light are guided along the fibre core by total internal
reflection.
- Rays that meet the core-cladding boundary at a high angle, greater than the critical angle for
these boundaries are completely reflected.

ii) Graded Index multimode fibre

- An optical fibre whose core has a refractive index that decreases with increasing radial
distance from the fibre axis which causes light rays to follow sinusoidal path down the fibre.
- The resulting curved paths reduce multipath dispersion because high angle rays pass more
through the lower index periphery of the core, rather than the high – index centre.
- The idea index profile is very close to a parabolic relationship between the index and the
distance from the axis.

Wireless media
- Wireless media carry electromagnetic signal at radio and microwave frequencies that
represent the binary digits of data communications.
- Wireless networks are useful for the following situation:
o Spaces where cabling would be impossible or inconvenient
o Temporary installations.
- Transmission and reception are achieved using an antenna transmitter sends out the EM
signal into the medium. Receiver picks up the signal from the surrounding medium.
- Directional Transmission – Transmitter sends out a focused EM beam. Transmitter end
receiver antennae must be carefully aligned. It is more suitable for higher frequency signal.
- Omni directional transmission – Transmitted signals spread out in all directions. It may be
received by many antennae
- There are several ways of transmission
a) Radio – This is effective for short ranges and is in expensive and easy to install.
Depending on frequency radio offers different bandwidth. Wireless local area networks
use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio
technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable communication
between multiple devices in a limited area. IEEE 802.11 defines a common flavor of open-
standards wireless radio-wave technology known as Wifi.
Some of limitations are: can create interference with communication devices, susceptible
to eavesdropping.
b) Terrestrial microwave – two antennae are used for communication. A focused beam
emerges from an antennae and is received by the other antenna, provided that antenna’s
should be facing each other with no obstacle in between due to curvature of earth
terrestrial microwave can be used fro long distance communication with high bandwidth.
Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-based transmitters and receivers
resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the low-gigahertz range, which
limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately 48 km
(30 mi) apart.
 c) Satellites – satellite acts as a switch in sky. On earth VSAT (very small aperture terminal)
are used to transmit and receive data from satellite. Satellites communicate via microwave
radio waves, which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are
stationed in space, typically in geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km (22,000 mi) above the
equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data,
and TV signals.
d) Cellular radio technology: defined cellular service areas around a radio transreceiver
and computerized control. It uses several radio communications technologies. The
systems divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area has a low-
power transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next
area.
e) Infrared communication: can transmit signals for small distances, typically no more than
10 meters. In most cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits the physical
positioning of communicating devices.

Types of wireless network

- The IEEE and telecommunication industry standard for wireless data communications cover
both the data link and physical layers.
- For common data communication standards that apply to wireless media are:-
1. Standard IEEE 802.11- Commonly referred to as Wi-Fi, is a wireless LAN (WLAN) technology
that uses a contention or non deterministic system with a carrier sense multiple access /
collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) media access process
2. Standard IEEE 802:15 – Wireless Personnel Area Network (WPAN) standard, commonly
known as “Bluetooth’ uses a device pairing process to communicate over distances from 1 to
10 metres.
3. Standard IEEE 802.16 – Commonly known as WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access) uses a joint to multipoint topology to provide wireless broadband access.
4. Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) – includes physical layer specification
that enable the implementation of the layer 2 general packet radio service (GPRS) protocol to
provide data transfer over mobile cellular telephoning network.

The physical layer specification are applied to areas that include –

- Data to radio encoding
- Frequency and power transmission
- Signal reception and decoding
- Antenna design and construction

Wireless LAN
- A Common wireless data implementation is enabling devices to wirelessly connect via a LAN.
- In general, a wireless LAN requires the following network devices:-
a) Wireless access point (WAP) – concentrates the wireless signals from users and
connects usually through a copper cable, to the existing copper based network
infrastructure such as Ethernet.
b) Wireless NIC adapter – provides wireless communication capability to each network host.
- There are a number of WLAN Ethernet-based standards used:
o IEEE 802:11a - Operates in the 5 GHZ frequency band at speed of up to 54 mbps. It
covers smaller areas and less penetrating building structures.
o IEEE 802:11b - operates in the 2.4 GHZ frequency band at speed of up to 11mbps. It
has longer range and able to penetrate building structures.
o IEEE 802.11n – operates in 2.4 GHz frequency band ac data rates 100 to 210 mbps
with distance range of 70m.
 Standard Max Speed Typical Range
802.11a 54 Mbps 50 m
802.11b 11 Mbps 100m
802.11g 54 Mbps 100m
802.11n 100 Mbps 100m +

Advantages of wireless networks:

 Mobility - access can be available throughout industry or organization. More and more
businesses are also offering free WiFi access ("Hot spots").
 Fast setup - If your computer has a wireless adapter, locating a wireless network can be
as simple or will connect automatically to networks within range.
 Cost - Setting up a wireless network can be much more cost effective than buying and
installing cables.
 Expandability - Adding new nodes to a wireless network is as easy as turning the node
on (as long as you do not exceed the maximum number of devices).

Disadvantages of wireless networks:

 Security – susceptible to security breach. Protect sensitive data with backups, isolated
private networks, strong encryption and passwords, and monitor network access traffic to
and from wireless network.
 Interference - Because wireless networks use radio signals and similar techniques for
transmission, they are susceptible to interference from lights and electronic devices.
 Inconsistent connections - Because of the interference caused by electrical devices
and/or items blocking the path of transmission, wireless connections are not nearly as
stable as those through a dedicated cable.
 Speed - The transmission speed of wireless networks is improving; however, faster
options (such as gigabit Ethernet) are available via cables.

LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (LAN)

- LAN interconnects computer and devices over a common medium so users share access to
host computers, databases, files, applications and peripheral.
- The following characteristics differentiate one LAN from another.
o Topology
o Protocol
o Media
- The four primary devices used in LAN are:
o Hubs
o Bridges
o Switches
o Routers
- There devices operates on the following layers:
o OSI layer 1 (physical) – Hubs, repeaters. Hubs are considered to be multi-port
repeaters
o OSI layer 2 (data link) bridges switches
o OSI layer 3 (network) – routers.
- LAN transmits in three modes
i) Unicast – a single packet is sent from the source to a destination on a network. The source
node addresses the packet by using the network address of the destination node.
ii) Multi-cast – A single packet is copied and forwarded to a specific subset of nodes on the
network. The source node addresses the packet by using a multicast address. The packet
is then sent to the network, which makes copies of the packet and sends a copy to each
segment with a node that is part of the multicast address.
iii) Broadcast. This is the term used to describe communication where a piece of information is
sent from one joint to all other points. In this case there is just one sender, but the information
is sent to all connected receivers. Broadcast transmission is supported on most LANS and
may be used to send the same message to all computers on the LAN.

LAN Topologies
- A network topology is the basic design of a computer network.
- Networking is a collection of computers or other hardware devices that are connected together
either physically or logically, using special hardware and software, to allow them to exchange
information and cooperate.
- Topology which is a pattern of interconnection among nodes influences a networks cost and
performance.
- There are several topologies used:
o Point to point topology
o Bus topology
o Star topology
o Ring topology
o Mesh topology

1. Star topology
It is a physical topology in which a multiple nodes are connected to a central component
known as Hub. Signals are transmitted and received through the hub. The hub may actually
be a file server, central computer that contains a centralized file and control system with all its
nodes attached directly to the server.

Advantages
- Network runs even if one host fails
- More suitable for larger network
- It is easier to add or remove nodes, and to modify the cable layout
- Network administration and error detection is easier because is isolated to central node.

Disadvantages
- Installation costs are high because each node needs to be connected to the central switch
- If the hub fails the entire network fails
- Broadcasting and multicasting is not easy.
2. Bus topology
Bus consists of a single cable called a backbone that connects all workstation on the network
using a single line.
All transmissions must pass through each of the connected devices to complete the desired
request.
Each workstation has its own individual signal that identifies it and allows for the requested
data to be returned to the correct originator

Advantages
- Broadcasting and multicasting is much simpler
- It is simple and flexible
- It is easy to extend a bus topology by adding or removing nodes from a bus
- Least expensive since less amount of cabling is required and no network switches are
required.

Disadvantages
- Limited in size and speed
- There can be a security problem, since every node may see every message – even those that
are not destined for it , sniffing is easier
- Diagnosis / troubleshooting (fault-isolation), can be difficult, since the fault can be anywhere
along the bus.
- There is no automatic acknowledgment of messages, since messages get absorbed at the
end of the bus and do not return to the sender.
- The bus cable can be a bottleneck when network traffic gets heavy. This is because nodes
can spend much of their time trying to access the network.

3. Ring topology - All the nodes in a ring network are connected in a closed circle of cable
messages that are transmitted travel around the ring until they reach the computer that they
are addressed to the signal being refreshed by each node.
In a ring topology, the network signal is passed through each network card of each device and
passed on to the net device

Advantages
- Has minimum cable requirement
 - Each node can regenerate the signal
- Broadcasting and multicasting is simple since you just need to send out one message.
- The message can be automatically acknowledged.

Disadvantages
- Failure of one node brings the whole network down
- Diagnosis/troubleshooting (fault isolation is difficult)
- Adding or removing nodes disrupts the network

Mesh topology
This is a topology where each node must not only capture and disseminate its own data but also
serve as a relay for other nodes i.e. it must collaborate to propagate the data in the network.
A mesh network whose nodes are all connected to each other is a fully connected network.
Advantages
- Point to point line configuration makes identification and isolation of faults easy.
- Network can be easily expanded
- If one node fails, other continue to work
- It is more secure
Disadvantages
- Quite expensive due to cabling and installation cost is high.

LAN Network devices

- These devices interconnect individual computers and ensure that they communicate
efficiently.
- Network interfaces, hubs, bridges, switches, routers and firewalls work together in a number
of ways to create these different kinds of network roadways.

The functions of network devices are:

- To regulate the speed at which the network information travels
- To manage the flow of traffic, opening, closing or directing it to specific streets as the need
arises.
- To help protect sensitive information within the network.

i) Network Interface card (NIC)

- This is a chipset on PCB that provide physical access from the node to the LAN medium.
- Its responsible for fragmenting the data transmission and formatting the data packets with the
necessary header and trailer.
- It function at the lower two layers of OSI model, that is both an OSI layer 1 (physical layer)
and layer 2 (data link layer) device, as it provides physical access to a networking medium
and provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses. It allows
users to connect to each other either by using cables or wirelessly
- It contains a microprocessor that can relieve the attached device of some routine.

.
ii) Bridges
- A bridge is a device that connects two or more local area network or two or more segments
of the same network.
- Bridge connects two networks (e.g 10 BASET Ethernet and Local Tank Connection) so that
they can share information with each other.
- In addition to connecting networks, they filter information so that network traffic intended for
one portion of the network does not congest the rest of network.
- Bridges may consist either standalone hardware devices or of software running on a client or
server.
- Like switches, bridges learn the MAC addresses of all connected clients, servers and
peripherals and associate each address with a bridge port (network connection).
- When a bridge (or switch) receives an incoming frame, it opens and reads its destination MAC
address.
- If the port that will receive the frame is different from the port connected to the sender, the
bridge drops the frame.
- If the bridge cannot determine which port is associated with a destination address, it passes
the frame along to all ports.

iii) Hubs
- This is a small box that gathers the signal from each individual device optionally amplifies
each signal and then sends the signal out to all other connected devices.
- Amplification helps to ensure that devices on the network receive variable information. Hubs
are also called concentrators or repeaters.
- They come in various sizes, 12 port or 24 port etc. All the client, servers and peripherals
connected to a hub (or to a set of interconnected hubs) share the bandwidth (data delivery
capacity) of that network.
- They form a single collision domain – on area of an Ethernet network in which data sent to or
from a device may potentially collide with the data from other devices.
iv) Switches
- Like a hub, an Ethernet switch is a device that gathers the signals from devices that are
connected to it, and then regenerates a new copy of each signal.
- Switches are more powerful than hubs and can substantially increase the network
performance
- Most common switches operate by learning the MAC addresses of all connected clients,
servers and peripheral and associating each address with one of its ports.
- When a switch receives an incoming signal it creates a temporary circuit between the sender
and receiver.
- The temporary circuit provides two important benefits.
o The circuit allows the sender and receiver momentarily to exchange information
without intrusion from other devices on the network.
 o The circuit ensures the information travels directly between the communicating
computers.
- The switch installed should be compatible with physical network and data link protocols.

v) Routers
- Like bridges, routers are devices whose primary purpose is to connect two or more networks
and to filter network signals so that only desired information travels between them.
- Routers regulate network traffic more precisely and are aware of many possible paths across
the network and can choose the best one for each data packet to travel.
- They operate primarily by examining incoming data for its network routing and transport
information.
- This information includes the source and destination network routing addresses.
- Routers can be programmed to prevent information from being sent to or received from certain
networks or computers based on all or part of their network routing addresses.

vi) Multiplexers
- Multiplexers (mux) acts as both concentrators and contention devices that enable multiple
relatively low speed terminal devices to share a single high capacity circuit (physical path)
between two points in a network.
vii) Modems
- These are devices that allow digital data signals to be transmitted across an analogue link.
- Modem stand for Modulator Demodulator, and it changes signal to an analogue frequency
and send this tone across the analogue link.
- At the other end, another modem receives the signal and converts it back to digital.

viii) Wireless Access Point (WAP)

- WAP is a device that allows wireless communication devices to connect to a wireless network
using WI-FI, blue tooth or related standard.
- The WAP usually connects to a wired network, and can relay data between the wireless
devices and wired devices or the network.

ix) Amplifiers and repeaters

- Electromagnetic energy attenuates over a distance whether the energy passes through a
conductor or air. In addition to attenuating, the signal accumulates noise as it transverse the
network, the amplifier boosts the noise along with the signal. The resulting signal to noise
ratio (SNR) can produce unacceptable results.
- These boosting units receive a weakened incoming signal and transmit a stronger outgoing
signal, which propagates across the network, weakening until it reaches other boosting unit,
and so on.
- Analog networks make use of devices known as amplifiers. Digital networks employ repeaters
- Amplifiers are spaced every 6km or so in a typical analog voice. The exact spacing is sensitive
to: transmission medium and carrier frequency which affects bandwidth, transmission speed
and attenuation level.
- The repeater essentially generates the binary value (10 rO) of the weak incoming signal based
on its relative voltage level and regenerates a strong signal of the same value without noise.
This process enhances the signal quality.
- Repeaters are spaced at approximately the same intervals as amplifiers.
- Because repeaters work with the actual physical signal, and do not attempt to interpret the
data being transmitted, they operate on the physical layer, the first layer of the OSI model.

x) Fire wall
- A firewall is part of a computer system or network that is designed to block unauthorized
access while permitting actual communication.
- It is also a device or set of devices configured to permit, deny, encrypt, decrypt or proxy all
computer traffic between difficult security. Domain based upon a set of rules and other criteria.
- It can be implemented in both hardware or software or a combination of both.
- Firewalls can be an effective means of protecting a local system or network of systems from
network based security threats while at the same time affording access to the outside world
via wide area networks and the internet.
- Firewall provides an additional layer of defense, insulating the internal systems from external
networks.
- Firewall has the following capabilities.
 o A firewall defines a single choke point that keeps unauthorized user out of the
protected network, prohibits potentially vulnerable services from entering or leaving
the network and provides protection from various kinds of IP Spooting and routing
attacks.
o A firewall provider a location for monitoring security related events. Audit and alarm
can be implemented on the firewall system.
o A firewall is a convenient platform for several internet functions that are not security
related.
- However firewalls have their limitations including:-
o It cannot protect against attacks that by passes the firewall
o It may not protect fully against internal threats such as a disgruntled employee.
o An improperly secured wireless LAN may be accessed from outside the organization.
- A firewall may act as a packet filter. It can operate as a positive filter, allowing passing only
packets that meet specific criteria or as a negative fitter, rejecting any packet that meets
certain criteria.

Types of firewalls
1. Packet filtering firewalls
- It applies a set of rules to each incoming and outgoing IP packet and then forwards or discards
the packet. It is typically configured to filter packets going in both direction (from and to the
internal network)
- It generally falls into two subcategories; stateful and stateless.
- Stateful firewalls maintain context about active section, and use that state information to
speed packet processing. If a packet does not watch on existing connection, it will be
evaluated according to the ruleset for new connections.
- Stateless firewalls require less memory and can be faster for simple filters that require less
time to filter them to look up a session.
- The major advantage of packet filtering firewalls is its simplicity. Also, packet filters typically
are transparent to user end are very fast..
- However packet filtering firewall has the following weaknesses:-
o Most do not support advanced user authentication schemes
o It is vulnerable to attacks and exploits that take advantage of problems within the
TCP/IP specification and protocol stack such as network layer address spoofing.
o It is susceptible to security breaches caused by improper configuration.
o It does not examine upper layer data, hence it cannot prevent attacks that employ
application

2) Application – level firewall

- Also called application proxy, acts as a relay of application – level traffic.
- The user contacts the gateway using TCP/IP application and the gateway asks the user for
the name of the remote hot to be accessed.
- It works on the application level of the TCP/IP stack and may intercept all packets traveling to
or from an application.
- They block other packets (usually dropping them without acknowledgement to the sender)
- It functions by determining whether a process should accept any given connection. It
accomplishes their function by hooking into socket cause to filter the connection between the
application layer and the lower layer of the OSI model.
- It work much as like a packet filter but application filters apply filtering rules (allow/block) on a
per process basis instead of filtering connections on a per port basis.
- The major advantages of these fire walls are:
o It is more secure than packet filters
o It is easy to log and audit all incoming traffic at the application level.
- However the disadvantage is:
o The additional processing overhead on each connection.

3) Proxies
- A proxy server may act as firewall by responding to put packets (connection requests) in the
manner of an application, while blocking other packets.
- It is a gateway from one network to another for a specific network application in the sense that
it functions as a proxy on behalf of the network user.
- Proxies make tampering with an internal system from the external network more difficult and
misuse of one internal system would not necessarily cause a security breach exploitable from
outside the firewall.
Protocols and standards
- Protocol is a kind of agreement about the exchange of information in a distributed system. It
is a set of rules that two or more devices must follow if they are to communicate with each
other.
- Protocol includes everything from the meaning of data to the voltage levels on connection
wires.
- A network protocol defines how a network will handle the following problems and tasks:
o communication line errors
o flow control (to keep buffers from overflowing)
o access by multiple devices
o failure detection
o data translation
o interpretation of messages
- Networking standards can be classified as proprietary, open or de facto
o Proprietary standards are owned by one particular organization.
o If that organization has sufficient market clout and the industry lacks alternative to its
standard, it may be adopted the whole industry, becoming a de facto standard.
o Open standard are not owned by any one – they are created by neutral organizations
to ensure that compatible products can be designed and developed by many different
companies.

Serial Interface Standards

- Many devices used in industrial applications use EIA standards RS – 232, RS 422 or RS 485
to connect to computers and to one another.
- The EIA RS–XXX standard specifies only the electrical characteristics – not the software
protocol
- The whole purpose of a serial interface is to provide a single path for data transmission
wirelessly or a over a cable.
- Serial interfaces can be used to provide standardized logic levels from transmitter to receiver,
define transmission medium and connectors and specify timing and data rates.
- The definition of logic levels, medium and connectors is part of layer 1 of OSI model (physical
layer) while data handling is part of MAC layer or layer 2(Data link layer)

Type of transmission lines unbalanced Differential Differential

Max number of drivers 1 1 32
Max number of receivers 1 10 32
Max cable length (m) 15m 1.5km 1.2km
Max data rate 20kbps 10mbps 10mbps

i) Rs 232
- The RS-232 interface standard (officially called TIA-232) defines the electrical and
mechanical details of the interface between Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and Data
Communications Equipment (DCE), which employ serial binary data interchange.
- The current version of the standard refers to DCE as Data Circuit-terminating Equipment.

- Its used for many purposes such as connecting mouse, printer as well as industrial
instrumentation
- RS – 232 is limited to point to point connections between pc serial ports and devices.
- The RS-232 standard consists of three major parts, which define:
• Electrical signal characteristics
• Mechanical characteristics of the interface
• Functional description of the interchange circuits
- The standard defines a logic 1 and voltage between -3v and -25v and a logic 0 as a voltage
level between +3V and +25v
- Many RS 232 connections are one-way or simplex However, using the special signaling and
control voltages available, this way or half duplex operation is possible.
- The two connected devices alternate transmitting and receiving operations.
- The central signal in the interface defines the protocol for transmitting and receiving data.
- These signals tie the two communicating devices when they are busy, transmitting, ready and
receiving.
- The transmitting device is the DTE (devices that are either the source or destination of data
frames) such as computer, work station.
- The receiving device is the DCE (device that receive and forward frames across the network)
– such as printer, modem, interface card.
- The control signal used on the common nine-pin connector are:-
a) Data carrier detect (DCD) – the DCE tells the DTE it is receiving a valid input signal (Pin
1)
b) Data set ready (DSR) – The DCE tells the DTE it is connected and ready to receive (pin
6)
c) Received data (RD): This is the actual signal received from DTE (Pin 2).
d) Request to send (RTS) – This signal from the DTE tells the DCE it is ready to transmit (pin
7)
e) Signal ground:- This is the common ground connection for all signals (pin 5)
f) Transmit data (TD) – This is the transmitted signal from the DTE (pin 3)
g) Data terminal ready (DTR) – This line is from the DTE to the DCE indicating readiness to
send or receive data (pin 4)
h) Clear to send (CTS) – This line from the DCE tells the DTE it is ready to receive data (pin
8)
i) Ring indicator (R1) – This line was used in order modem connection but it is not used
anymore (pin 9)
Here are some typical wiring diagrams for each interface type:

Limitations of RS -232
- Limited distance – cable length limited to 1.5 meter
- Not multi-drop – it can only connect on RS – 232 device per port.
- Susceptible to noise – RS 232 is single-ended, which means that they transmit and
receive lines are referenced to a common ground.

(ii) RS – 422 (EIA – 422)

- It is similar to RS 232, and can be programmed in the same way. This is a technical standard
that specified electrical characteristics of a digital signaling circuit.
- Differential signaling can transmit data at rates as high as 10 mbps along a cable of 1500m.
- The advantage offered by this standard includes the differential receiver, a differential driver
and high data rates.
o Long Distance Runs - Up to 1500m is generally supported, and with repeaters, even
further distances can be achieved.
o Multi-Drop - Usually, up to 32 devices can be connected per port, and even more
using repeaters.
o Noise Resistant - Since it uses a separate FLOATING transmit and receive pair (four
wires), it offers better noise immunity than RS-232.
- However RS 422 cannot implement a truly multipoint communication network such as with
RS 485, but one driver can be connected to up to ten receivers.

(iii) RS 485 (TIA 485)

- It defines not only a single device to device interface but also a communication bus that can
be used to form simple networks of multiple devices.
- It specifies differential signaling on two lines rather than single ended with a voltage
referenced to ground
- A logic 1 is a level greater than -200mv and a logic 0 is a level greater than +200 mv
- The standard transmission medium is twisted-pair cable of 22 or 24 AWG solid wire. Two
lines are minimum but reference wire can be used.
- Four wire can be used if full duplex operation is desired.
- Maximum cable length is defined as 1.2 km at maximum data rate of 100mbps
- A common configuration is bus network topology with multiple drops or connections.
- The standard species a maximum of 32 drivers (transmitters) and 32 receivers.
- Line drivers are disconnected from the line when not transmitting. All receivers are fully
connected and the bus line is terminated in a load matching resistance.
Applications of serial interface
- RS 232 standard is deployed in a wide range of low data rate short range applications.
- It is particularly effective in equipment used in noisy environment such as factories, process
control and utilities sites.
- Common equipment include low-speed modems, industrial control equipment like PLC,
computer, numerical controlled (CNC) machine tools, robots, embedded control computers,
medical instrument and equipment and embedded controller development systems.
- The RS 485 – Interface is also widely used in industrial applications where higher speeds and
longer distances are needed.
- It is used in the same type of equipment as defined for the RS 232 interface puts devices like
point of sale (pos) terminal, metering instruments, and large special automated machines.

Ethernet
- The term refers to the family of LAN module covered by the IEEE 802.3 standard that defines
what is the CSMA/CIS protocol
- The Ethernet standards comprise several wiring and signaling variants of the OSI physical
layer in the use with Ethernet.
- Three data rates are defined for operation over optical fibre and twisted-pair cables.
o 10 BASE – T Ethernet
o Fast Ethernet (100 BASE – T Ethernet)
o Gigabit Ethernet 1000 BASE-T Ethernet
- The protocol has the following characteristics:
o Easy to understand, implement, manage and maintain
o Allows low cost network implementation
o Provides extensive topologies flexibility for network installation
o Guarantees successful, interconnection and operation of standard – compliant
products, regardless of manufacture
- Twisted-pair Ethernet standards are such that the majority of cables can be wired ‘straight
through’ pin1 to pin1 pin 2 to pin 2 and so on, but others may need to be wired in the ‘crossover’
form (receive to transmit and transmit to receive)

Industrial Ethernet
- This refers to the use of standard Ethernet protocols with rugged connectors and extended
temperature switches in an industrial environment for automation or process control.
- Components used in plant process areas must be designed to work in harsh environment of
temperature extremes, humidity and vibration that exceeds the ranges for information
technology equipment intended for installation in controlled environment.
- The use of fibre Ethernet reduces the problem of electrical noise and provides electrical
isolation to prevent equipment damage.
- Some industrial networks emphasis deterministic delivery of transmitted data, whereas
Ethernet used collision detection which made transport time for individual data packets difficult
to estimate with increasing network traffic.
- In addition to physical compatibility and low level transport protocols a practical industrial
Ethernet system must also provide interoperability of high levels of the OSI model.
- An industrial network use network switches to segment a large system into logical sub-
networks, divided by address, protocol or application.
- Using network switches allows the network to be broken up into many small collision domains.
- This reduces the risk of a faulty or misconfigured device generating excess network traffic.

Benefits of industry-standard networks

- Modern control and business systems require open, digital communications.
- Industrial networks replace conventional point-to-point RS-232, RS-485, and 4-20 mA wiring
between existing measurement devices and automation systems with an all-digital, 2-way
communication network.
- Industrial networking technology offers several major improvements over existing systems.
- With industry-standard networks, we can select the right instrument and system for the job
regardless of the control system manufacturer.
- Other benefits include:
o Reduced wiring -- resulting in lower overall installation and maintenance costs
o Intelligent devices -- leading to higher performance and increased functionality such
as advanced diagnostics
o Distributed control -- with intelligent devices providing the flexibility to apply control
either centrally or distributed for improved performance and reliability
o Simplified wiring of a new installation, resulting in fewer, simpler drawings and overall
reduced control system engineering costs
o Lower installation costs for wiring, marshalling, and junction boxes
I/O BUS NETWORKS
- I/O bus networks allow PLCs to communicate with I/O devices in a manner similar to how
local area networks let supervisory PLCs communicate with individual PLCs.
- This configuration decentralizes control in the PLC system, yielding larger and faster control
systems.
- The topology, or physical architecture, of an I/O bus network follows the bus or extended bus
(tree) configuration, which lets field devices (e.g., limit, photoelectric, and proximity switches)
connect directly to either a PLC or to a local area network bus.
- Remember that a bus is simply a collection of lines that transmit data and/or power. Figure
illustrates a typical connection between a PLC, a local area network, and an I/O bus network
- The basic function of an I/O bus network is to communicate information with, as well as supply
power to, the field devices that are connected to the bus.
- In an I/O bus network, the PLC drives the field devices directly, without the use of I/O modules;
therefore, the PLC connects to and communicates with each field I/O device according to the
bus’s protocol.
- In essence, PLCs connect with I/O bus networks in a manner similar to the way they connect
with remote I/O, except that PLCs in an I/O bus use an I/O bus network scanner.
- An I/O bus network scanner reads and writes to each field device address, as well as decodes
the information contained in the network information packet.
- A large, tree topology bus network (i.e., a network with many branches) may have up to 2048
or more connected discrete field devices.
- The field devices that connect to I/O bus networks contain intelligence in the form of
microprocessors or other circuits). These devices communicate not only the ON/OFF state of
input and output controls, but also diagnostic information about their operating states.
- I/O bus networks can be separated into two different categories—one that deals with low-level
devices that are typical of discrete manufacturing operations and another that handles high-
level devices found in process industries.
- These bus network categories are:
• Device bus networks
• Process bus networks
- Device bus networks interface with low-level information devices (e.g., push buttons, limit
switches, etc.), which primarily transmit data relating to the state of the device (ON/OFF) and
its operational status (e.g., operating OK). These networks generally process only a few bits
to several bytes of data at a time.
- Process bus networks, on the other hand, connect with high-level information devices (e.g.,
smart process valves, flow meters, etc.), which are typically used in process control
applications. Process bus networks handle large amounts of data (several hundred bytes),
consisting of information about the process, as well as the field devices themselves.
- The majority of devices used in process bus networks are analog, while most devices used in
device bus networks are discrete.
- However, device bus networks sometimes include analog devices, such as thermocouples
and variable speed drives that transmit only a few bytes of information.
- Device bus networks that include discrete devices, as well as small analog devices, are called
byte-wide bus networks. These networks can transfer between 1 and 50 or more bytes of
data at a time.
- Device bus networks that only interface with discrete devices are called bit-wide bus
networks. Bit-wide networks transfer less than 8 bits of data from simple discrete devices
over relatively short distances.
Protocol Standards
- Neither of the two I/O bus networks has established protocol standards; however, many
organizations are working towards developing both discrete and process bus network
specifications.
- In the process bus area, two main organizations, the Fieldbus Foundation (which is the result
of a merger between the Interoperable Systems Project, ISP, Foundation and the World FIP
North American group) and the Profibus (Process Field Bus) Trade Organization, are working
to establish network and protocol standards.
- Other organizations, such as the Instrument Society of America (ISA) and the European
International Electronics Committee (IEC), are also involved in developing these standards.
- This is the reason why some manufacturers specify that their analog products are compatible
with Profibus, Fieldbus, or another type of protocol communication scheme.

- Although no proclaimed standards exist for device bus network applications, several de facto
standards are emerging due to the availability of company specific protocol specifications from
device bus network manufacturers.
- These network manufacturers or associations provide I/O field device manufacturers with
specifications in order to develop open network architecture, (i.e., a network that can interface
with many types of field devices).
- In this way, each manufacturer hopes to make its protocol the industry standard.
- One of these de facto standards for the byte-wide device bus network is DeviceNet, originally
from PLC manufacturer Allen-Bradley and now provided by an independent spin-off
association called the Open DeviceNet Vendor Association.
- Another is SDS (Smart Distributed System) from Honeywell. Both of these device bus protocol
standards are based on the control area network bus (CANbus), developed for the automobile
industry, which uses the commercially available CAN chip in its protocol.
- InterBus-S from Phoenix Contact is another emerging de facto standard for byte-wide device
bus network.
- The de facto standards for low-end, bit-wide device bus networks include Seriplex, developed
by Square D, and ASI (Actuator Sensor Interface), a standard developed by a consortium of
European companies.
- Again, this is why I/O bus network and field device manufacturers will specify compatibility
with a particular protocol (e.g., ASI, Seriplex, InterBus-S, SDS, or DeviceNet) even though no
official protocol standard exists.

1. Byte-Wide Device Bus Networks

- The most common byte-wide device bus networks are based on the InterBusS network and
the CANbus network.

i) InterBus-S
- InterBus-S is a sensor/actuator device bus network that connects discrete and analog field
devices to a PLC or computer (soft PLC) via a ring network configuration.
- The InterBusS has built-in I/O interfaces in its 256 possible node components, which also
include terminal block connections for easy I/O interfacing.
- This network can handle up to 4096 field I/O devices (depending on the configuration) at a
speed of 500 kbaud with cyclic redundancy check (CRC) error detection.
- A PLC or computer in an InterBus-S network communicates with the bus in a master/slave
method via a host controller or module.
- The topology of the network is a ring, with data being sequentially shifted from point to point
on the ring under the control of a network master.
- Each device is the ring acts as a shift register, transmitting and receiving data simultaneously
at 500 KHz.
- The actual serial data transmission between stations conforms to RS- 485.
- Interbus–S (interbus–S remote Bus) has also been extended to include a sub-protocol called
interbus – sensor loop (or interbus–S local Bus).
- This subprotocol provides an alternate physical layer, with a single twisted pair carrying power
and data on the same lines and a reduction in the minimum size of the shift register in each
station from 16 to 4 bits.
- Each interbus sensor loop system can act as a single station on an interbus-S network, on
the sensor loop can be connected directly to a controller or master.
- Interbus–S devices are usually implemented with a special ASIC (application specific
integrated circuit).

ii) CANbus networks

- CANbus networks are byte-wide device bus networks based on the widely used CAN
electronic chip technology, which is used inside automobiles to control internal components,
such as brakes and other systems.
- A CANbus network is an open protocol system featuring variable length messages (up to 8
bytes), nondestructive arbitration, and advanced error management. A four-wire cable plus
shield— two wires for power, two for signal transmission, and a “fifth” shield wire—provides
the communication link with field devices.
- This communication can either be master/slave or peer to peer. The speed of the network
(data transmission rate) depends on the length of the trunk cable.

- The DeviceNet byte-wide network can support 64 nodes and a maximum of 2048 field I/O
devices.
- The SDS network can also support 64 nodes; however, this number increases to 126
addressable locations when multiport I/O interfaces are used to multiplex the nodes.
- Using a 4-to-1 multiport I/O interface module, an SDS network can connect to up to 126
nonintelligent I/O devices in any combination of inputs and outputs.
- This multiport interface to nonintelligent field devices contains a slave CAN chip inside the
interface, which provides status information about the nodes connected to the interface.
- In a DeviceNet network, the PLC connects to the field devices in a trunkline configuration,
with either single drops off the trunk or branched drops through multiport interfaces at the
device locations.
- Because an SDS network can transmit many bytes of information in the form of variable length
messages, it can also support many intelligent devices that can translate one, two, or more
bytes of information from the network into 16 or 32 bits of ON/OFF information.
- An example of this type of intelligent device is a solenoid valve manifold.
- This kind of manifold can have up to 16 connections, thereby receiving 16 bits (two bytes) of
data from the network and controlling the status of 16 valve outputs.
- However, this device uses only one address of the 126 possible addresses. Thus, in this
configuration, the SDS network can actually connect to more than just 126 addressable
devices.
- The CANbus device bus network uses three of the ISO layers and defines both the media
access control method and the physical signaling of the network, while providing cyclic
redundancy check (CRC) error detection.
- The media access control function determines when each device on the bus will be enabled.

2. Bit-wide device bus networks

- Bit-wide device bus networks are used for discrete applications with simple ON/OFF devices
(e.g., sensors and actuators).
- These I/O bus networks can only transmit 4 bits (one nibble) of information at a time, which is
sufficient to transmit data from these devices
- The smallest discrete sensors and actuators require only one bit of data to operate.
- By minimizing their data transmission capabilities, bit-wide device bus networks provide
optimum performance at economical costs. The most common bit-wide device bus networks
are ASI, InterBus Loop, and Seriplex

i) ASI Bit-Wide Device Bus Network.

- ASI (Actuator sensor interface) was developed for low-cost, flexible method for connecting
sensor and actuators at the lowest levels of industrial control system.
- The ASI network protocol is used in simple, discrete network applications requiring no more
than 124 I/O field devices.
- These 124 inputs and output devices can be connected to up to 31 nodes in either a tree,
star, or ring topology. The I/O devices connect to the PLC or personal computer via the bus
through a host controller interface.
- It provides a two-wire, non-twisted cable for interconnection of devices. Devices may draw
current from the two wires for powering circuitry, and data communications are modulated on
top of the nominal d.c level at a bit rate of 167KHZ, under control of the master. One single
parity bit per station is used for error detection.
- The maximum cable length is 100 meters (330 ft) from the master controller.
- The ASI network protocol is based on the ASI protocol chip, thus the I/O devices connected
to this type of network must contain this chip.
- Typical ASI-compatible devices include proximity switches, limit switches, photoelectric
sensors, and standard off-the-shelf field devices.
- However, in an application using an off-the-shelf device, the ASI chip is located in the node
(i.e., an intelligent node with a slave ASI chip), instead of in the device.
- Figure below illustrates an I/O bus network that uses both the ASI bit-wide network and the
byte-wide CANbus network. Note that the ASI network connects to the byte-wide CANbus
network through a gateway.

ii) InterBus Loop Bit-Wide Device Bus Network

- The InterBus Loop from Phoenix Contact Inc. is another bit-wide device bus network used to
interface a PLC with simple sensor and actuator devices.
- The InterBus Loop uses a power and communications technology called PowerCom to send
the InterBus-S protocol signal through the power supply wires (i.e., the protocol is modulated
onto the power supply lines).
- This reduces the number of cables required by the network to only two conductors, which
carry both the power and communication signals to the field devices.
- Since the InterBus-S and InterBus Loop networks use the same protocol, they can
communicate with each other via an InterBus Loop terminal module.
- The InterBus Loop connects to the bus terminal module, located in the InterBus-S network,
which attaches to the field devices via two wires.
- An InterBus Loop network can also interface with non-intelligent, off -the-shelf devices by
means of module interfaces containing an intelligent slave network chip.

iii) Seriplex Bit-Wide Device Bus Network.

- The Seriplex device bus network can connect up to 510 field devices to a PLC in either a
master/slave or peer-to-peer configuration.
- The Seriplex network is based on the application specific integrated circuit, or ASIC chip,
which must be present in all I/O field devices that connect to the network.
- I/O devices that do not have the ASIC chip embedded in their circuitry (i.e., off-the-shelf
devices) can connect to the network via a Seriplex I/O module interface that contains a slave
ASIC chip.
- The ASIC I/O interface contains 32 built-in Boolean logic function used to create logic that will
provide the communication, addressability, and intelligence necessary to control the field
devices connected to the network bus.
- A Seriplex network can span distances of up to 5,000 feet in a star, loop, tree, or multidrop
configuration.
- This bit-wide bus network can also operate without a host controller. Unlike the ASI network,
the Seriplex device bus network can interface with analog I/O devices; however, the digitized
analog signal is read or written one bit at a time in each scan cycle
Process Bus Network
- A process bus network is a high-level, open, digital communication network used to connect
analog field devices to a control system.
- It is used in process applications, where the analog input/output sensors and actuators
respond slower than those in discrete bus applications (device bus networks).
- The size of the information packets delivered to and from these analog field devices is large,
due to the nature of the information being collected at the process level.
- The two most commonly used process bus network protocols are Fieldbus and Profibus.
- Although these network protocols can transmit data at a speed of 1 to 2 megabits/sec, their
response time is considered slow to medium because of the large amount of information that
is transferred.
- Nevertheless, this speed is adequate for process applications, because analog processes do
not respond instantaneously, as discrete controls do.
- Process bus networks can transmit enormous amounts of information to a PLC system, thus
greatly enhancing the operation of a plant or process.
- For example, a smart, process bus–compatible motor starter can provide information about
the amount of current being pulled by the motor, so that, if current requirements increase or a
locked-rotor current situation occurs, the system can alert the operator and avoid a potential
motor failure in a critical production line.
- Implementation of this type of system without a process bus network would be too costly and
cumbersome because of the amount of wire runs necessary to transmit this type of process
data.
- Process bus networks will eventually replace the commonly used analog networks, which are
based on the 4–20 mA standard for analog devices.
- This will provide greater accuracy and repeatability in process applications, as well as add
bidirectional communication between the field devices and the controller (e.g., PLC). A PLC
or computer communicates with a process bus network through a host controller interface
module using either Fieldbus or Profibus protocol format.
- Block transfer instructions relay information between the PLC and the process bus processor.
The process bus processor is generally inserted inside the rack enclosure of the PLC.
i) Fieldbus Process Bus Network
- The Fieldbus process bus network from the Fieldbus Foundation (FF) is a digital, serial,
multiport, two-way communication system that connects field equipment, such as intelligent
sensors and actuators, with controllers, such as PLCs.
- This process bus network offers the desirable features inherent in 4–20 mA analog systems,
such as:
• a standard physical wiring interface
• bus-powered devices on a single pair of wires
• intrinsic safety options
- However, the Fieldbus network technology offers the following additional advantages:
• reduced wiring due to multidrop devices
• Compatibility among Fieldbus equipment
• reduced control room space requirements
• Digital communication reliability

Fieldbus Protocol
- The Fieldbus network protocol is based on three layers of the ISO’s seven-layer model. These
three layers are layer 1 (physical interface), layer 2 (data link), and layer 7 (application).
- It has optimized the OSI architecture for process control by removing the middle layers that
are generally associated with non-time critical applications such as file transfer.
- The section comprising layers 2 and 7 of the model are referred to as the Fieldbus
communication stack.
- In addition to the ISO’s model, Fieldbus adds an extra layer on top of the application layer
called the user layer.
- This user layer provides several key functions, which are function blocks, device description
services, and system management.

Physical Layer (Layer 1)

- The physical layer of the Fieldbus process bus network conforms with the ISA SP50 and IEC
1152-2 standards.
- These standards specify the type of wire that can be used in this type of network, as well as
how fast data can move through the network.
- Moreover, these standards define the number of field devices that can be on the bus at
different network speeds, with or without being powered from the bus with intrinsic safety
(IS).
- Intrinsically safe equipment and wiring does not emit enough thermal or electrical energy to
ignite materials in the surrounding atmosphere.
- Thus, intrinsically safe devices are suitable for use in hazardous environments(e.g., those
containing hydrogen or acetylene).
- The Fieldbus has two speeds—a low speed of 31.25 kbaud, referred to as H1, and a high
speed of 1 Mbaud or 2.5 Mbaud (depending on the mode—AC current or DC voltage mode),
called H2.
- At a speed of 31.25 kbaud, the physical layer of the Fieldbus process network can support
existing 4–20 mA wiring.
- This increases cost-effectiveness when upgrading a plant or process’s network
communication scheme. At this H1 speed, the Fieldbus network can also support intrinsically
safe network segments with bus-powered devices.

Communication Stack (Layers 2 and 7)

- The communication stack portion of the Fieldbus process bus network consists of layer 2 (the
data link layer) and layer 7 (the application layer).
- The data link layer controls the transmission of messages onto the Fieldbus through the
physical layer.
- It manages access to the bus through a link active scheduler, which is a deterministic,
centralized bus transmission regulator based on IEC and ISA standards.
- The application layer contains the Fieldbus messaging specification (FMS) standard, which
encodes and decodes commands from the user layer, Fieldbus’s additional 8th layer.
- The FMS is based on the Profibus process bus standard. Layer 7 also contains an object
dictionary, which allows Fieldbus network data to be retrieved by either tag name or index
record

User Layer (Layer 8)

- The user layer implements the Fieldbus network’s distributed control strategy.
- It contains three key elements, which are function blocks, device description services, and
system management.
- The user layer, a vital segment of the Fieldbus network, also defines the software model for
user interaction with the network system.
- Function Blocks: are encapsulated control functions that allow the performance of
input/output operations, such as analog inputs, analog outputs, PID control, discrete
inputs/outputs, signal selectors, manual loaders, bias/gain stations, and ratio stations. The
function block capabilities of Fieldbus networks allow Fieldbus-compatible devices to be
programmed with blocks containing any of the instructions available in the system. Through
these function blocks, users can configure control algorithms and implement them directly
through field devices.
- Device Description Services. Device descriptions (DD) are Fieldbus software mechanisms
that let a host obtain message information, such as vendor name, available function blocks,
and diagnostic capabilities, from field devices. Device descriptions can be thought of as
“drivers” for field devices connected to the network, meaning that they allow the device to
communicate with the host and the network. All devices connected to a Fieldbus process
network must have a device description. When a new field device is added to the network, the
host must be supplied with its device description.
- System Manager. The system management portion of the user layer schedules the execution
of function blocks at precisely defined intervals. It also controls the communication of all the
Fieldbus network parameters used by the function blocks. Moreover, the system manager
automatically assigns field device addresses.

Profibus Process Bus Network

- Profibus (PROcess FIeld BUS) is a digital process bus network capable of communicating
information between a master controller (or host) and an intelligent, slave process field device,
as well as from one host to another.
- Profibus actually consists of three inter-compatible networks with different protocols designed
to serve distinctive application requirements. The three types of Profibus networks are:
Profibus-FMS, Profibus-DP and Profibus-PA
- Profibus-FMS network is the universal solution for communicating between the upper level,
the cell level, and the field device level of the Profibus hierarchy.
- Cell level control occurs at individual (or cell) areas, which exercise the actual control during
production. The controllers at the cell level must communicate with other supervisory systems.
- The Profibus-FMS utilizes the Fieldbus message specification (FMS) to execute its
extensive communication tasks between hierarchical levels.
- This communication is performed through cyclic or acyclic messages at medium transmission
speeds.
- Profibus-DP (Decentralized Peripherals) network is a performance-optimized version of
the Profibus network. It is designed to handle time-critical communications between devices
in factory automation systems.
- The Profibus-DP is a suitable replacement for 24-V parallel and 4–20 mA wiring interfaces.
- Profibus-PA (Process Automation) network is the process automation version of the
Profibus network. It provides bus-powered stations and intrinsic safety according to the
 transmission specifications of the IEC 1158-2 standard. The Profibus-PA network has device
description and function block capabilities, along with field device interoperability.
- Profibus-PA is designed for use in an explosion / hazardous areas. The physical layer (cable)
allows power to be delivered over the bus to field instruments, while limiting current flows so
that explosive conditions are not created, even if a malfunction occurs.
- Profibus networks support both peer-to-peer and multipeer communication in either broadcast
or multicast configurations.

- In broadcast communication, an active station sends an unconfirmed message to all other

stations.
- Any of these stations (including both masters and slaves) can take this information. In
multicast communication, an active station sends an unconfirmed message to a particular
group of master or slave stations.
- The physical layer or layer 1, of the ISO model defines the network’s transmission medium
and the physical bus interface.
- The Profibus network adheres to the EIA RS-485 standard, which uses a two-conductor,
twisted-pair wire bus with optional shielding.
- The maximum number of stations or device nodes per segment is 32 without repeaters and
127 with repeaters.
- The network transmission speed is selectable from 9.6 kbaud to 12 Mbaud, depending on the
distance and cable type. Without repeaters, the maximum bus length is 100 m at 12 Mbaud.
- The type of connector used is a 9-pin, D-sub connector.
Modbus Network
- It is a serial communication protocol published by Modicons for use with its PLCs.
- Simple and robust, it has since become a de facto standard communication protocol, and it is
now commonly available means of connecting electronic devices.
- The main reasons for the use of Modbus in the industrial environment are:
- Developed with industrial application in mind
 - Openly published and royalty free
- Easy to deploy and maintain
- Moves raw bits or words without placing many instructions.
- It allows for communication between many (approx 240) devices connected to the same
network.
- It is used to connect a supervisory computer with a remote terminal unit (RTU) in SCADA
systems.
- A Modbus command contains the Modbus address of the device it is intended for. All Modbus
commands contain checking information, ensuring that a command arrives undamaged.
- The basic Modbus command can instruct an RTU to change a value in one of its registers,
control or read an 1/0 port as well as command the device to send back one or more values
contained in its registers.
- Modbus Messaging protocol is an Application layer (OSI layer 7) protocol that provides
client/server communication between devices connected to different types of buses or
networks.
- The Modbus Messaging protocol is only a protocol and does not imply any specific hardware
implementation. Also note that the Modbus Messaging protocol used with Modbus Serial is
the same one used with Modbus Plus and Modbus TCP.
- Modbus messaging is based on a client/server model and employs the following messages:
- Modbus requests, i.e. the messages sent on the network by the clients to initiate
transactions. These serve as indications of the requested services on the server side
- Modbus responses, i.e. the response messages sent by the servers. These serve as
confirmations on the client side.
- Modbus (or to be more exact; the Modbus Messaging protocol) is just a protocol, Modbus
Plus is a complete system with a predefined medium and Physical layer (OSI layer 1)
implementation.
4 to 20 mA Current Loop
- The 4 to 20 mA current loop is a widely used method for transferring information from one
station (the transmitter) to another station (the receiver). Therefore, this system allows for only
two stations.
- A typical current loop system assigns a sensing range (e.g., 0 to 100°C) to the current range
between 4 and 20 mA.
- A loop exists (i.e., two wires) between the transmitter and receiver.
- The transmitter can impress a certain current in the loop (using a controlled current source)
so that the receiver can measure the current in the loop (e.g., by placing a small resistor in
series with the loop and measuring the voltage drop across the resistor).
- After measuring the current, the receiver can then determine the present level of the sensed
signal within the defined sensing range.
- This method uses current signaling, instead of voltage signaling, and therefore is relatively
unaffected by potential differences between the transmitter and the receiver.
- This is similar to the benefit of differential (voltage) signaling, which also requires two wires.
- Another characteristic of this method is that it is not primarily digital in nature, as many other
sensor communication systems are.
- The measured value can vary continuously in the range of 4-20 mA, and therefore can easily
represent an analog sensing range, rather than a set of digital signals. Also, the signal is
continuously variable and available.
- Another characteristic of this method is that the integrity of the loop can be verified.
- As long as the loop is unbroken and the transmitter is in good working order, the current in
the loop should never fall below 4 mA.
- If the current approaches 0 mA, then the receiver can determine that a fault exists — perhaps
a broken cable.
- These systems are widely used in various process control industries (e.g., oil refining) for
connecting sensors (transmitters) with control computers.
- Because one station is always the transmitter and one station is always the receiver, this is a
unidirectional, half duplex communication system.

HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer)

- The HART system (and its associated protocol) was originally developed by Rosemount and
is regarded as an open standard, available to all manufacturers.
- Its main advantage is that it enables the retention of the existing 4-20mA instrumentation
cabling whilst using, simultaneously, the same wires to carry digital information superimposed
on the analog signal.
- HART is a hybrid analog and digital system, as opposed to most field bus systems, that are
purely digital.
- HART products generally fall into one of three categories: field devices, host systems, and
communication support hardware.
 Field devices include transmitters, valves, and controllers. There are HART transmitters
for almost any standard process measurement including pressure, temperature, level,
flow, and analytical (pH, ORP, density).
 Host systems range from small handheld communicators to PC based maintenance
management software to large scale distributed control systems.
 Communication support hardware includes simple single loop modems as well as an
assortment of multiplexers that allow a host system to communicate with a large number
of field devices.
- It uses a Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) technique based on the Bell 202 standard.
- HART can be used in either one of the two network configuration :
 Point-to-point mode
 Multi-drop mode
- The HART protocol has two formats for digital transmission of data:
 Poll/response mode
 Burst (broadcast) mode
- HART follows the basic Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. The OSI model
describes the structure and elements of a communication system. The HART protocol uses a
reduced OSI model, implementing only layers 1, 2 and 7

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

- The HART communication protocol is based on the Bell 202 telephone communication
standard and operates using the frequency shift keying (FSK) principle.
- The digital signal is made up of two frequencies— 1,200 Hz and 2,200 Hz representing bits 1
and 0, respectively.
- Sine waves of these two frequencies are superimposed on the direct current (dc) analog signal
cables to provide simultaneous analog and digital communications.
- Because the average value of the 1200/2400Hz sine wave superimposed on the 4-20mA
signal (FSK signal) is always zero, hence, the 4-20mA analog information is not affected.
- The HART FSK signaling enables two-way digital communication and makes it possible for
additional information beyond just the normal process variable to be communicated to or from
a smart field instrument.
- The HART protocol communicates at 1200 bits per second without interrupting the 4-20mA
signal and allows a host application (master) to get two or more digital updates per second
from a field device.
- A minimum loop impedance of 230 W is required for communication.

HART Networks
- HART devices can operate in one of two network configurations—point-to-point or multidrop.
- The connection can be in form of:
- In conjunction with the 4-20mA current signal in point-to-point mode,
- in conjunction with other field devices in multi-drop mode
- in point-to-point mode with only one field device broadcasting in burst mode

i) Point-To-Point:
- In point-to-point mode, the traditional 4–20 mA signal is used to communicate one process
variable, while additional process variables, configuration parameters, and other device data
are transferred digitally using the HART protocol.
- The 4–20 mA analog signal is not affected by the HART signal and can be used for control in
the normal way.
- The HART communication digital signal gives access to secondary variables and other data
that can be used for operations, commissioning, maintenance, and diagnostic purposes
ii) Multidrop:
- The multidrop mode of operation requires only a single pair of wires and, if applicable, safety
barriers and an auxiliary power supply for up to 15 field devices.
- All process values are transmitted digitally. In multidrop mode, all field device polling
addresses are >0, and the current through each device is fixed to a minimum value (typically
4 mA).
- Thus, setting the smart device polling address to a number greater than zero implies a multi-
drop loop.
- Obviously the 4-20mA concept only applies to a loop with a single transducer; hence for a
multi-drop configuration the smart device sets its analog output to a constant 4mA and
communicates only digitally.

Communication Modes
- The HART protocol can be used in various modes for communicating information to/from
smart field instruments and central control or monitoring equipment
- These protocols are: Poll/response mode and Burst (broadcast) mode.

i) Poll/Response Mode (Master/Slave Mode)

- HART is a master-slave communication protocol, which means that during normal operation,
each slave (field device) communication is initiated by a master communication device.
- The master polls each of the smart devices on the highway and requests the relevant
information.
- Two masters can connect to each HART loop. The primary master is generally a distributed
control system (DCS), programmable logic controller (PLC), or a personal computer (PC). The
secondary master can be a handheld terminal or another PC.
- Slave devices include transmitters, actuators, and controllers that respond to commands from
the primary or secondary master.
- This mode, allows digital information from the slave device to be updated twice per second in
the master. The 4-20 mA analog signals are continuous and can still carry the primary variable
for control.

ii) Burst Mode (Broadcast mode)

- This mode is an optional communication mode.
- In burst mode, the master instructs the slave device to continuously broadcast a standard
HART reply message (e.g., the value of the process variable).
- The master receives the message at the higher rate until it instructs the slave to stop bursting.
- This mode frees the master from having to send repeated command requests to get updated
process variable information
- Data update rates of 3-4 per second are typical with “burst” mode communication and will vary
with the chosen command. Burst mode should be used only in single slave device networks.

HART Commands
- The HART command set provides uniform and consistent communication for all field devices.
- Layer 7, the Application layer, consists of three classes of HART commands: Universal,
Common Practice, and Device Specific
- Host applications may implement any of the necessary commands for a particular application.
i) Universal
- All devices using the HART protocol must recognize and support the universal commands.
- Universal commands provide access to information useful in normal operations (e.g., read
primary variable and units).
ii) Common Practice
- Common practice commands provide functions implemented by many, but not necessarily all,
HART communication devices.
iii) Device Specific
- Device-specific commands represent functions that are unique to each field device.
- These commands access setup and calibration information, as well as information about the
construction of the device. Information on device-specific commands is available from device
manufacturers.

Benefits of HART Communication

- The HART protocol is a powerful communication technology used to exploit the full potential
of digital field devices.
- Preserving the traditional 4–20 mA signal, the HART protocol extends system capabilities for
two-way digital communication with smart field instruments.
- The HART protocol offers the best solution for smart field device communications and has the
widest base of support of any field device protocol worldwide.
- More instruments are available with the HART protocol than any other digital communications
technology.
- Almost any process application can be addressed by one of the products offered by HART
instrument suppliers.
- Unlike other digital communication technologies, the HART protocol provides a unique
communication solution that is backward compatible with the installed base of instrumentation
in use today.
- This backward compatibility ensures that investments in existing cabling and current control
strategies will remain secure well into the future.
- Other benefits include:
- Improved plant operations: HART-communicating devices provide accurate information
that helps improve the efficiency of plant operations. During normal operation, device
operational values can be easily monitored or modified remotely.
- Operational flexibility: The HART protocol allows two masters (primary and secondary)
to communicate with slave devices and provide additional operational flexibility. A
permanently connected host system can be used simultaneously, while a handheld
terminal or PC controller is communicating with a field device
- Instrumentation investment protection:. HART field instruments protect the investment
(existing plants and processes e.g. wiring, analog controllers, smart instrumentation) by
providing compatible products with enhanced digital capabilities. These enhanced
capabilities can be used incrementally.
 - Digital communication: A digital device provides advantages such as improved accuracy
and stability. The HART protocol enhances the capabilities of digital instruments by
providing communication access and networking.

TOPIC 5: CALIBRATION SYSTEM

Calibration
- Calibration is the act or result of quantitative comparison between a known standard and the
output of the measuring system.
- If the output-input response of the system is linear, then a single-point calibration is
sufficient.
- However, if the system response is non-linear, then a set of known standard inputs
to the measuring system are employed for calibrating the corresponding outputs of the
system.
- Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and adjusting the precision and accuracy of
measurement equipment.
- Instrument calibration is intended to eliminate or reduce bias in an instrument's readings over
a range for all continuous values.
 Precision is the degree to which repeated measurements under unchanged conditions
show the same result
 Accuracy is the degree of closeness of measurements of a quantity to its actual true
value.
- In general use, calibration is often regarded as including the process of adjusting the output
or indication on a measurement instrument to agree with value of the applied standard, within
a specified accuracy.
- There are three main reasons for having instruments calibrated:
1. To ensure readings from an instrument are consistent with other measurements.
2. To determine the accuracy of the instrument readings.
3. To establish the reliability of the instrument i.e. that it can be trusted.
- Calibration is carried out by agencies of the metrological service, using reference standards
and base standards.
- Governmental calibration is obligatory for measuring devices used in reporting material value,
for government tests and expert examinations, and for recording national and international
sports records, and also for calibration of the original base standards.
- All other measuring devices are calibrated by the appropriate departments.

Calibration Standards
- Calibration Standards of measurements can be classified according to their function and type
of application as:

International standards
- International standards are devices designed and constructed to the specifications of an
international forum.
- They represent the units of measurements of various physical quantities to the highest
possible accuracy that is attainable by the use of advanced techniques of production
and measurement technology.
- These standards are maintained by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at
Sevres, France. For example, the International Prototype kilogram, wavelength of Kr86
orange-red lamp and cesium clock are the international standards for mass, length and time,
respectively.
- However, these standards are not available to an ordinary user for purposes of day-to-day
comparisons and calibrations.

Primary standards
- Primary standards are devices maintained by standards organizations / national
laboratories in different parts of the world.
- These devices represent the fundamental and derived quantities and are calibrated
independently by absolute measurements.
- These are the most precise and accurate physical standards, which are derived from
international standards.
- They specify the most stringent conditions and are used only at rare intervals for comparison
with secondary standards.
- One of the main functions of maintaining primary standards is to calibrate / check and certify
secondary reference standards.
- Like international standards, these standards also are not easily available to an ordinary user
of instruments for verification / calibration of working standards. These standards are not
portable.

Secondary standards
- Secondary standards are basic reference standards employed by industrial measurement
laboratories.
- These are derived from primary standards. They are portable and are often used as national
standards.
- They are less precise than primary standards but are still very precise.
- They are used at rare intervals to calibrate tertiary and working standards. These are
maintained by the concerned laboratory.
- One of the important functions of an industrial laboratory is the maintenance and periodic
calibration of secondary standards against primary standards of the national standards
laboratory / organization.
- In addition, secondary standards are freely available to the ordinary user of instruments for
checking and calibration of working standards.

Working standards
- These are high-accuracy devices that are commercially available and are duly checked and
certified against either the primary or secondary standards.
- For example, a standard cell and a standard resistor are the working standards of voltage and
resistance, respectively.
- Working standards are very widely used for calibrating general laboratory instruments, for
carrying out comparison measurements or for checking the quality (range of accuracy) of
industrial products.

Calibration Procedure
- The process of calibration involves the estimation of uncertainty between the values
indicated by the measuring instrument and the true value of the input.
- Calibration may be called for:
 a new instrument
 after an instrument has been repaired or modified
 when a specified time period has elapsed
 when a specified usage (operating hours) has elapsed
 before and/or after a critical measurement
 after an event, for example
o after an instrument has had a shock, vibration, or has been exposed to an adverse
condition which potentially may have put it out of calibration or damage it
o sudden changes in weather
 whenever observations appear questionable or instrument indications do not match the
output of surrogate instruments
 As specified by a requirement, e.g., customer specification, instrument manufacturer
recommendation.
- There are four types of calibration:
 Primary calibration, which is performed when a measuring device is put into circulation
from production or returned from repair;
 Periodic calibration, which is conducted during use or storage of a device;
  Special calibration, which results from the need for immediate verification of the good
condition of a device; and
 Inspection calibration, which is performed during metrological inspections of
enterprises, supply centers, warehouses, and commercial organizations.

Calibration Concepts
- There are two fundamental operations involved in calibrating any instrument:
 Testing the instrument to determine its performance,
 Adjusting the instrument to perform within specification.
- Testing the instrument requires collecting sufficient data to calculate the instrument's
operating errors.
- This is typically accomplished by performing a multiple point test procedure that includes the
following steps.
 Using a process variable simulator that matches the input type of the instrument, set a
known input to the instrument.
 Using an accurate calibrator, read the actual (or reference) value of this input.
 Read the instrument's interpretation of the value by using an accurate calibrator to
measure the instrument output.
- By repeating this process for a series of different input values, you can collect sufficient data
to determine the instrument's accuracy.
- Depending upon the intended calibration goals and the error calculations desired, the test
procedure may require from 5 to 21 input points.
- The first test that is conducted on an instrument before any adjustments are made is called
the As-Found test.
- If the accuracy calculations from the As-Found data are not within the specifications for the
instrument, then it must be adjusted.
- Adjustment is the process of manipulating some part of the instrument so that its input to
output relationship is within specification. For conventional instruments, this may be zero and
span screws.
- For HART instruments, this normally requires the use of a communicator (handheld or PC) to
convey specific information to the instrument.
- After adjusting the instrument, a second multiple point test is required to characterize the
instrument and verify that it is within specification over the defined operating range. This is
called the As-Left test.

Error Calculations
- Error calculations are the principal analysis performed on the As-Found and As-Left test data.
- There are several different types of error calculations, most of which are defined in the
publication "Process Instrumentation Terminology".
- They are usually expressed in terms of the percent of ideal span which is defined as:
% span = (reading - low range) / (high range - low range) x 100
- The first step in the data analysis is to convert the engineering unit values for input and output
into percent of span. Then for each point, calculate the error, which is the deviation of the
actual output from the expected output.
 The Maximum error is the most common value used to evaluate an instrument's
performance. If a computer program is not used to analyze the test data, it is often the only
error considered and is taken to be the largest deviation from the ideal output.
By itself, the maximum error does not give a complete indication of an instrument's
performance. With the availability of computer software to facilitate calculations, other error
 values are gaining popularity including zero error, span error, linearity error, and hysteresis
error.
 Zero error is defined as the error of a device when the input is at the lower range value.
 Span error is defined as the difference between the actual span and the ideal span,
expressed as a percentage of the ideal span.
 Linearity error is a measure of how close the error of the instrument over its operating
range approaches a straight line. Unfortunately, there are three different methods used to
calculate this, resulting in an independent linearity, a terminal based linearity, and a zero
based linearity. In practice, it is best to choose one method and apply it consistently. Note
that the calculation of linearity error is also greatly facilitated by a curve fit of the error data.
 Hysteresis error is a measure of the dependence of the output at a given input value upon
the prior history of the input. This is the most difficult error to measure since it requires great
care in the collection of data, and it typically requires at least 9 data points to develop
reasonable curves for the calculations. Thus a technician must collect at least five data point
traversing in one direction, followed by at least four more in the opposite direction, so that
each leg has five points, including the inflection point.
 If any of these errors is greater than or equal to the desired accuracy for a test, then the
instrument has failed and must be adjusted.

Hand-Held Device
- This is a mobile/portable device which is a small, handheld computing device, typically having
a display screen with touch input and/or a miniature keyboard and weighing less than 0.91kg.
- A handheld computing device has an operating system (OS), and can run various types
of application software.
- Most handheld devices can also be equipped with Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and GPS capabilities that
can allow connections to the Internet and other Bluetooth-capable devices, such as an
automobile or a microphone headset.
- It delivers messages and performance data to the operator and is used to support installation,
configuration, provisioning, calibration and maintenance and network performance.

Advantages of handheld calibration

 No process interruption
o The main advantage of handheld calibration over other traditional methods is that it allows
meter verifications to be carried out directly in the process without additional costs for
removal of the instrument or process interruptions.
o As a result, downtime is minimized and critical processes can be verified and optimized
efficiently.
o By supporting and facilitating regular on-site verification, handheld equipment helps users
to quickly diagnose any failures and to swiftly remedy the situation.

 Time and cost savings

o Device verification using handheld equipment requires a maximum of 15-30 minutes per
instrument.
o The device does not need to be sent away to the calibration centre and production can,
therefore, resume faster than with any other method.
o After the process has been completed, the direct uploading of the device parameters
avoids time-consuming configuration.
o This method helps achieve optimum availability of plant equipment.
o The production does not need to be suspended resulting in considerable savings.
o What’s more, frequent test functions allow costly calibration cycles to be extended.
 Complete on-site verification
o Handheld electronic verification not only checks the accuracy of the device under test, but
also performs a complete check of the entire measurement chain.

 Simulation of the process

o As safety during operation is considered a ‘must’ for plant operators, testing the safety
and functionality of equipment in the process is often indispensable.
o Simulation of the measuring signals during calibration or verification processes can
achieve that.
o Handheld calibrators can simulate process states, in flow applications for example, even
without real flow.
o Handheld verification devices can simulate different flow rates in the process; high and
low limit values, receiving signal chains (operation of valves or control loops) and different
flow behaviour in piping, for example, such as flow curves in bottling machines.

Calibration Methods using Handheld Equipment

- Calibration is an important aspect of an instrument’s life cycle. However, it can be difficult to
choose the correct calibration method to suit your requirements and specification.
- Handheld devices are typically used to calibrate parameters including flow, pressure,
temperature and conductivity.
- Taken as a whole, the benefits of these systems are numerous and obvious in terms of time,
cost and convenience.
- Handheld equipment allows electronic verification and calibration in situations where inline
calibration is essential but mobile rigs may be impractical.
- Internal procedures or official requirements and conformity reasons might also stipulate that
certain instruments must be checked more frequently than others to verify that they are
working correctly in the process.

Calibrating a Conventional Instrument

- For a conventional 4-20 mA instrument, a multiple point test that stimulates the input and
measures the output is sufficient to characterize the overall accuracy of the transmitter.
- The normal calibration adjustment involves setting only the zero value and the span value,
since there is effectively only one adjustable operation between the input and output as
illustrated below.

- This procedure is often referred to as a Zero and Span Calibration. If the relationship
between the input and output range of the instrument is not linear, then you must know the
transfer function before you can calculate expected outputs for each input value.
- Without knowing the expected output values, you cannot calculate the performance errors.

Calibrating a Hart Instrument

- It is important to note that in most cases, proper calibration of a HART instrument requires the
use of a communicator (handheld or PC) that is capable of issuing device specific
commands (in layer 7).
- According to international standards, calibration is a comparison of the device under test
against a traceable reference instrument (a calibrator) and documentation of this comparison.
- In order to do a calibration of a HART device, a traceable metrological reference device is
needed, which can be a handheld calibrator
- Configuration means using the digital communication protocol as a way to change settings
inside the field device from the device or from a remote location.
- Configuration can be done with a PC and configuration software or a handheld communicator.
- It is important to remember that although a communicator can be used for configuration and
checking diagnostic information, it cannot be used for metrological calibration to check the
measurement (PV) accuracy of a field device.
- Configuring parameters of a HART transmitter with a communicator is not metrological
calibration and does not assure accuracy.
- For a real metrological calibration, a traceable reference standard is always needed.
- Calibration procedure for a HART instrument is significantly different than for a conventional
instrument. The specific calibration requirements depend upon the application.
- If the application uses the digital representation of the process variable for monitoring or
control, then the sensor input section must be explicitly tested and adjusted.
- Note that this reading is completely independent of the milliamp output, and has nothing to
do with the zero or span settings.
- The PV as read via HART communication continues to be accurate even when it is outside
the assigned output range.
- If the current loop output is not used (that is the transmitter is used as a digital only device),
then the input section calibration is all that is required.
- If the application uses the milliamp output, then the output section must be explicitly tested
and calibrated.
- Note that this calibration is independent of the input section, and again, has nothing to do with
the zero and span settings.
- If there is a desire to validate the overall performance of a HART transmitter, run a Zero and
Span test just like a conventional instrument.
- However, passing this test does not necessarily indicate that the transmitter is operating
correctly.
Past papers

KENYA NATIONAL EXAMINATION COUNCIL

PAST PAPERS

2521/202 INDUSTRIAL CONTROL SYSTEMS

June/July 2013

6. a) i) State the four steps in the operation of programmable logic controller (PLC)
There are four basic steps in the operation of all PLCs; Input Scan, Program Scan, Output Scan,
and Housekeeping. These steps continually take place in a repeating loop.
(i) Input Scan: Detects the state of all input devices that are connected to the PLC
(ii) Program Scan: Executes the user created program logic
(iii) Output Scan: Energizes or de-energize all output devices that are connected to the PLC.
(iv) Housekeeping: Operational commands to the controlled devices. This step includes
communications with programming terminals, internal diagnostics, etc...

ii) Explain with aid of examples the following PLC programming languages
I) Functional block diagrams
II) Instruction lists

(i) Function Block Diagram (FBD) - A graphical language for depicting signal and data flows
through re-usable function blocks. FBD is very useful for expressing the interconnection of control
system algorithms and logic
(ii) Ladder Diagram (LD): Traditional ladder logic is graphical programming language. Initially
programmed with simple contacts that simulated the opening and closing of relays, Ladder Logic
programming has been expanded to include such functions as counters, timers, shift registers, and
math operations

(iii) Instruction List (IL): A low level “assembler like” language that is based on similar instructions
list languages found in a wide range of today’s PLCs.

(iv) Structured Text (ST) – A high level text language that encourages structured programming. It
has a language structure (syntax) that strongly resembles PASCAL and supports a wide range of
standard functions and operators. For example;

If Speed
F
Else
F
ON
End
Sequential Function Chart (SFC): A method of programming complex control systems at a more
highly structured level. A SFC program is an overview of the control system, in which the basic
building blocks are entire program files. Each program file is created using one of the other types
of programming languages. The SFC approach coordinates large, complicated programming tasks
into smaller, more manageable tasks.
 b) Write an instruction list for the ladder diagram provided in fig below

c) Design a ladder program for an industrial control system that:

- counts ten objects passing along a conveyer belt;
- closes a deflecting gate when that number has been deflected into a carton;
- Allows a time of 5 seconds between the tenth object counted and the closing of the
deflector.

7. a) Describe the following components used in a SCADA system

i) Remote Terminal unit (RTU)
ii) Human Machine Interface (HMI)
A SCADA system usually consists of the following components:
(i) Remote Terminal Unit (RTU):- RTU is a device installed at a remote location that
collects data, codes the data into a format that is transmittable and transmits the data back
to a central station, or master (supervisory system). An RTU also collects information from
the master device and implements processes that are directed by the master
(ii) A human–machine interface or HMI is the apparatus or device which presents processed
data to a human operator, and through this, the human operator monitors and controls the
process. The HMI of a SCADA system is where data is processed and presented to be
viewed and monitored by a human operator. This interface usually includes control where
the individual can interface with the SCADA system
(iii)A supervisory (computer) system/ Master Terminal Unit (MTU):- gathering
(acquiring) data on the process and sending commands (control) to the process. This is the
servers and software responsible for communicating with the field equipment (RTUs,
PLCs, etc), and then to the HMI software running on workstations in the control room, or
elsewhere.
(iv) Programmable logic controller (PLCs) used as field devices because they are more
economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than special-purpose RTUs.
(v) Communication Network: Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory
system to the remote terminal units. The communication equipment needed to transfer the
data to and from different sites to the central station. The medium used can either be cable
 or telephone. Remotes are usually not Accessible by telephone lines. The use of radio offers
an economical solution. Modems are used to connect the remote sites to the host.
(vi) Field Instrumentation: refers to the devices that are connected to the equipment or
machines being controlled and monitored by the SCADA system .These are sensors for
monitoring certain parameters; and actuators for controlling certain modules of the system.

b) Explain the following strategies used to develop SCADA security

i) Border router Firewalls
ii) Proxy server
(i) Border router is a router that is usually deployed in front of the organization's main
firewalls and performs some basic checks on network activity, such as ingress and egress
filtering that may be helpful in stopping some Internet-based worms from reaching the
organization's firewall. Although the firewall should also block such worms, having the
Internet border routers do so can take some load off the firewall. During a major worm
incident, organizations might need to reconfigure some of their Internet border routers to
block incoming worm activity so that the firewalls do not become overloaded.

(ii) Proxy server is a server (a computer system or an application) that acts as an intermediary
for requests from clients seeking resources from other servers. A client connects to the
proxy server, requesting some service, such as a file, connection, web page, or other
resource available from a different server and the proxy server evaluates the request as a
way to simplify and control its complexity. A proxy server is associated with or part of a
gateway server that separates the enterprise network from the outside network and a
firewall server that protects the enterprise network from outside intrusion. Proxy servers
have two main purposes:
- Improve Performance: Proxy servers improve performance for groups of users. This
is because it saves the results of all requests for a certain amount of time.
- Filter Requests: Proxy servers can also be used to filter requests. For example, a
company might use a proxy server to prevent its employees from accessing a specific
set of Web sites.

c) A manufacturing company wants to develop a supervisory control and data acquisition

(SCADA) system in its establishment. Describe the five phases of creating a functional
SCADA system.
(vi) Phase 1: The DESIGN of the system architecture includes the communication system. Also
involved in this initial phase will be any site instrumentation that is not currently in existence,
but will be required to monitor desired parameters. Design stage translate the design basis
document into a system design and document the design clearly and completely so that it can
be constructed properly, commissioned completely, and operated and maintained reliably and
efficiently.
(vii) Phase 2: The SUPPLY of RTU, communication, and HMI equipment, which consists of
a PC system and the required powerful graphic and alarm software programs.
(viii) Phase 3: The PROGRAMMING of the communication equipment and the powerful HMI
graphic and alarm software programs.
(ix) Phase 4: The INSTALLATION of the communication equipment and the PC system. The
stage involves installing and placing into operation the SCADA system hardware and software
in compliance with the design documents.
 (x) Phase 5: The COMMISSIONING of the system, where communication and HMI
programming problems are solved, and the system is proven to the client, and operator training
and system documentation is provided. Commissioning is the formal process of verifying and
documenting that the installed SCADA system complies with and performs in accordance with
the design intent, as defined in the design documentation

8 a) State any two disadvantages of using network bridges in extending networks

(i) Bridging does not acquire any address placement related to the physical address of
the connected terminals. Thus a data packet is sent to every address.
(ii) All bridges are unable to read specific IP address; they are more concerned with the
MAC addresses.
(iii) Bridges cannot help to build a communication network between the networks of
different architectures.
(iv) Bridges transfer all types of broadcast messages, thus bridges are unable to limit the
scope of these messages.
(v) Extremely large networks cannot rely on bridges; therefore the large networks as
WAN which are IP address specific can not make use of it.
(vi) It is unable to handle more complex and variable data load such as occurring from
WAN.

b) Describe the following HART communication modes:

i) Master slave mode
ii) Burst mode

(i) Master Slave Mode: This means that during normal operation, each slave (field device)
communication is initiated by a master communication device. Two masters can connect
to each HART loop. The primary master is generally a distributed control system (DCS),
programmable logic controller (PLC), or a personal computer (PC). The secondary master
can be a handheld terminal or another PC. Slave devices include transmitters, actuators,
and controllers that respond to commands from the primary or secondary master.
(ii) Burst Mode: It enables faster communication (3–4 data updates per second). In burst
mode, the master instructs the slave device to continuously broadcast a standard HART
 reply message (e.g., the value of the process variable). The master receives the message at
the higher rate until it instructs the slave to stop bursting. Use of burst mode enables more
than one passive HART device to listen to communications on the HART loop.

c) Cargo handling Company Limited is located in industrial area of Nairobi. In their

neighbourhood are other companies dealing with motor rewinding and lathe machining.
The company intends to implement a network in their offices and you have been consulted
to advice them on the merits of each of the following types of cables in order to help them
make informed decision on the right cable selection from the following:
i) UTP
ii) STP
iii) Fibre
What advice would you offer?

(i) UTP
PRO: Most flexible; cheapest cable (but requires expensive support components); easy to
install; easy to add users; may be able to use existing phone cable if data grade
CON: Shortest usable cable length; susceptible to electrical interference; unsecure; generally
not good for use between buildings
(ii) Shielded twisted pair (STP) is similar to UTP except it contains a copper braid jacket to ‘shield’ the
wires from electrical interference. It can support transmissions over greater distances than UTP.
(iii) Fiber-Optic
PRO: Fastest transmission rate; not susceptible to electrical interference; secure; good for use
between buildings
CON: Most expensive; relatively difficult to work with
(iv) Coaxial Cable
PRO: Flexible and easy to install; relatively good resistance to electronic interference;
electronic support components are relatively inexpensive
CON: Short cable length; more expensive than UTP; unsecure; hard to change configuration;
thinnet generally not good for use between buildings

d) With aid of a diagram, describe the mesh topology used in industrial networks and state its
advantage.
In a mesh network, devices are connected with many redundant
interconnections between network nodes. In a true mesh topology every
node has a connection to every other node in the network. There are two
types of mesh topologies:
(i) Full mesh topology occurs when every node has a circuit
connecting it to every other node in a network. Full mesh is very expensive
to implement but yields the greatest amount of redundancy, so in the event
that one of those nodes fails, network traffic can be directed to any of the other nodes. Full
mesh is usually reserved for backbone networks.
(ii) Partial mesh topology is less expensive to implement and yields less redundancy than full
mesh topology. With partial mesh, some nodes are organized in a full mesh scheme but
others are only connected to one or two in the network. Partial mesh topology is commonly
found in peripheral networks connected to a full meshed backbone.
Advantages

- Point-to-point line configuration makes identification and isolation of faults easy.

- Messages travel through a dedicated line, directly to the intended recipient; privacy and
security are thus enhanced.
- Should a fault occur in a given link, only those communications between that specific pair
of devices sharing the link will be affected.
- Dedicated links ensure that each connection carries its own data load, thereby preventing
the sort of traffic problems that may arise in shared-link architectures.

Disadvantages

- The more extensive the network, in terms of scope or of physical area, the greater the
investment necessary to build it will be, due, among other considerations, to the amount of
cabling and the number of hardware ports it will require. For this reason, such networks
are uncommon.
- Because every device must be connected to every other device, installation and
reconnection are difficult.

2521/202 INDUSTRIAL CONTROL SYSTEMS

Oct/Nov 2012
6 a) Draw a labeled block diagram of the internal architecture of a Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC) and state the function of each block
 b) Describe the following Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) system styles
i) Unitary
ii) Modular
iii) Rack Mounting
(i) Unitary: The Unitary PLC is typically the smallest and least expensive. It would be used in a
small machine or fixed application such as overhead door controls or a stand-alone parts
inspection system. They are not expandable so the application is limited to on-board I/O. There
are, however, some very powerful units available with built in GSM, color screens, and web
servers. Most have 1 or 2 analog I/O channels as well as a high speed input and pulse train
output for simple motion control.
(ii) Modular: The Modular PLCs start with a processor with a few or no on-board I/O. They
typically mount to a DIN rail and sometimes require a separate power supply. Additional I/O
as well as specialty modules also snap onto the DIN rail and plug into the processor or adjacent
module. Modular PLCs are used in applications where a higher I/O count is needed or when
using specialty modules such as quadrature encoders, thermocouple inputs, etc. They are also
useful in small applications that have options or “upgrades” available to the end user. Systems
can be expanded (within certain limits) without adding additional rack space.
(iii)Rack Mounting PLCs are usually more expensive, expandable, and powerful than unitary or
modular PLCs. The rack provides a power and communication backplane that greatly increases
the communication rate between the processor and the modules as well as allowing some
specialty modules to communicate with each other without the processor. In some brands,
multiple processors can be in the same rack and share the inputs. Racks also allow for
redundant processors for critical systems such as waste water pumps or fire control systems.
The types of modules available for rack systems are far more extensive than modular systems.
The number of available I/O points is also much higher in the rack systems. Around 1000 for
some modular PLCs versus over 100,000 for the same brand of rack system

c) State any two programming languages used in PLC

Part 3 of IEC 61131 deals with programming languages and defines two graphical and
two textual PLC programming language standards:
(i) Ladder diagram (LD), graphical
(ii) Function block diagram (FBD), graphical
(iii) Structured text (ST), textual
(iv) Instruction list (IL), textual
(v) Sequential function chart (SFC), has elements to organize programs for sequential
and parallel control processing.

7 a) With the aid of a block diagram, explain how a PLC process input from the sensors
Input scan: During the input scan, the current status of every input module is stored in the
input image (memory) table, bringing it up-to-date. Thus all the status of the input devices
(which in turn is connected to the input module) is updated in the input memory table.

Program scan: Following the input scan, the CPU enters its user program execution, or
program scan. The execution involves starting at the program's first instruction, then moving
on to the second instruction and carrying out its execution sequence. This continues to the
 last program instruction. Throughout the user-program execution, the CPU continually keeps
its output image (memory) table up-to-date.

Output scan: During program scan, the output modules themselves are not kept continually
up to date.
Instead, the entire output image table is transferred to the output modules during the output
scan which comes after the program execution. Thus the output devices are activated
accordingly during the output scan.

b) i) Define a SCADA system

SCADA refers to the combination of telemetry and data acquisition. SCADA encompasses
the collecting of the information, transferring it back to the central site, carrying out any
necessary analysis and control and then displaying that information on a number of
operator screens or displays. The required control actions are then conveyed back to the
process.

ii) State any three advantages of using PLC in a SCADA system

The advantages of the PLC / DCS SCADA system are:
 Cost effective for controlling complex systems.
 Flexible and can be reapplied to control other systems quickly and easily.
 Computational abilities allow more sophisticated control.
 Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and reduce downtime.
 Reliable components make these likely to operate for years before failure.
 The computer can record and store a very large amount of data.
 The data can be displayed in any way the user requires.
 Thousands of sensors over a wide area can be connected to the system.
 The operator can incorporate real data simulations into the system.
 Many types of data can be collected from the RTUs.
 The data can be viewed from anywhere, not just on site.

The disadvantages are:

 The system is more complicated than the sensor to panel type.
 Different operating skills are required, such as system analysts and programmer.
 With thousands of sensors there is still a lot of wire to deal with.
 The operator can see only as far as the PLC.

c) Describe the following communication systems used in a SCADA system.

i) Ethernet
ii) Device Net
iii) Profibus
(i) Ethernet works on the principle of media access controlled by a collision detection
mechanism. Each station is identified by a unique key, or MAC address, to ensure that every
computer on an Ethernet network has a different address. This technology known as Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) ensures that only one station can
transmit a message on the medium at a time. Successive Ethernet upgrades have given rise to
 the IEEE 802.3 standard which only defines the characteristics of the physical layers; the way
the data accesses the network and the data frame must be defined by further layers.
(ii) DeviceNet is a network system used in the automation industry to interconnect control devices
for data exchange. It uses Controller Area Network as the backbone technology and defines an
application layer to cover a range of device profiles. Typical applications include information
exchange, safety devices, and large I/O control networks.
(iii) PROFIBUS (Process Field Bus) is a standard for fieldbus communication which is a widely
accepted international networking standard, commonly found in process control and in large
assembly and material handling machines in automation technology.
- It supports single-cable wiring of multi-input sensor blocks, pneumatic valves, complex
intelligent devices, smaller sub-networks (such as ASi), and operator interfaces.
- It is an open, vendor independent standard. It adheres to the OSI model, ensuring that
devices from a variety of different vendors can communicate easily and effectively.
- The bus interfacing hardware is implemented on ASIC (Application Specific Integrated
Circuit) chips produced by multiple vendors, and are based on RS-485 as well as the
European EN50170 Electrical specification.
- ProfiBus uses 9-Pin D-type connectors (impedance terminated) or 12mm round (M12-
style) quick-disconnect connectors. The number of nodes is limited to 127.
- The distance supported is up to 24km (with repeaters and fiber optic transmission), with
speeds varying from 9600bps to 12Mbps. The message size can be up to 244 bytes of data
per node per message (12 bytes of overhead for a maximum message length of 256 bytes),
while the medium access control mechanisms are polling and token passing.
- ProfiBus supports two main types of devices, namely, masters and slaves.
 Master devices control the bus and when they have the right to access the bus, they may
transfer messages without any remote request. These are referred to as active stations
 Slave devices are typically peripheral devices i.e. transmitters/sensors and actuators.
They may only acknowledge received messages or, at the request of a master, transmit
messages to that master. These are also referred to as passive stations.
There are two variations of PROFIBUS in use:
o PROFIBUS DP (Decentralized Peripherals) is used to operate sensors and actuators via a
centralized controller in production (factory) automation applications.
o PROFIBUS PA (Process Automation) is used to monitor measuring equipment via a
process control system in process automation applications. This variant is designed for use
in explosion/hazardous areas (Ex-zone 0 and 1). The Physical Layer (i.e. the cable)
conforms to IEC 61158-2, which allows power to be delivered over the bus to field
instruments, while limiting current flows so that explosive conditions are not created, even
if a malfunction occurs. The number of devices attached to a PA segment is limited by this
feature. PA has a data transmission rate of 31.25 kbps.

d) Differentiate between centralized and distributive approaches used in designing a SCADA

system.
There have been two main approaches to follow in designing the SCADA system:
 Centralized, where a single computer or mainframe performs all plant monitoring and all
plant data is stored on one database which resides on this computer.
 Distributed, where the SCADA system is shared across several small computers (usually
PCs).
8. a) Describe the following network connection giving examples in each case.
i) LAN
ii) Internet
(i) Local Area Network LAN –is a computer network that interconnects computers in a limited
area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building using network media.
(ii) Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the
standard Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to serve several billion users worldwide. It is a
network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and
government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic,
wireless and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of
information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of
the World Wide Web (WWW), the infrastructure to support email, and peer-to-peer
networks.

b) Using OSI reference model diagram indicate different encapsulation process at every peer-
to peer communication layer of two Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) of a SCADA system
starting with the top most down to the lowest layers.
c) An Alarm system is used in conjunction with an automated bottling system in a milk bottling
plant. A conveyer belt carries empty bottles that are to be filled with milk. The alarm goes
off in any of the conditions occurs.
- Milk tank is empty and bottles are in conveyor belt.
- There are no bottles in the conveyer and there is milk in the tank.
- There is milk in the tank and bottles on the conveyor belt but electric power is off.
- There is no milk in the tank, no bottles on the conveyor belt and electric power is off.
i) Write down a Boolean expression for the alarm system.
ii) Implement this system using a PLC ladder diagram.

Tank with no – 0, Bottles in conveyer – 1 A.B = X

Tank with milk – 1, No bottle in conveyer – 0 A.B = X
Tank with Milk – 1, Bottles in conveyer – 1, Power off – 0 A.B.C = X
Tank with Milk – 0, No Bottles in conveyer – 0, Power off – 0
A.B.C = X

A.B + A.B+ A.B.C + A.B.C = X

2601/201 CONTROL SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC

CONTROLLERS
Oct/Nov 2012

5 a) Define the term ‘Programmable Logic Controller’

A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is an industrial computer control system that
continuously monitors the state of input devices and makes decisions based upon a custom
program, to control the state of devices connected as outputs.

b) State two advantages of Programmable Logic Controller

(i) Cost effective for controlling complex systems.
(ii) Flexible and can be reapplied to control other systems quickly and easily.
 (iii)Computational abilities allow more sophisticated control.
(iv) Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and reduce downtime.
(v) Reliable components make these likely to operate for years before failure.

c) With the aid of a block diagram, describe the construction of a Programmable Logic
Controller
In the figure, the heart of the “PLC” is in the center, i.e., the Processor or CPU (Central
Processing Unit).

 The CPU regulates the PLC program, data storage, and data exchange with I//O modules.
 Input and output modules are the media for data exchange between field devices and
CPU. It tells CPU the exact status of field devices and also acts as a tool to control them.
 A programming device is a computer loaded with programming software, which allows
a user to create, transfer and make changes in the PLC software.
 Memory provides the storage media for the PLC program as well as for different data.
OR
 CPU or processor: The main processor (Central Processing Unit or CPU) is a
microprocessor-based system that executes the control program after reading the status
of field inputs and then sends commands to field outputs.
 I/O section: I/O modules act as “Real Data Interface” between field and PLC CPU. The
PLC knows the real status of field devices, and controls the field devices by means of the
relevant I/O cards.
 Programming device: A CPU card can be connected with a programming device
through a communication link via a programming port on the CPU.
 Operating station: An operating station is commonly used to provide an "Operating
Window" to the process. It is usually a separate device (generally a PC), loaded with HMI
(Human Machine Software).

6. a) Define the term ‘Computer networking’

Computer networking is the interconnection, as over communication lines, of computer
systems. This involves connecting computers and peripherals using pieces of equipment;
switches and routers etc to enable the devices that are connected to your network to
communicate with each other, as well as with other networks.
 b) Describe the following types of computer networks
i) LAN
ii) WAN
iii) MAN
(i) Local Area Network LAN – These types of computer networks connect network devices
over a relatively short distance. Quite often, a networked office building, home or school
contains a single LAN although it is normal to come across a building that contains a few
small LANs. On a few occasions, a LAN may also span over a group of nearby buildings.
Such computer networks are usually owned by one organization.
(ii) Wide Area Network WAN – As the name suggests, a WAN spans over a large physical
distance. It may be regarded as a collection of LANs dispersed over a geographical area.
The internet is a very good example of a WAN. LANs are connected to a WAN through a
device referred to as a router. In IP networking, both the LAN and WAN addresses are
maintained by the router. Most WANs exist under distributed or collective ownership and
management and unlike the LANs, are not necessarily owned by one organization.
(iii) Wireless Local Area Network WLAN – These types of computer networks refer to LANs
that are based on Wi-Fi wireless network technology.
(iv) Metropolitan Area Network MAN – This is a network that spans over a physical area
like a city that is smaller than a WAN but larger than a LAN. Quite often, such computer
networks are owned and operated by single entities such as government bodies or large
corporations

c) With the aid of diagram, explain the following topologies:

i) Bus
ii) Star
Bus Topology
A bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end. All nodes (file server,
workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.

Advantages of a Bus Topology

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Bus Topology
 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Star Topology
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) connected directly
to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator.
Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its destination.
The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater
for the data flow. This configuration is common with twisted pair cable; however, it can also be used with
coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.
Advantages of a Star Topology
 Easy to install and wire.
 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
 If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.

Ring Network Topology: A local-area network (LAN) whose topology is a ring. That is, all
of the nodes are connected in a closed loop. Messages travel around the ring, with each
node reading those messages addressed to it. One of the advantages of ring networks is that
they can span larger distances than other types of networks, such as bus networks, because
each node regenerates messages as they pass through it.
Mesh network Topology: The mesh network topology employs either of two schemes, called full
mesh and partial mesh. In the full mesh topology, each workstation is connected directly to each of the
others. In the partial mesh topology, some workstations are connected to all the others, and some are
connected only to those other nodes with which they exchange the most data.
Tree Network Topology: The tree network topology uses two or more star networks connected
together. The central computers of the star networks are connected to a main bus. Thus, a tree network
is a bus network of star networks.

7 a) Describe ‘SCADA’ system

A SCADA (or supervisory control and data acquisition) system means a system consisting
of a number of remote terminal units (or RTUs) collecting field data connected back to a
master station via a communications system. The master station displays the acquired data
and also allows the operator to perform remote control tasks.

b) Define the following terms in reference to SCADA

i) Human machine Interface
ii) Programmable Logic Controller
(i) A human–machine interface or HMI is the apparatus or device which presents
processed data to a human operator, and through this, the human operator monitors and
controls the process. The HMI of a SCADA system is where data is processed and
 presented to be viewed and monitored by a human operator. This interface usually
includes control where the individual can interface with the SCADA system
(ii) Programmable logic controller (PLCs) used as field devices because they are more
economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than special-purpose RTUs.

c) Explain the functions of the following parts of a SCADA system:

i) Remote Terminal unit
ii) Supervisory station
(i) Remote Terminal Unit (RTU):- RTU is a device installed at a remote location that
collects data, codes the data into a format that is transmittable and transmits the data
back to a central station, or master (supervisory system). An RTU also collects
information from the master device and implements processes that are directed by the
master
(ii) A supervisory (computer) system/ Master Terminal Unit (MTU):- gathering
(acquiring) data on the process and sending commands (control) to the process. This is
the servers and software responsible for communicating with the field equipment
(RTUs, PLCs, etc), and then to the HMI software running on workstations in the control
room, or elsewhere.

d) With the aid of a ladder program and a process control figure, explain how a converter can
be used in a machine to direct 6 products to a packaging box and 12 products to another box
simultaneously.
 The control of a machine which is required to direct 6 products along one path for
packaging in a box and then 12 products along another path the packaging in another box.
 A deflector plate might be controlled by a photocell sensor which gives an output every
time a product passes it. Thus the numb rod pulse from the sensor has to be counted and
used to control the deflector.
 On rung 1, each time the photo sensor is triggered it causes C1’s count to increase. When
C1, the six product counter, reaches six it causes the deflector to activate.
 On rung 3, while the deflector is activated C2, the 12 products counter, and starts counting
the products. On rung 4, after 12 products are counted the counters are reset and the
process starts again.
 The process can also be reset at anytime using the start button.
8) a) Explain how fault-finding is carried out in PLC systems
 With any PLC controlled plant, by far the greater percentage of the faults are likely to be
with sensors, actuators and wiring rather than within the PLC itself.
 Of the faults within the PLC, most are likely to be in the input/output channels or power
supply rather than in the CPU.
 The actual fault finding starts once the actual status has been established and compared
with the required status. This comparison frequently leads to the discovery of the error
source, if the fault is visible (e.g. mechanical damage to a signal generator), audible (e.g.
leakage on a valve), detectable by smell (e.g. cable burnt out). If this is not the case, the
fault can only be found and eliminated by means of a systematic procedure.
 Many PLCs provide built-in fault analysis procedures which carry out self-testing and
display fault codes, with possibly a brief message, which can be translated by looking up
the code in a list to give the source of the fault and possible methods of recovery. For
example, the fault code may indicate that the source of the fault is in a particular module
with the method of recovery given as replace that module or perhaps switch the power off
and then on.
b) Describe the following fault detection techniques in reference to PLCs:
i) time checks
ii) Replication
Fault Detection Techniques
(i) Timing checks: The term watchdog is used for a timing check that is carried out by the
PLC to check that some function has been carried out within the normal time. If the
function is not carried out within the normal time then a fault is assumed to have occurred
and the watchdog timer trips, setting off an alarm and perhaps closing down the PLC. As
part of the internal diagnostics of PLCs, watchdog timers are used to detect for faults. The
watchdog timer is preset to a time slightly longer than the scan time would normally be.
They are then set at the beginning of each program scan and if the cycle time is as normal
they do not time out and are reset at the end of a cycle ready for the next cycle. However,
if the cycle time is longer than it would normally be, the watchdog timer times out and
indicate that the system has a fault.
Time checks can also be built into the ladder logic program. This is where additional ladder
rungs might be includes so that when a function starts a timer is started. If the function does
not complete when the timer finishes a fault is signaled.
(ii) Last output set: This technique involves the use of status lamps to indicate the last output
that has been set during a process which has come to a halt. Such lamps are built into the
program so that as each output occurs a lamp comes on. The lamps on thus indicate which
outputs are occurring. The program has to be designed to turn off previous status lamps
and turn on a new status lamp as each new output is turned on.
(iii)Replication: Where there is concern regarding safety in the case of a fault developing,
checks may be constantly used to detect faults. One technique is replication checks which
involves duplicating, i.e. replicating, the PLC system. This could mean that the system
repeats every operation twice and if it gets the same result it is assumed there is no fault.
This procedure can detect transient faults. A more expensive alternative is to have duplicate
PLC systems and compare the results given by the two systems. In the absence of a fault
the two results should be the same, a fault showing up as a difference.
(iv) Expected value checks: Software errors can be detected by checking whether an expected
value is obtained when a specific input occurs. If the expected value is not obtained then a
fault is assumed to be occurring.

c) i) Define the term calibration with reference to PLCs.

Calibration is the process of checking PLC/field devices and making sure that values used
in measurements remain at standard points. It is the process of verifying the PLC and I/O
devices work and performance within a set of specifications.
Calibration is defines as determination of the experimental relationship between the
quantity being measured and the output of the device which measures it; where the quantity
measured is obtained through a recognized standard of measurement. There are two
fundamental operations involved in calibrating any instrument:
- Testing the instrument to determine its performance,
- Adjusting the instrument to perform within specification.

ii) Describe the following characteristics of calibration:

I) Tolerance
 II) Accuracy
Tolerance: Permissible deviation from a specified value; may be expressed in
measurement units, percent of span, or percent of reading.
Accuracy: The ratio of the error to the full scale output or the ratio of the error to the
output, expressed in percent span or percent reading, respectively.

d) Explain how zero and span errors are corrected in measuring instruments
Zero and span errors are corrected by performing a calibration. Most instruments are provided
with a means of adjusting the zero and span of the instrument, along with instructions for
performing this adjustment.
- The zero adjustment is used to produce a parallel shift of the input-output curve.
- The span adjustment is used to change the slope of the input-output curve.
- Linearization error may be corrected if the instrument has a linearization adjustment.
If the magnitude of the nonlinear error is unacceptable and it cannot be adjusted, the
instrument must be replaced.

2601/201 CONTROL SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC

CONTROLLERS
Oct/Nov 2011
5. a) i) Define a programmable Logic Controller (PLC’s)
A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a microcomputer-based controller that uses
stored instructions in programmable memory to implement logic, sequencing, timing,
counting, and arithmetic functions through digital or analogue input/output modules, for
controlling machines and processes. PLCs are used in a large variety of scenarios, both in
process industries and discrete manufacturing.

ii) Distinguish between supervisory control and data acquisition and distributed control
system
 A DCS is a process-oriented system and it treats the control of the process, (the chemical
plant, refinery or whatever) as its main task, and it presents data to operators as part of its
job.
 A SCADA system is data gathering oriented; and the control center and operators are its
focus. However, the remote equipment is merely there to collect the data - though it may
also do some very complex process control.
 A DCS operator station is intimately connected with its input/output signals (I/O) through
local wiring, communication buses (e.g. Field Bus, networks) etc. When the DCS
operator wants to see information he/she usually makes a request directly to the field I/O
and gets a response. Field events can directly interrupt the system and advise the operator.
 A SCADA system must continue to operate when field communications have failed. The
‘quality’ of data shown to the operator is an important facet of SCADA system operation.
SCADA systems often provide special ‘event’ processing mechanisms to handle
conditions that occur between data acquisition periods.
There are many other differences, but they tend to involve a lot of detail. The underlying points
are:
 A SCADA system needs to transfer secure data and control signals over a potentially
slow, unreliable communications medium, and needs to maintain a database of ‘last
known good values’ for prompt operator display. It frequently needs to do event
processing and data quality validation. Redundancy is usually handled in a distributed
manner.
 A DCS is always connected to its data source, so it does not need to maintain a database
of ‘current values’. Redundancy is usually handled by parallel equipment, not by
diffusion of information around a distributed database.

b) With the aid of a diagram, explain how PLC’s can be used to control water level in a tank
 c) Explain why user interface is necessary in PLC’s
A user interface is the system by which people (users) interact with a machine. The user
interface includes hardware (physical) and software (logical) components. User interfaces
exist for various systems, and provide a means of:
 Input, allowing the users to manipulate a system
 Output, allowing the system to indicate the effects of the users' manipulation
6) i) Define ladder logic control system
It is a control system whish uses ladder logic to manage, command, directs or regulates the
behavior of other device(s) or system(s).

ii) With aid of a labeled block diagram, explain the hardware architecture of a SCADA system

 Basic layers in a SCADA system can be classified in two parts generally: the “client layer”
which caters for the man machine interaction and the “data server layer” which handles most
of the process data control activities. The data servers communicate with devices in the field
through process controllers.
 Process controllers, e.g. PLCs, are connected to the data servers either directly or via networks
or fieldbuses. Data servers are connected to each other and to client stations via an
Ethernet LAN.
 The RTU connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts the electrical signals from the
equipment to digital values such as the open/closed status from a switch or a valve, or measurements
such as pressure, flow, voltage or current. By converting and sending these electrical signals out to
equipment the RTU can control equipment, such as opening or closing a switch or a valve, or setting the
speed of a pump.
 Supervisory Station; The term “Supervisory Station” refers to the servers and software responsible for
communicating with the field equipment (RTUs, PLCs, etc), and then to the HMI software running on
workstations in the control room, or elsewhere.
 In smaller SCADA systems, the master station may be composed of a single PC. In larger SCADA
systems, the master station may include multiple servers, distributed software applications, and disaster
recovery sites.
 To increase the integrity of the system the multiple servers will often be configured in a dual-redundant
or hot-standby formation providing continuous control and monitoring in the event of a server failure.

b i) State and explain four user configurable open system (UCOS) components
UCOS is a control system that employs object-oriented techniques at every level of its system
architecture. It includes a number of subsystems which segment the functionality of UCOS.
This includes an Engineering Workstation Subsystem, an Operator Workstation Subsystem,
and a Field Control Unit (FCU) Controller Subsystem. The subsystems communicate via a
Control Network.
 Engineering Workstation (EWS) used for project development. The EWS is the
development tool where control schemes are configured then downloaded to the OWS, FCU,
and SDS. The entire project is configured using a single integrated tool based on graphical
Windows standards. Graphical techniques are also used to define the logical relationships
among the devices in a process area. Project configuration begins by defining the system
architecture: workstations, field control units (FCUs), I/O, networking, etc. Graphical
techniques are also used to define the logical relationships among the control elements for
multiple devices.
 Operator Workstation (OWS) for operator interface. This is used to monitor and control
the process. It uses the project screens created during project development and animates
them based on real-time data received from field control units and field data servers.
Authorized operators can monitor detailed activities for many types of devices and send
commands using standard faceplate command windows and group displays.
 Field Control Unit (FCU) for control logic execution and direct scanning of I/O. The FCU
provides I/O services by monitoring and controlling I/O across standard networks and data
highways. The FCU can provide simultaneous support for multiple vendors’ I/O and I/O
networks. The variety of platform and form-factor options supported by the FCU allows
incorporation of distributed, distinct I/O subsystems into common control strategies.
  Control Network. System supports redundant and non-redundant fiber optic and Ethernet
local networks using the TCP/IP networking protocol for standardized, advanced application
connectivity. The LAN/WAN can be extended to other sites inside or outside the plant using
such remote communications technologies as satellite, radio, microwave, and dial-up
running such standard protocols as TCP/IP, Modbus, OPC, DDE
 I/O Subsystem supporting I/O from all industry standard suppliers. The same logic can be
solved to manipulate different I/O subsystems from different manufacturers without having
to change any of the programming or operational parameters of the configured system.
 SCADA Data Server (SDS) for interfacing data from intelligent devices, such as PLCs,
Fieldbus technologies, RTUs, PLC I/O, and other third-party devices
 Process Historical Archiver (PHA) for storing and retrieving historical data collected by
the FCU, SDS or any other intelligent device in the system
 microFCU: is a small, low-powered PLC that executes sequential and regulatory logic and
directly scans onboard I/O. It can replace RTUs at a significant reduction in cost and power
consumption – plus it can provide local intelligent control of devices, which RTUs can't do.

ii) Distinguish between data hacking and cracking

Hacking, is the act of stealing personal or private data, without the owner's knowledge or
consent, it could also include other things like stealing passwords, creating a bot net, or
pretty much any act that breaches someone's privacy, without their knowledge, or consent.
Hacking is any technical effort to manipulate the normal behavior of network connections
and connected systems
Cracking is where edit a program's source code, or you could create a program, like a key
generator (more commonly known as a 'keygen'), patch, or some sort of application that
tricks an application in to thinking that a particular process has occurred.

7 a) i) Define the term computer network

A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that
allows computers to exchange data. In computer networks, networked computing
devices (network nodes) pass data to each other along data connections. The
connections (network links) between nodes are established using either cable
media or wireless media. The best-known computer network is the Internet.
A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing hardware
devices that are linked together through communication channels to facilitate
 communication and resource-sharing among a wide range of users. Networks are
commonly categorized based on their characteristics.

ii) Distinguish between internet and Ethernet

 Ethernet is a local area network used to connect computers near one another. Ethernet
is a family of frame-based computer networking technologies for local area networks
(LANs). The name comes from the physical concept of the ether. Ethernet is a set of
standards for physically connecting computers in a local area network. In terms of OSI
network layers, Ethernet provides only the physical layer and the data link layer. It
defines a number of wiring and signaling standards for the Physical Layer of the OSI
networking model, through means of network access at the Media Access Control
(MAC) /Data Link Layer, and a common addressing format. Ethernet is standardized
as IEEE 802.3.
 Internet is a global network of interconnected computers, enabling users to share
information along multiple channels. Typically, a computer that connects to the Internet
can access information from a vast array of available servers and other computers by
moving information from them to the computer's local memory. The same connection
allows that computer to send information to servers on the network; that information is
in turn accessed and potentially modified by a variety of other interconnected
computers

iii) Describe the following cables used in networking

I) Coaxial cable
II) Fibre optic cable

Networking cables are used to connect one network device to other network devices or to
connect two or more computers to share resources. Different types of network cables like
Coaxial cable, Optical fiber cable, Twisted Pair cables are used depending on the network's
topology, protocol and size. The devices can be separated by a few meters (e.g. via
Ethernet) or nearly unlimited distances (e.g. via the interconnections of the Internet).
Twisted pair cabling is a form of wiring in which pairs of wires (the forward and
return conductors of a single circuit) are twisted together for the purposes of
canceling out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from other wire pairs and from
external sources. This type of cable is used for home and corporate Ethernet
networks. There are two types of twisted pair cables: shielded, unshielded. STP is
commonly used in Token Ring networks and UTP in Ethernet networks where it is
referred to as "10baseT and above." Transmission rates vary between 10-1000
Mbps.
Fiber-optic cable consists of a thin cylinder of glass surrounded by glass cladding,
encased in protective outer sheath. Fiber-optic cable is very fast (100 -1000
Mbps). It can transmit over long distances (2 km +) but is expensive.
Coaxial cable has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides
insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield. The metal shield
helps to block any outside interference. Coaxial cable comes in two versions:
Thinnet and Thicknet. Thinnet is about 1/4 inch in diameter and is very flexible and
 easy to work with. In contrast, Thicknet is about 1/2 inch in diameter and not very
flexible. Coax transmits at 10 Mbps.

b) With the aid of diagram, describe the following types of topologies

i) Star
ii) Bus

 Star topology: This is the Ethernet topology, the most common at management and shop floor
levels. It has the advantage of being very flexible to run and repair. The end stations are linked
together via an intermediate device (repeater, switch). Failure of a node does not prevent the
network as a whole from working, though the intermediate device linking the nodes together is
a point of weakness.

 Bus topology: This is one of the simplest layouts; all the elements are wired together along the
same transmission line. The word bus refers to the physical line. This topology is easily
implemented and the failure of a node or element does not prevent the other devices from
working. Machine and sensor level networks, otherwise known as field buses, use this system.
The bus topology is implemented by linking devices together in a chain or to the main cable via
a connection box (TAP)

8 a) Define the following network components:

i) Repeater
ii) Switch
iii) Bridge
 Repeater: a device which amplifies or regenerates digital signals received while sending
them from one part of a network into another. It works on OSI layer 1.
 Switch: a device that allocates traffic from one network segment to certain lines (intended
destination(s)) which connect the segment to another network segment. Unlike a hub, a
switch splits the network traffic and sends it to different destinations rather than to all
systems on the network. It works on OSI layer 2.
 Bridge: a device that connects multiple network segments along the data link layer. It
separates two or more network segments within one logical network (e.g. a single IP-
subnet). It works on OSI layer 2.
 Hub: a device that connects multiple Ethernet segments, making them act as a single
segment. When using a hub, every attached device shares the same broadcast domain and
the same collision domain. Therefore, only one computer connected to the hub is able to
transmit at a time. Depending on the network topology, the hub provides a basic level 1 OSI
model connection among the network objects (workstations, servers, etc.). It provides
bandwidth which is shared among all the objects, in contrast to switches, which provide a
connection between individual nodes. It works on OSI layer 1.
b) i) State three factors which necessitate calibration
Calibration is defined as “a test during which known values of measure and are applied to
the transducer and corresponding output readings are recorded under specified conditions.”
The definition includes the capability to adjust the
instrument to zero and to set the desired span.
There are three main reasons for having
instruments calibrated:
 To ensure readings from an instrument are
consistent with other measurements.
 To determine the accuracy of the instrument readings.
 To establish the reliability of the instrument i.e. that it can be trusted.

ii) Describe the following communication devices:

I) RS232
II) HART
 RS-232 is a standard communication protocol for linking computer and its peripheral devices
to allow serial data exchange. It is an interface between Data terminal equipment (DTE) and
Data communication equipment (DCE). It defines the voltage for the path used for data
exchange between the devices. It specifies common voltage and signal level, common pin
wire configuration and minimum, amount of control signals.
 HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer) is a master-slave communication
protocol, which means that during normal operation, each slave (field device) communication
is initiated by a master communication device. Two masters can connect to each HART loop.
The primary master is generally a distributed control system (DCS), programmable logic
controller (PLC), or a personal computer (PC). The secondary master can be a handheld
terminal or another PC. Slave device include transmitters, actuators, and controllers that
respond to commands from the primary or secondary master.

c) With aid of a diagram explain the importance of calibration of equipment and products.
 To ensure readings from an instrument are consistent with other measurements.
 To determine the accuracy of the instrument readings.
 To establish the reliability of the instrument i.e. that it can be trusted.

d) Explain how CAN works

 CAN (Controller Area Network) is a serial bus based on a publisher/subscriber model in which
a publisher sends a message to subscribers. CAN was developed with broadcast architecture.
 The sender (publisher) sends the message with an identifier. The recipients (subscribers) filter
messages from the bus based on their send criteria so if a message is intended for them, they
read and process it. The recipient then becomes a sender.
 The diagram shows the push (send) mode of the publisher/subscriber model. CAN also support
its pull (receive) mode.
 A client can send a message based on a remote transmission request (RTR), which is a CAN
frame with RTR flags (status bits). When the producer receives such a request, it transmits the
related answer.
 In a broadcast architecture, the network nodes can transmit at the same time. CAN have 2
mechanisms to deal with this: first, a sender surveys the communication artery to check if
another node is already transmitting.
 If the artery is free, the node starts to transmit. Several nodes can start transmitting but never at
the same time. This problem is overcome by a priority system.