Tsuboi et al.

Inflammation and Regeneration (2018) 38:28

https://doi.org/10.1186/s41232-018-0086-5
Inflammation and Regeneration

REVIEW Open Access

Endocannabinoids and related

N-acylethanolamines: biological
activities and metabolism
Kazuhito Tsuboi1,2*, Toru Uyama1, Yasuo Okamoto2 and Natsuo Ueda1

Abstract
The plant Cannabis sativa contains cannabinoids represented by Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, which exert psychoactivity
and immunomodulation through cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors, respectively, in animal tissues.
Arachidonoylethanolamide (also referred to as anandamide) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) are well known
as two major endogenous agonists of these receptors (termed “endocannabinoids”) and show various
cannabimimetic bioactivities. However, only 2-AG is a full agonist for CB1 and CB2 and mediates retrograde
signals at the synapse, strongly suggesting that 2-AG is physiologically more important than anandamide. The
metabolic pathways of these two endocannabinoids are completely different. 2-AG is mostly produced from
inositol phospholipids via diacylglycerol by phospholipase C and diacylglycerol lipase and then degraded by
monoacylglycerol lipase. On the other hand, anandamide is concomitantly produced with larger amounts of
other N-acylethanolamines via N-acyl-phosphatidylethanolamines (NAPEs). Although this pathway consists of
calcium-dependent N-acyltransferase and NAPE-hydrolyzing phospholipase D, recent studies revealed the
involvement of several new enzymes. Quantitatively major N-acylethanolamines include palmitoylethanolamide
and oleoylethanolamide, which do not bind to cannabinoid receptors but exert anti-inflammatory, analgesic,
and anorexic effects through receptors such as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α. The biosynthesis
of these non-endocannabinoid N-acylethanolamines rather than anandamide may be the primary significance
of this pathway. Here, we provide an overview of the biological activities and metabolisms of
endocannabinoids (2-AG and anandamide) and non-endocannabinoid N-acylethanolamines.
Keywords: Lipid mediator, Endocannabinoid, 2-Arachidonoylglycerol, Anandamide, N-Acylethanolamine,
Metabolism, Phospholipid, Phospholipase

Background constituent, followed by the determination of its chemical

Preparations of the plant Cannabis sativa, such as structure, was not achieved until the 1960s [2] (Fig. 1). A
marijuana and hashish, have been used for recreational large number of structurally related compounds were also
and medical purposes for thousands of years [1]. The isolated from cannabis and collectively referred to as
oldest written description of medicinal cannabis dates cannabinoids. Synthetic analogs with more potent canna-
back to around 2350 B.C., which was found on a stone bimimetic activities were also developed and used to
from the pyramids in Egypt. Although their psychoactiv- pharmacologically characterize a specific receptor for can-
ities, including euphoria, hallucination, and analgesia, have nabinoids existing in rat brain crude membrane prepara-
been known for a long time, the purification of Δ9-tetra- tions [3]. The central-type CB1 cannabinoid receptor was
hydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) as the major psychoactive then molecularly identified by its cDNA cloning in 1990
[4]. Subsequently, cDNA of the peripheral-type CB2 can-
nabinoid receptor was also found by using its sequence
* Correspondence: [email protected]
1
Department of Biochemistry, Kagawa University School of Medicine, 1750-1 similarity to CB1 receptor [5]. In contrast to Δ9-THC,
Ikenobe, Miki, Kagawa 761-0793, Japan cannabidiol, another major cannabinoid in cannabis,
2
Department of Pharmacology, Kawasaki Medical School, 577 Matsushima, showing anti-inflammatory and anticonvulsive effects, was
Kurashiki, Okayama 701-0192, Japan

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Tsuboi et al. Inflammation and Regeneration (2018) 38:28 Page 2 of 10

Fig. 1 Chemical structures of representative plant cannabinoids, endocannabinoids, and non-endocannabinoid N-acylethanolamines

almost inactive for cannabinoid receptors. Since can activate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor
cannabinoids are derived from the plant cannabis but α (PPARα), a nuclear receptor, and other receptors,
not from mammals, animal tissues were expected to leading to the exertion of biological activities
have endogenous counterparts capable of binding to including anti-inflammation and appetite suppression.
cannabinoid receptors (later termed “endocannabi- In this mini-review, we will outline the biological
noids”). Arachidonoylethanolamide, the ethanolamide activities and metabolisms of endocannabinoids and
of arachidonic acid, was isolated as the first endocan- related N-acylethanolamines and emphasize that 2-AG
nabinoid from pig brain and named anandamide after is physiologically more important than anandamide,
“ananda,” which means bliss in Sanskrit [6] (Fig. 1). which appears to be a minor component concomi-
Shortly after that, another derivative of arachidonic tantly produced with cannabinoid receptor-insensitive
acid, 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), was also reported N-acylethanolamines.
to show the same agonistic activity [7, 8]. It was sur-
prising since 2-AG has been known for a long time Biological activities of endocannabinoids
simply as a common intermediate in the metabolisms CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors are G protein-
of glycerophospholipids and triglyceride. Currently, coupled receptors possessing seven transmembrane
2-AG and anandamide are considered to be a full helices [4, 5]. When the primary structures of the two
agonist and a partial agonist of cannabinoid receptors, receptors from human are compared, 44% of the amino
respectively. Arachidonic acid is a polyunsaturated acid residues are identical over the entire length. In their
fatty acid (20:4) well known as the precursor of transmembrane regions, the sequence identity increases
bioactive prostaglandins and other eicosanoids. to 68%. CB1 receptor exists in abundance at the
Endocannabinoids are thus considered to be other presynaptic terminals in the various regions of the brain,
members of arachidonic acid-related lipid mediators. including substantia nigra, striatum, hippocampus, and
In addition to anandamide, ethanolamides of various cerebral cortex, and negatively regulates the release of
long-chain fatty acids are also present in the body. These the neurotransmitters. CB1 is therefore the principal
ethanolamides, including anandamide, are collectively re- receptor mediating the psychoactivities of cannabis. CB1
ferred to as N-acylethanolamines (Fig. 1). Ethanol-amides receptor is also present in periphery such as adrenal
of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids such as gland, reproductive tissues, and immune cells at lower
palmitic (16:0), stearic (18:0), and oleic acids (18:1) are levels. On the other hand, CB2 receptor is mainly
much more abundant than anandamide in the body. expressed in the immune system including the spleen,
These saturated and monounsaturated N-acylethanol- thymus, and lymph nodes and is involved in the immu-
amines do not bind to cannabinoid receptors, but they nomodulatory effects of cannabinoids. The expression
Tsuboi et al. Inflammation and Regeneration (2018) 38:28 Page 3 of 10

levels of CB2 receptor in the human blood cells are in GPR55 and to mediate the correct guidance of nocicep-
the following order: B cells > natural killer cells >> tive axons in the spinal cord [17]. Since anandamide also
monocytes > polymorphonuclear neutrophil cells > activates the transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1
CD8+ T cells > CD4+ T cells [9]. Activation of these re- (TRPV1) protein, a non-selective cation channel,
ceptors leads to a variety of cellular signal transduction anandamide is also regarded as one of endovanilloids
such as a decrease in the cAMP level, an inhibition of [18]. However, its physiological significance as an endo-
N- and P/Q-type voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels, an vanilloid is not fully elucidated.
opening of inwardly rectifying K+ channels, and an
activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases. Biological activities of non-endocannabinoid
Anandamide and 2-AG exert a variety of bioactivities N-acylethanolamines
as cannabinoid receptor ligands, including the cannabin- Not only anandamide but also several ethanolamides of
oid tetrad: analgesia, catalepsy, hypolocomotion, and polyunsaturated fatty acids possessing three or more double
hypothermia. They also cause bradycardia and reduc- bonds, such as dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (C20:3 ω6), mead
tions of blood and intraocular pressures. As mentioned acid (C20:3 ω9), and adrenic acid (C22:4), bind to cannabin-
above, anandamide is a partial agonist of CB1 receptor, oid receptors [19, 20]. However, saturated and monounsatu-
while 2-AG is a full agonist of both CB1 and CB2 recep- rated N-acylethanolamines do not show ligand activity for
tors. Furthermore, the tissue levels of 2-AG are generally cannabinoid receptors. Instead, these non-endocannabinoid
hundreds to thousands of times higher than those of N-acylethanolamines exert biological activities through
anandamide. Thus, 2-AG is recognized to be the true different receptors. Importantly, non-endocannabinoid
endogenous ligands of CB1 and CB2 receptors and is N-acylethanolamines such as palmitoylethanolamide (PEA,
considered to play more important roles in vivo than C16:0 N-acylethanolamine), stearoylethanolamide (C18:0
anandamide [10]. However, when the anandamide-de- N-acylethanolamine), oleoyl-ethanolamide (OEA, C18:1
grading enzyme, fatty acid amid hydrolase (FAAH), is N-acylethanolamine), and linoleoylethanolamide (C18:2
pharmacologically inhibited or genetically deficient, the N-acylethanolamine) are much more abundant than
local concentration of anandamide would rise and could anandamide in most animal tissues. Biosynthetic enzymes
exert CB1-dependent activities. It is important that for N-acylethanolamines so far reported do not show
2-AG mediates retrograde signals at the synapse [11]. selectivity for anandamide over other N-acylethanolamine
2-AG is synthesized at the postsynaptic neurons in species. Thus, anandamide could be concomitantly
response to the stimulus of neurotransmitters such as produced as a kind of by-product of non-endocannabinoid
glutamic acid. The released 2-AG then binds to and acti- N-acylethanolamines.
vates presynaptic CB1 receptors and inhibits the further PEA is a food component known for more than
release of the neurotransmitter. 60 years [21]. This molecule was isolated from soybean
In addition to CB1 and CB2 receptors, pharmaco- lecithin, egg yolk, and peanut meal and was shown to
logical studies suggest the presence of non-CB1, exert an anti-inflammatory activity in a local passive
non-CB2 receptors mediating the effects of cannabi- joint anaphylaxis assay in the guinea pig [22, 23]. Since
noids. Although several proteins have been discussed as then, PEA has been shown to have anti-inflammatory,
candidates for such potential “CB3” receptor, its exist- analgesic, anti-epileptic, and neuroprotective actions
ence is controversial and not yet established [12]. One of [24, 25]. These actions are mediated at least in part
the candidates is GPR55, a G protein-coupled receptor. by PPARα. Preclinical and clinical studies suggest that
Δ9-THC, a CB1/CB2 receptor agonist CP55940, ananda- PEA is potentially useful in a wide range of therapeutic
mide, and 2-AG were reported to bind to GPR55 recep- areas, including eczema, pain, and neurodegeneration
tor overexpressed in human embryonic kidney HEK293s [26]. In the USA and Europe, PEA is currently marketed
cells with nanomolar potencies, as analyzed with GTPγS as a nutraceutical, a food supplement, or a food for med-
binding experiments [13]. However, the pharmacological ical purposes, depending on the country, which is effective
data of GPR55 gathered so far are conflicting and further for chronic pain represented by neuropathic pain. PEA is
analyses should be continued [14]. On the other hand, also a constituent of cream marketed for dry, irritated,
lysophosphatidylinositol, which is not a ligand of CB1 or and reactive skin. Although it was reported that PEA
CB2 receptor, was found to be the endogenous ligand of could activate GPR55 [13], this agonist activity has not
GPR55 [15]. Although this receptor can be activated by been fully elucidated.
various molecular species of lysophosphatidylinositol OEA is known to have an anorexic activity in experi-
having a different fatty acyl moiety at sn-1 or sn-2 pos- mental animals [27]. Administration of OEA produces
ition, 2-arachidonoyl-lysophosphatidylinositol is reported satiety and reduces body weight gain [28]. OEA binds
to be the most potent [16]. More recently, lysophospha- with high affinity to PPARα, and these effects are not
tidylglucose was reported to be a more potent ligand of observed with PPARα-deficient mice, suggesting that the
Tsuboi et al. Inflammation and Regeneration (2018) 38:28 Page 4 of 10

anorexic action of OEA is mediated by PPARα. Since other than inositol phospholipids, such as phosphatidic
OEA is proposed to be produced from the digested acid and phosphatidylcholine (PC), could also be hydro-
dietary fat in the enterocytes of small intestine [29], en- lyzed to 2-arachidonoyl-diacylglycerol [38–40]. Human
dogenous OEA may mediate the satiety after the intake DAGL has two isozymes, DAGLα and DAGLβ. Their
of fatty food. Furthermore, the dysfunction of OEA sig- cDNAs were cloned in 2003 [41]. In DAGLα-deficient
naling could contribute to overweight and obesity. Thus, mice, the retrograde suppression of synaptic transmis-
analogs of OEA and the inhibitors of OEA-degrading sion is lost with concomitant decreases in 2-AG levels of
enzymes, such as FAAH, could be expected as novel brain and spinal cord [42–44]. Thus, DAGLα is sug-
anti-obesity drugs. OEA is also reported to activate gested to be the main biosynthetic enzyme of 2-AG in
GPR119 in vitro [30]. This G protein-coupled receptor the central nervous system. While the role of DAGL in
was expressed in the intestinal L-cells, which secrete the hydrolysis of membrane phospholipid-derived
glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), and intraileal adminis- sn-1,2-diacylglycerol species is well established, it was
tration of OEA to rats was found to increase plasma described that DAGL enzymes are unlikely to be in-
GLP-1 levels [31]. However, the anorexic action of OEA volved in the degradation of rac-1,3- or sn-2,3-diacylgly-
was observed even in GPR119-deficient mice [32], cerol that originates from lipolysis-driven triacylglycerol
suggesting that GPR119 system is not essential for breakdown [45].
OEA-induced satiety. Although OEA was reported to be Alternatively, 2-arachidonoyl-phosphatidylinositol could
a weak agonist of TRPV1 [33], TRPV1-deficient mice be hydrolyzed at sn-1 position by an intracellular
also exhibit OEA-induced suppression of appetite [34]. phospholipase A1, DDHD domain containing 1, previously
On the other hand, TRPV1 is suggested to mediate the known as phosphatidic acid-preferring phospholipase
reducing effects of OEA on levodopa (L-DOPA)-induced A1 [46] (Fig. 2). The formed 2-arachidonoyl-lysophos
dyskinesia [35]. Thus, the OEA-TRPV1 system might be phatidylinositol is known as an endogenous agonist of
an effective target for the treatment of L-DOPA-induced GPR55 as described above and is further hydrolyzed
dyskinesias. to 2-AG by a phospholipase C-type enzyme. Further-
Docosahexaenoylethanolamide (C22:6 N-acylethano- more, 2-AG could be produced by dephosphorylation
l-amine) is the ethanolamide of docosahexaenoic acid, of arachidonic acid-containing lysophosphatidic acid
one of major ω3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and is re- (LPA) [47]. These alternative pathways, which bypass
ferred to as synaptamide. At nanomolar concentrations, 2-arachidonoyl-diacylglycerol and therefore do not
synaptamide promotes neurogenesis, neurite outgrowth, involve DAGL, seemed to play a certain role in vivo
and synaptogenesis in developing neurons [36]. Recently, since ~ 15% of 2-AG levels remained even in the
these actions were shown to be mediated by the activa- cerebral cortex of DAGLα/β double-knockout mice,
tion of GPR110, which is also termed as adhesion G compared to those of wild-type mice [44].
protein-coupled receptor F1 (ADGRF1) [37]. Although The major degradative pathway of 2-AG is considered
the physiological significance in the development of to be the hydrolysis to arachidonic acid and glycerol
neurons and cognitive functions remains elusive, the (Fig. 2). This reaction can be catalyzed by multiple
synaptamide-GPR110 system could be a novel target for enzymes, including monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL),
the treatment of neurodevelopmental diseases. Further- FAAH, α/β-hydrolase domain containing (ABHD) 6, and
more, the beneficial effects of docosahexaenoic acid on ABHD12. The relative contribution of these enzymes
the central nervous system might be partly mediated by differs among tissues and cells. In mouse brain, MAGL
the generation of synaptamide. is responsible for around 85% of the 2-AG-hydrolyzing
activity in vitro [48]. cDNA of this enzyme was cloned
Metabolism of endocannabinoid from mouse adipocytes in 1997 [49]. MAGL hydrolyzes
2-arachidonoylglycerol not only 2-AG but also other 2-monoacylglycerols
Although 2-AG is biosynthesized in multiple pathways, and 1-monoacylglycerols. Pharmacological inhibition of
all the pathways start from sn-2 arachidonic acid-con- MAGL in mice caused CB1-dependent symptoms in-
taining glycerophospholipids, which are abundant in cell cluding analgesia, hypothermia, and hypomotility, indi-
membranes and therefore suitable as starting materials cating the central role of this enzyme in the degradation
[10] (Fig. 2). The main precursors are inositol of 2-AG in the brain [50]. Although MAGL-deficient
phospholipids with 2-arachidonoyl group such as mice exhibited increased 2-AG levels in the brain and
2-arachidonoyl-phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate. spinal cord, no abnormalities in nociception, body
The inositol phospholipids are hydrolyzed by phospho- temperature, or spontaneous locomotion were observed
lipase C to form 2-arachidonoyl-diacylglycerol, which is in MAGL-deficient mice [51, 52]. This apparent discrep-
further deacylated by sn-1-specific diacylglycerol lipase ancy is supposed to be due to the desensitization of CB1
(DAGL) to yield 2-AG (Fig. 2). Glycerophospholipids receptor. Apart from the endocannabinoid system,
Tsuboi et al. Inflammation and Regeneration (2018) 38:28 Page 5 of 10

Fig. 2 Metabolism of 2-AG. Red thick arrows represent the major pathway. H2O is omitted in the hydrolytic reactions. Two hydroxyl groups
indicated by asterisks are phosphorylated in the case of 2-arachidonoyl-phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate. Numbers of acyl chains per
molecule are indicated in parentheses. COX-2 cyclooxygenase-2, DDHD1 DDHD domain containing 1, PLC phospholipase C

MAGL-dependent generation of arachidonic acid from The pathway consisting of phospholipase C, DAGL,
2-AG is also responsible for the production of prosta- and MAGL has attracted attention due to the formation
glandins that promote neuroinflammation and fever gen- of two second messengers, diacylglycerol and inositol
eration in the brain [53, 54]. trisphosphate, and the release of free arachidonic acid
FAAH plays the central role in the degradation of from phospholipid, which may be utilized to generate
anandamide, another endocannabinoid, as described in eicosanoids. The major pathway for the biosynthesis and
the following section. FAAH also hydrolyzes 2-AG. degradation of 2-AG completely agrees with this path-
However, the role of FAAH in 2-AG degradation in vivo way, and this fact implies its multifunctionality of this
is considered to be minor. In mouse microglia BV-2 pathway.
cells, ABHD6 controls the accumulation of 2-AG, and
knockdown of ABHD6 increases the efficacy with which Metabolism of N-acylethanolamines
2-AG can stimulate CB2-mediated cell migration [55]. In animal tissues, a series of N-acylethanolamines in-
ABHD6 is also expressed postsynaptically in neurons, cluding anandamide is biosynthesized through common
and the specific inhibitor of ABHD6 as well as MAGL metabolic pathways starting from glycerophospholipids
inhibitors induces CB1-dependent long-term depression. (Fig. 3). The pathways are largely different from the
As another metabolic route of 2-AG, the arachidonoyl aforementioned 2-AG metabolism. First, sn-1 acyl group
moiety of 2-AG could be directly oxygenated by of glycerophospholipids such as PC is transferred to the
cyclooxygenase-2 and lipoxygenases to produce glycerol amino group of ethanolamine glycerophospholipids rep-
esters of prostaglandins and hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic resented by phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). This N-acyl-
acids, respectively (Fig. 2). Glycerol esters of prostaglan- ation of PE results in the generation of N-acyl-PE
dins are reported to show biological activities including (NAPE), which is a unique type of glycerophospholipid
anti-inflammatory, pro-inflammatory, and hyperalgesic in that three fatty acyl chains exist per molecule. The
effects [56]. responsible enzyme N-acyltransferase has been known
Tsuboi et al. Inflammation and Regeneration (2018) 38:28 Page 6 of 10

Fig. 3 Metabolism of N-acylethanolamines. Red thick arrows represent the canonical pathway. H2O is omitted in the hydrolytic reactions.
Numbers of acyl chains per molecule are indicated in parentheses. cPLA2 cytosolic phospholipase A2, PLC phospholipase C, sPLA2 secretory
phospholipase A2

to be stimulated by Ca2+ since the 1980s [57–59] and oncogene Ras. On the basis of their enzyme activities, we
called as Ca-dependent N-acyltransferase (Ca-NAT) to proposed to rename them phospholipase A/acyltransfer-
distinguish from Ca-independent enzymes discussed ase (PLAAT)-1–5, respectively [66]. Among the members,
later. However, its molecular characterization was PLAAT-1, PLAAT-2, and PLAAT-5 have relatively high
achieved only recently when mouse Ca-NAT was identi- N-acyltransferase activities over phospholipase A1/A2
fied by an activity-based proteomic approach as isoform activities [67, 68], suggesting their roles in the Ca2+-inde-
ε of cytosolic phospholipase A2 (PLA2G4E) [60]. Our pendent generation of NAPE in vivo.
group then found that human ortholog has two iso- The formed NAPE is then hydrolyzed to release
forms, which are distinguished by the length and amino N-acylethanolamines by a phospholipase D (PLD)-type
acid residues of their N-terminal sequences, and that enzyme, NAPE-PLD (Fig. 3). Our group purified this en-
both isoforms show Ca-NAT activity [61]. We also zyme from rat heart and cloned its cDNAs from human,
revealed that this Ca2+-dependent activity is further mouse, and rat [69]. The enzyme specifically hydrolyzes
enhanced by phosphatidylserine. In agreement with the NAPE, but not PE or PC. The primary structure of
fact that the sn-1 position of glycerophospholipids is NAPE-PLD shows that this enzyme belongs to the
mostly occupied by a saturated or monounsaturated metallo-β-lactamase family and has no sequence similar-
fatty acid, the anandamide precursor N-arachido- ity with other PLDs, which typically hydrolyze PC to
noyl-PE is a minor component among various NAPEs phosphatidic acid and choline. Thus, NAPE-PLD is
with different N-acyl species. This may be the main distinct from other PLDs in both structure and catalytic
reason why anandamide is a minor component of function.
N-acylethanolamines. In addition to the one-step N-acylethanolamine-form-
Apart from Ca-NAT, we found that all of the five ing reaction catalyzed by NAPE-PLD, the presence of
members of HRAS-like suppressor (HRASLS) family, multi-step pathways via N-acyl-lysoPE was suggested
HRASLS1–5, have Ca2+-independent N-acyltransferase using dog brain preparations in the 1980s [58] (Fig. 3).
activities as well as phospholipase A1/A2 activities The cDNA cloning of NAPE-PLD enabled the generation
[62–67]. These family members were previously reported of NAPE-PLD−/− mice, and three groups including ours
as tumor suppressor genes, negatively regulating the independently established the mutant mice and confirmed
Tsuboi et al. Inflammation and Regeneration (2018) 38:28 Page 7 of 10

the presence of the multi-step NAPE-PLD-independent increased tissue levels of anandamide acting as an endo-
pathways in brain and other mammalian tissues [70–73]. cannabinoid. However, FAAH also hydrolyzes cannabin-
In these pathways, one O-acyl chain is first eliminated oid receptor-insensitive N-acylethanolamines and other
from NAPE, resulting in the formation of N-acyl-lysoPE. bioactive fatty acid amides such as oleamide and N-acyl-
This reaction occurred in vitro by group IB, IIA, and V of taurine. Thus, we should be careful in interpreting the
secretory phospholipase A2s [74]. N-Acyl-lysoPE can be molecular mechanisms of the phenotype caused by
further O-deacylated to glycerophospho-N-acylethanol-a- genetic and pharmacological depletion of FAAH. The
mine. ABHD4 was found to function as a hydrolase dual inhibitors of FAAH and MAGL have also been
catalyzing these sequential O-deacylation reactions from developed, and they increase both anandamide and
NAPE to glycerophospho-N-acylethanolamine via 2-AG levels to mimic the pharmacological activities of
N-acyl-lysoPE [75]. Glycerophospho-N-acylethanolamine CB1 receptor agonist in vivo [87, 88]. FAAH-2, an
is further hydrolyzed to form N-acylethanolamine by two isozyme having around 20% of amino acid sequence
members of the glycerophosphodiesterase (GDE) family, identity with FAAH (FAAH-1), is also present in pri-
GDE1 [76] and GDE4 [77, 78]. Alternatively, N-acyl-ly- mates, but not in rodents [89], and this enzyme localizes
soPE can be directly converted to N-acyletha-nolamine by on lipid droplets in cells [90].
lysophospholipase D-type enzymes. In this reaction, LPA N-Acylethanolamine-hydrolyzing acid amidase
is also formed as another product. This lysophospholipase (NAAA) is a lysosomal enzyme hydrolyzing N-acyletha-
D-type reaction seems particularly important when the nolamines only at acidic pH [91]. We cloned cDNA of
substrate N-acyl-lysoPE is “plasmalogen-type” containing this enzyme from rat lung in 2005 [92]. NAAA belongs
a lipase-resistant alkenyl chain at sn-1 position of the gly- to the cholylglycine hydrolase family and shows no
cerol backbone [71]. We found that GDE4 and GDE7 have sequence similarity with FAAH. Acid ceramidase is an-
this lysophospholipase D-type activity [77, 78]. Interest- other lysosomal enzyme belonging to this family, which
ingly, the divalent cation requirement for the activity dif- hydrolyzes ceramide under acidic conditions. NAAA and
fers among GDE members: GDE1 and GDE4 are Mg2 acid ceramidase have significant amino acid sequence
+
-dependent while GDE7 is Ca2+-dependent. In addition, similarity (33–34% identity), and their catalytic activities
an anandamide-forming pathway through phosphoanan- partially overlap each other: NAAA hydrolyzes ceramide
damide (anandamide phosphate) was previously suggested at a low rate while acid ceramidase also has an
in the brain and macrophages. This pathway is composed N-acylethanolamine-hydrolyzing activity. NAAA is
of phospholipase C and phosphatase. Tyrosine phosphat- present in various tissues with abundant expression in
ase PTPN22 and inositol 5′-phosphatase SHIP1 were macrophages and prostate [93, 94]. In contrast to the
shown to have this phosphatase activity while the preference of FAAH to anandamide, the best substrate
phospholipase C has not yet been identified [79, 80]. The of NAAA in vitro is PEA. In consistence with the
reverse reaction of FAAH can synthesize anandamide anti-inflammatory action of PEA, the administration of
from free arachidonic acid and ethanolamine in vitro [81, specific NAAA inhibitors suppresses inflammatory
82]. The analysis of FAAH-deficient mice suggests the in responses in rodent models with increased local PEA
vivo production of anandamide through this route [83]. levels [95–99]. NAAA-deficient mice also show a
N-Acylethanolamines are degraded by the hydrolysis strongly reduced inflammatory reaction, compared to
to free fatty acids and ethanolamine (Fig. 3). FAAH cata- wild-type animals [99]. Thus, NAAA inhibitors may have
lyzes this reaction, and this enzyme has been extensively the therapeutic potential as novel anti-inflammatory
studied since its cDNA cloning in 1996 [84]. FAAH is a drugs.
membrane-bound serine hydrolase, belonging to the am-
idase signature family. The catalytic activity is higher at Conclusions
neutral and alkaline pH. FAAH hydrolyzes various In this mini-review, we outlined the biological activities
N-acylethanolamines with a higher reactivity toward and metabolisms of two representative endocannabi-
anandamide. FAAH is ubiquitously present in various noids, 2-AG and anandamide, as well as cannabinoid
tissues with abundant expressions in the brain and liver, receptor-insensitive N-acylethanolamines. Pharmaco-
and FAAH-deficient mice exhibit increased tissue levels logical and biochemical analyses now reveal that 2-AG is
of various N-acylethanolamines including anandamide, a more important endocannabinoid than anandamide.
suggesting the central role of this enzyme in the degrad- The classical pathway composed of phospholipase C,
ation of N-acylethanolamines [85, 86]. Specific FAAH in- DAGL, and MAGL attracts much attention again as the
hibitors have been developed, and they are expected as central pathway for the metabolism of 2-AG functioning
novel therapeutic drugs against a variety of symptoms as the major endocannabinoid. On the other hand, anan-
such as pain, depression, and anxiety. These beneficial damide is produced in a small amount along with PEA
effects are mostly considered to result from the and OEA, which are cannabinoid receptor-insensitive,
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Abbreviations
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2-AG: 2-Arachidonoylglycerol; ABHD: α/β-Hydrolase domain containing; Ca-
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NAT: Ca-dependent N-acyltransferase; DAGL: Diacylglycerol lipase;
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LPA: Lysophosphatidic acid; MAGL: Monoacylglycerol lipase; NAAA: N-
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Acylethanolamine-hydrolyzing acid amidase; NAPE: N-Acyl-
Pharmacol. 2007;152:1092–101.
phosphatidylethanolamine; OEA: Oleoylethanolamide;
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PC: Phosphatidylcholine; PE: Phosphatidylethanolamine;
cannabinoid receptor. Pharmacol Ther. 2010;126:301–13.
PEA: Palmitoylethanolamide; PLAAT: Phospholipase A/acyltransferase;
PLD: Phospholipase D; PPARα: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α; 15. Oka S, Nakajima K, Yamashita A, Kishimoto S, Sugiura T. Identification of
TRPV1: Transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 GPR55 as a lysophosphatidylinositol receptor. Biochem Biophys Res
Commun. 2007;362:928–34.
Funding 16. Oka S, Toshida T, Maruyama K, Nakajima K, Yamashita A, Sugiura T. 2-
KT was supported by the JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP17K01852 and Arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoinositol: a possible natural ligand for
Ryobi Teien Memory Foundation. GPR55. J Biochem. 2009;145:13–20.
17. Guy AT, Nagatsuka Y, Ooashi N, Inoue M, Nakata A, Greimel P, et al.
Glycerophospholipid regulation of modality-specific sensory axon guidance
Authors’ contributions
in the spinal cord. Science. 2015;349:974–7.
KT wrote the manuscript, and TU, YO, and NU improved it. All authors read
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transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 channels. Eur J Biochem.
2004;271:1827–34.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable. 19. Felder CC, Briley EM, Axelrod J, Simpson JT, Mackie K, Devane WA.
Anandamide, an endogenous cannabimimetic eicosanoid, binds to the
cloned human cannabinoid receptor and stimulates receptor-mediated
Consent for publication
signal transduction. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993;90:7656–60.
Not applicable.
20. Priller J, Briley EM, Mansouri J, Devane WA, Mackie K, Felder CC. Mead
ethanolamide, a novel eicosanoid, is an agonist for the central (CB1)
Competing interests
and peripheral (CB2) cannabinoid receptors. Mol Pharmacol.
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
1995;48:288–92.
21. Keppel Hesselink JM, de Boer T, Witkamp RF. Palmitoylethanolamide: a
Publisher’s Note natural body-own anti-inflammatory agent, effective and safe against
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in influenza and common cold. Int J Inflam. 2013;2013:151028.
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Received: 30 July 2018 Accepted: 5 September 2018 anti-inflammatory agent. J Am Chem Soc. 1957;79:5577–8.
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