Unit - 4

Data Communication
 Modes of Data Transmission
SIMPLEX
DIRECTION OF DATA

STATION STATION

HALF DUPLEX
DIRECTION OF DATA

STATION STATION

FULL DUPLEX

DIRECTION OF DATA

STATION STATION
 Analog and Digital
Transmission
• Analog Signals
– Amplitude
– Frequency
– Wavelength

• Digital Signals
Transmission / Communication
medium
Figure 7.3 Twisted-pair cable

7.6
 A twisted pair consists of two
conductors each surrounded by an
insulating material.
• Separately insulated
• Twisted together
• Used in Telephone networks, PBX ( within buildings), for
LAN
• They are cheap
• Easy to install – can use as analog and digital
• Can be installed for short range i.e. 2km to 5km
 Unshielded and Shielded TP
• UTP
– Ordinary telephone wire
– Cheapest
– Easiest to install
• STP
– Metal sheth that reduces the interference
– More expensive
– Harder to handle due to thickness and
heaviness
Figure 7.4 UTP and STP cables

7.9
 Technical Focus:

Categories of Twisted-Pair
Cables
Category 1: The basic cabling used for voice

Category 2: Suitable for voice and data up to 4 Mbps

Category 3: Suitable for data up to 10 Mbps

Category 4: Suitable for data up to 16 Mbps

Category 5: Suitable for data up to 100 Mbps

 Coaxial Cable
• Highly resistant in signal interference
• Offers higher bandwidth, can transfer data
at a rate of 10Mbps
• Expensive
Figure 7.7 Coaxial cable

7.12
 Optical fibre
• Consist of thin glass fiber that carry data
in the form of light
• There is a narrow strand of glass called
core
• Around the core there is a cocentric layer
of glass called cladding
• Cladding is covered by a protective
coating of plastic called jacket
• Core refracts and cladding reflects
 Technical Focus:

Advantages of Fiber Optic

Noise resistance – Because fiber optic transmission uses light rather

than electricity, noise is not a factor.

Less signal attenuation – fiber optic transmission distance is

significantly greater than that of other guided media. A signal
can run without requiring regeneration.

Higher Bandwidth – bandwidths are very high in fiber optics.

 Technical Focus:

Disadvantages of Fiber Optic

Cost –

Installation and maintenance.

Fragility – glass fiber can break easily making it useless.

Figure 7.19 Wireless transmission waves

7.16
Note
Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems. They can penetrate through walls.
Highly regulated. Use omni directional antennas

7.17
Figure 7.20 Omnidirectional antenna

7.18
Note
Microwaves are used for unicast communication
Higher frequency ranges cannot penetrate walls.
Use directional antennas - point to point line of sight communications.

7.19
Figure 7.21 Unidirectional antennas

7.20
Note


Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area
using line-of-sight propagation.

7.21
 Satellite

• Kind of line of sight communication

• Communication is carried through uplinks
and downlinks which are earth stations
because they are located on earth
 Bluetooth

• Within a range of 10m

• It uses radio signals because they are

omnidirectional
Synchronous and Asynchronous
Transmission
 Switching
• Switching means routing traffic by setting
temporary connections between two or
more network points. This is done by
devices located at different locations on
the network called exchanges.
• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching
• Message Switching
Computer Network
• Communication means sharing
information ----which can be local or
remote

• Local
• Remote --- takes place over a distance

• Data which we share can be text, numbers,

images, audio, video…
 What is Computer Networks
• Collection of autonomous computers
interconnected by a single technology is
called computer network

• Two computers are set to be interconnected

if they are able to exchange information

• Connection can be through a copper wire,

fiber optics, microwaves, infrared or
satellite
Uses of Computer Networks

• Business Applications
• Home Applications
• Mobile Users
 Business Applications of Networks(1)

1. RESOURCE SHARING: Goal is to make all

programs, equipment, and especially data
available to anyone on the network
without regard to the physical location of
the resource and the user.
– Example: group of office workers share a common
printer.
 Business Applications of Networks(2)
Nancy

Sameer Client- Server

Model
 Example
Both Nancy and Sameer works for Company X.
Nancy wants to access some data about the
employees who works at New Delhi. In this
case the data is stored on Powerful Computers
called Servers.
SERVER maintains all the database.
Employee uses CLIENT to access remote data.
This whole arrangement is called Client Server
Model
Business Applications of Networks
(2)
• The client-server model involves requests
and replies.
 Business Applications of Networks(3)

• Communication Medium
– Email
– Videoconferencing
– Ecommerce
Home Network Applications

• Access to remote information

• Surfing eBooks, filing tax
• This all implies interaction between a person
and remote database full of information
• Electronic commerce
• Person-to-person communication
 Home Network Applications (2)
• Person-to-person communication
• Email
• Chatting
• Another person to person communication goes by the name Peer-
to-Peer Communication . In this system there are no fixed
clients and servers
Home Network Applications (3)
• Some forms of e-commerce.
 Mobile Network Users
• Portable office
• Conferences
• wireless networks
 Network Hardware
• There are two important dimensions
which stand into which all computer
networks fit
• Transmission Technology
• Scale.
 Types of transmission
• Broadcast links
– Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is
shared by all the machines on the network. Short messages,
called packets in certain contexts, sent by any machine are
received by all the others. An address field within the packet
specifies the intended recipient. Upon receiving a packet, a
machine checks the address field. If the packet is intended for the
receiving machine, that machine processes the packet; if the
packet is intended for some other machine, it is just ignored.
• Multicasting
• Each machine can subscribe to any or all groups. When a packet
is sent to a certain group it is delivered to all machines subscribed
to that group
• Point-to-point links
– Point-to-point networks consist of many connections between
individual pairs of machines. To go from the source to the
destination, a packet on this type of network may have to first visit
one or more intermediate machines.
Alternative criterion for classifying networks is
Scale

• Classification of interconnected processors by scale.

 LOCAL AREA NETWORK
• LANs are privately-owned networks within a single building or campus of up
to a few kilometres in size.

• Connect personal computers and workstations in company offices and

factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.

• LANs may use a transmission technology consisting of a cable.

• LANs are restricted in size --- means that the worst-case transmission time
is bounded and known in advance.

• Other major advantages:

 Cost reductions through sharing of information and databases, resources and network
services.
 Increased information exchange between different departments in an organization, or
between individuals.
 The trend to automate communication and manufacturing process.
 Topologies
• The physical topology of a network refers
to the configuration of cables, computers,
and other peripherals

• Star
• Ring
• Bus
 BUS Topology
• Each machine is connected to a
single cable.

• Each computer or server is

connected to the single bus cable
through some kind of connector.

• A signal from the source travels in

both directions to all machines
connected on the bus cable until it
finds the address on the network
that is the intended recipient.

• If the machine address does not

match the intended address for
the data, the machine ignores the
data.

• Alternatively, if the data does

match the machine address, the
data is accepted
Advantages Disadvantages

Cheap and easy to implement Network disruption when computers

are
added or removed

High cost of managing the network

Require less cable Single point of failure.

A break in the cable will prevent all

systems from accessing the network.

Does not use any specialized network Difficult to troubleshoot.

equipment.
 Star Topology
• Each machine is connected to a
central hub or switch.

• It allows each machine on the

network to have a point to point
connection to the central hub.

• All of the traffic which

transverses the network passes
through the central hub.

• The hub acts as a signal booster

or repeater which in turn allows
the signal to travel greater
distances.

• Most widely implemented

• Hub is the single point of failure

Advantages Disadvantages

Easily expanded without disruption Requires more cable

to the network

Cable failure affects only a single A central connecting device allows

user for a single point of failure

Easy to troubleshoot and isolate More expensive than bus topologies

problems. because of the cost of the hubs
 Ring Topology
• Each computer is connected to the
network in a closed loop or ring

• Each machine or computer has a

unique address that is used for
identification purposes

• The signal passes through each

machine or computer connected to
the ring in one direction

• Ring topologies typically utilize a

token passing scheme, used to
control access to the network

• By utilizing this scheme, only one

machine can transmit on the
network at a time.
Advantages Disadvantages

Cable faults are easily located, making Expansion to the network can cause
troubleshooting easier network disruption

Ring networks are moderately easy to A single break in the cable can disrupt
install the
entire network.
 Metropolitan Area Networks
• A metropolitan area network, or MAN,
covers a city.

• Example of a MAN is the cable television

network available in many cities
 Wide Area Networks
• WAN spans a large geographical area, often a country or
continent.

• WAN contains a collection of machines intended for running user

programs. These machines are called hosts.

• The hosts are connected by a communication subnet

• The hosts are owned by the customers

• The communication subnet is typically owned and operated by a

telephone company or Internet service provider

• Subnet carry messages from host to host, just as the telephone

system carries words from speaker to listener.
Relation between hosts on LANs and the
subnet
 Subnet is owned by telephone or internet service provider
Like MTNL,

Hosts are owned by customers

Like phones are owned by us

Relation between hosts on LANs and the subnet.

Relation between hosts on LANs and the
subnet
Transmission Lines move bits

or Switching elements
connect three or more
transmission lines
 WAN AND INTERNET
• WAN (wide area network), in comparison
to a MAN, is not restricted to a
geographical location, although it might be
confined within the bounds of a state or
country. A WAN connects several LANs,
and may be limited to an enterprise (a
corporation or an organization) or
accessible to the public. The technology is
high speed and relatively expensive. The
Internet is an example of a worldwide
public WAN.
 Networking Devices
• NIC
• Repeater
• Hub
• Switch
• Bridge
• Router
• Gateway
• Internet
• Intranet
• Extranet
 OSI Model
• The model is called the ISO OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) Reference
Model because it deals with connecting
open systems—that is, systems that are
open for communication with other
systems.

• The OSI model has seven layers.

 Reference Models

The OSI
reference
model.
• Host X wants to send some data to host Y
• This message will be travelled via various
intermediate nodes.
• These intermediate nodes as well as X
and Y are concerned with the three lowest
most OSI layers i.e. physical, dll, n/w
• The other four layers are used by the
sender X and recipient Y only. Therefore
they are known as end-to-end layers
 Physical Layer
• The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a
communication channel.
• The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side
sends a 1 bit, it is received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.

• Source and destination nodes have to agree on a number of factors-

--
– What voltage constitutes bit 1
– What voltage constitutes bit 0

• Whether the communication is only one or both the directions

– Simplex
– Half duplex
– Full duplex
• The design issues here largely deal with mechanical and electrical,
specifications of the cables, connectors.
 Data Link Layer
• Communication Circuits make errors
occasionally
• DLL specific functions are:
– Providing a well defined service interface to
the network layer
– Dealing with transmission errors
– Regulating the flow of data so that the
receivers are not swamped by the fast
senders
• To accomplish these goals DLL takes the packets from the network
layer and encapsulates them into frames for transmission

• Each frame contains a frame header, a payload for holding the

packet and a trailer
• Trailer supports error detection.
 Physical Addressing
• DLL layer adds header to the frame to
define the sender and receiver of the
frame.

• ****
• If the frame is intended for a system
outside the sender’s network, the receiver
address is the address of the device that
connects the network to the next one
Physical Address Logical address
• It is the address of the • It is the address for universal
communication that are
node as defined by its independent of the underlying
LAN or WAN physical networks

• Physical n/ws are not adequate for

• Size and format of these internetworks
address depends on the
network
• Universal addressing system is
needed in which each host is
• Generally it the address identified uniquely, regardless of
imprinted on the network the underlying physical network
interface card (NIC)
• Logical address of the internet is
32 bit IP address
NETWORK LAYER
• This layer is responsible for the src to
destination delivery of packets across the
networks
 Responsibilities included by the n/w layer

• Logical Addressing:
• Physical addressing is implemented by the DLL
handles the addressing problem locally.
• If the packet passes boundary we needed logical
addressing to distinguish the src and destination
• The network layer adds header to the packets
received from upper layer which defines the logical
address of the sender and receiver
 Ex:
• A wants to send some data to D
• Path to be followed is A-F-G-D
• Logical address will remain the same
while moving from A-f-G-D
• PHYSICAL ADDRESS WILL CHANGE
– A-F
– F-G
– G-D
 Routing
• The network layer controls the operation of
the subnet
• A key design issue is determining how
packets are routed from source to destination
• Routes can be dependent upon many things
like current network load or on static tables
• The control of congestion also belongs to the
network layer.
• It is up to the network layer to allow
heterogeneous networks to be
interconnected.
TRANSPORT LAYER
• The basic function of the transport layer is to accept
data from above, split it up into smaller units if need,
pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the
pieces all arrive correctly at the other end.
• The transport layer also determines what type of
service to provide to the session layer, and,
ultimately, to the users of the network
• The most popular type of transport connection is an
error-free point-to-point channel that delivers
messages or bytes in the order in which they were
sent..
• Transport layer is responsible for process to process
delivery of the entire message

• It treats each packets independently, as though each piece

is a separate message.

• Transport layer on the receiving side ensures that whole

message arrives intact and in order overseeing error
control and flow control at the source to destination level

• Network layer gets each packet to the correct computer

• Transport layer gets the entire message on that computer
• Segmentation
• Message is divided into transmittable segments,
with each segment containing a sequence
numbers
Session Layer
• The main functions of the session layer are to
establish, maintain and synchronize the interaction
between two communicating hosts

• Ex: A wants to send a document of 1000 pages to

another user B
– A session was established
– After first 105 pages have been sent the connection
between two hosts is broken for some reason
– Question is:-
• When the connection is restored after some time transmission must
start from the first page or 106th
page.

• THESE ISSUES ARE THE CONCERNS OF THE SESSION LAYER

• To avoid these issues
– Session layer could create sun-sessions
– After each sub-session is over , a checkpoint
can be taken
– Say after 10 pages
– So in this retransmission will be from 101st
page
• In some cases checkpoint is not reqd
where the data is small

• When when the session layer receives the

data from presentation layer it adds a
header which among other things also
contains inforation as to whether there is
any checkpoiting and if there is then at
what point
• Session layer checks and establishes
connection between hosts of two different
users.
• Users might need to enter identification
information such as LOGIN AND Password

• and finally SESSION CLOSURE

• That is the session between the hosts is closed
gracefully
PRESENTATION LAYER
 Translation
• SENDER AND RECEIVER might be using
different coding standards and character
sets for representing data.

• Sender is using ASCII code

• Receiver is using EBCDIC

• Presentation layer has to take care fo such

differences
• Then other responsibilities includes:-

– Encryption and Decryption

– Compression
Application Layer
• Application layer enables the user to
access the network
• Application programs which uses the
networks services also reside at this layer
• Like--- telnet----www----ftp etc………
Summarize OSI Model
Figure 2.5 Physical layer
Note
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
Figure 2.6 Data link layer
Note
The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
Figure 2.8 Network layer
Note
The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Figure 2.10 Transport layer
Note
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.
Figure 2.12 Session layer
Note
The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.
Figure 2.13 Presentation layer
Note
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.
Figure 2.14 Application layer
Note
The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
Intranet
• Prefix "intra-" is Latin for "within

• Intranet works exactly like the Internet, except it's a network confined within a company, government or
organization.

• For example, HowStuffWorks.com is a Web site hosted by a Web server connected to the Internet. Anyone in the
world with Internet access can visit HowStuffWorks.com and read articles.

• Let's pretend that the employees of HowStuffWorks use another Web site called HSWIntranet.com to post events
on a community, read messages from founder of the company and access the company phone directory.

• HSWIntranet is hosted on a Web server located in the HowStuffWorks headquarters in Atlanta and is connected
only to the company's local area network (LAN). Only employees connected to the LAN via a special network
password can access the company intranet.

• HSWIntranet.com isn't an Internet site; it's an intranet site.

• Both the Internet and an intranet operate over a communications standard called TCP/IP (transmission control
protocol/Internet protocol) that connects hosts to users over a network

• It may consist of many interlinked local area networks and also use leased lines in the wide area network.
Typically, an intranet includes connections through one or more gateway computers to the outside Internet

• With tunneling, companies can send private messages through the public network, using the public network with
special encryption/decryption and other security safeguards to connect one part of their intranet to another.

• Typically, larger enterprises allow users within their intranet to access the public Internet through firewall servers
that have the ability to screen messages in both directions so that company security is maintained.
INTRANET Workstation

LOCAL AREA
NETWORK
Web
Server

DB
Wan Links

Firewall/Gateway

Internet Branch Office

 Benefits of Intranet
• Both the Internet and an intranet use Web programming
languages like HTML, Java, Flash and XML to build Web pages
with text, images, audio and video.

• The chief advantage of using an intranet for a small or large

business is that they're cheap to implement and run.
• The only thing that needs to be purchased and configured is a Web server (hardware
and software) to host the intranet. And the most popular Web server software, Apache.

• Another benefit of using an intranet is improved information

sharing and collaboration across an organization
• Let's use the example of a sales department in a software company. Instead of each
salesman maintaining his own sales lead lists and saving them on his own computer, all
sales leads can be posted and tracked on a central Web site on the corporate intranet.
Salesmen can post and share product pitch scripts, training videos and industry reports.
Instead of sending hundreds of different group e-mails, all of the information lives at one
central location. This saves time, which in turn saves money.
• Intranets become even more powerful when they're linked to
corporate databases. Suddenly, all of the information on the
corporate network is searchable and accessible through a simple
Web interface. This can be another money saver for a company.
– Instead of buying and licensing software for each and every desktop in the office, the company can
switch to Web-based applications that are accessed through a Web browser. Peoplesoft is a Web-
based application that can be hosted on a corporate intranet. Human resources can maintain
employee records and customer service reps can track help requests all through an intranet Web site.

• Another financial benefit of intranets is that they're scaleable and

flexible.
– A small company can turn a simple desktop PC into a Web server, build some basic HTML Web pages
and be up and running at practically no extra cost. As the company grows, it can invest in a more
robust Web server, hire a Web developer to design more dynamic intranet Web pages and make more
and more information and software available online.

• Beyond their tangible, financial benefits, intranets can also help

develop and reinforce the corporate culture of a business
– . Executives can maintain blogs on the company intranet site alerting employees to new and exciting
developments. Employee relations specialists can post newsletters, maintain event calendars and
organize volunteer groups through the intranet site.
• An extranet is a private network that uses Internet
technology and the public telecommunication
system to securely share part of a business's
information or operations with suppliers, vendors,
partners, customers, or other businesses.

• An extranet can be viewed as part of a company's

intranet that is extended to users outside the
company. It has also been described as a "state of
mind" in which the Internet is perceived as a way
to do business with other companies
Extranet