THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
2020/2021 ACADEMIC YEAR LECTURE NOTES

PHYSICS I PH 110
CHAPTER 12
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
Since ancient times, the nature and properties of light have been intensively investigated in an
attempt to address many of our needs for a better life on Earth. The question whether light is a
wave or a particle has a very interesting and a long history. The investigations about the nature of
light has unfolded a huge treasure of knowledge and understanding. This question has great
contributions to the development of the theory of quantum mechanics which presents an
altogether different picture of the world in which there are no particles, no positions, no
momenta in an ordinary sense. Today, scientists view the behavior of light as waves
(electromagnetic waves) in some situations and particles (photons) in other situations. In this
chapter, we briefly introduce aspects of light that are understood best when using wave models,
as applied to geometrical and physical optics.

12.1. Light rays

Visible light is the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum
also contains things we cannot see. The electromagnetic spectrum contains; radio waves, micro
waves, infrared and ultraviolet waves, x-rays, gamma rays. In physics and optics, a light ray is an
idealized (imaginary) model of light, which is drawn as a straight line. Light can more
realistically be considered as a wave. Light rays allow us to draw clear diagrams showing the
motion of light, including reflection (bouncing off of light) and refraction (bending of light). This
is called ray tracing. is useful to represent light waves with imaginary surfaces representing the
crests of the electric field of the electromagnetic waves. These surfaces are called wave fronts,
and the distance between any two successive wave fronts is referred to as the wavelength λ.
While propagating in vacuum, light waves have a constant speed 𝑐 = 𝜆 𝑓, where c = 2.9979 ×
108 m/s ≅ 3 × 108 m/s and f is the light’s frequency. When we study light reflection from

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mirrors, refraction from a surface between two media, and propagation through lenses, we
approximate light propagation by defining rays that travel in straight lines perpendicular to the
wave fronts. This ray approximation technique is referred to as geometrical optics.
The most common types of light rays are incident rays, reflected rays and refracted rays.
Incident rays are rays that approach and hit a particular surface. The ray that bounces off the
surface at an angle is known as reflected ray. Refracted rays are when the light goes through
the surface, bending due to the change of material (medium) e.g., from water to air.

12.2. Reflection and Refraction of light

Figure 12.1 shows a beam of light of wavelength 𝜆1 and speed 𝑣1 represented by a light ray
traveling in a straight line in medium 1. The beam encounters the smooth boundary surface (or
interface) of the transparent medium 2, which is more dense than medium 1. Part of the incident
light is reflected by the surface and another part penetrates medium 2 with wavelength 𝜆2 and
speed 𝑣2 . Unless the incident beam is perpendicular to the surface, the ray that enters medium 2
is bent at the boundary and is said to be refracted.

Figure 12.1 An incident ray in medium 1 is reflected from the interface and maintains the same
speed 𝑣1 ,while the refracted ray is bent toward the normal and propagates in medium 2 with a
speed 𝑣2 < 𝑣1

In figure 12.1, the incident, reflected, and refracted rays are all in a plane perpendicular to the
boundary surface. In addition, the incident, reflected and refracted rays make angles 𝜃1 , 𝜃1 ′ , and
𝜃2 , respectively, with the normal to the boundary surface. Moreover, 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are the speeds of
the light rays in media 1 and 2, respectively. Experiments and theory prove the following two
laws:
• The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. This is known as the law of
reflection. That is,
𝜃1 = 𝜃1 ′
• The law of refraction states that the incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal to the
interface, all lie in the same plane.

The speed of light v in any material is less than its speed in vacuum c. It is found that the value
of v slightly depends on the wavelength λ. Also, it is convenient to define a dimensionless
quantity known as the index of refraction or refractive index n of a material as follows:
𝑐
𝑛=𝑣

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Since v is always less than c, then n > 1 for any material and n = 1 for vacuum
Table 12.1 lists the indices of refraction for various materials.

Table 12.1 Some indices of refractiona.

As light crosses an interface between two media, its speed v and wavelength λ change, but its
frequency f remains the same. If the media 1 and 2 have indices of refraction 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 ,
respectively, then the law of refraction is given by
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2 (Snell’s law)
This form of the law of refraction is known as Snell’s law of refraction, and we will use this form
in tackling most of our examples. To compare the refractive angle θ2 with the incident angle θ1
and the relative ratio 𝑛1 /𝑛2 for a light beam propagating from medium 1 to medium 2, we
present the following results:
• If 𝑛2 = 𝑛1 , then θ2 = θ1. In other words, the light beam will not be deflected (refracted) as it
changes media, as in figure 12.2 (a).
• If 𝑛2 > 𝑛1 , then θ2 < θ1. In other words, the light beam will refract and bend toward the
normal as in figure 12.2 (b).

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• If 𝑛2 < 𝑛1 , then θ2 > θ1. In other words, the light beam will refract and bend away from the
normal as in figure 12.2 (c).

Figure 12.2 Light propagating from a medium of index of refraction 𝑛1 into a medium of index
of refraction 𝑛2 . (a) When 𝑛2 = 𝑛1 , the beam does not bend. (b) When 𝑛2 > 𝑛1 , the beam bends
toward the normal. (c) When 𝑛2 < 𝑛1 , the beam bends away from the normal

12.3. Total Internal Reflection and Optic Fibers

When light is directed from a medium having a higher index of refraction 𝑛1 toward one having
a lower index 𝑛2 , i.e. 𝑛2 < 𝑛1 , the refracted ray is bent away from the normal. At some particular
angle of incidence θc, called the critical angle, see figure 12.3, the refracted ray 4 moves parallel
to the boundary, i.e. θ2 =90◦. In addition, all the incident light energy will be associated with the
reflected ray 4′ . All rays having angles of incidence θ1 greater than θc are entirely reflected at the
boundary, see ray 5 in figure 12.3. For those rays, the angle of incidence must be equal to the
angle of reflection.

Figure 12.3 When 𝑛1 > 𝑛2 , the angle of refraction θ2 will be greater than the angle of incidence
θ1. As θ1 increases, θ2 will increase until θ2 = 90◦. For θ1 > θc, all rays will be reflected without
any refraction.
To find θc, we use Snell’s law equation and then substitute θ1 = θc and θ2 = 90◦, to find that:
𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2 sin 90° = 𝑛2
This gives:

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 𝑛
sin 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2 (𝑛1 > 𝑛2 )
1
Diamonds and Cubic zirconium crystals are good examples of media that have a high index of
refraction. The critical angle for a diamond crystal in air is θc = sin−1 (1/2.419) =2 4.4◦. Any light
ray inside the crystal that strikes its surfaces at an angle greater than the critical angle will be
completely reflected back into the crystal. This ray might undergo repeated total internal
reflections within the crystal, and this causes the crystal to sparkle.
Another important feature of internal reflection is the use of a thin flexible pipe made of glass or
transparent plastic as a light transmitter. This kind of flexible light pipe is called an optical fiber.
As shown in figure 12.4, (a), (b), light is confined to travel within a thin curved fiber pipe
because of successive total internal reflections. A bundle of fibers can be used to form an optical
fiber cable, as in figure 12.4 (c). This cable can transmit light, images, and even telephone calls
from one point to another with little loss. This technique is used extensively in modern industry
and is known as fiber optics. A physician can explore or even perform surgery by inserting a
bundle of optical fibers into the human body, avoiding the need to make large incisions. Optical
fibers are also commonly used in fiber-optic communications, which permits data, voice, and
video transmission over longer distances than other forms of communication media.

Figure 12.4 (a) A ray of light traveling in a curved transparent pipe by multiple total internal
reflections (b) A bundle of optical fibers (c) An illuminated fiber optic audio cable

12.4. Dispersion of light and Prisms

Except in vacuum, the index of refraction depends on the light’s wavelength, i.e., its color.
Therefore, if a beam of light consists of rays of different wavelengths (as in the case of white
light), each ray will refract by a different angle from a surface. This spread of light is called
chromatic dispersion, or simply dispersion.
Generally, the index of refraction n decreases with increasing wavelengths. This means that the
violet light (with wavelength λ ≃ 425 nm and index n = 1.3435) bends more than the red light
(with wavelength λ ≃ 700 nm and index n = 1.3318) when passing through the interface between
two materials. Figure 12.5 (a) shows this for a glass block, and figure 12.5 (b) shows this for a
glass prism. The prism of figure 12.5 (b) is more commonly used to observe color separation of
white light because the dispersion at the first surface is enhanced at the second interface. Thus,
the violet ray in the white light of figure 12.5 (b) will emerge from the right surface with an
angle of deviation δV which is greater than the angle of deviation δR of the red ray. The
difference δV − δR is known as the angular dispersion, while δY is the mean deviation of the
yellow rays.

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Figure 12.5 A schematic representation of the dispersion of white light. The violet color is bent
more than the red color. (a) Dispersion in a glass block. (b) Dispersion in a prism

The general expression of δ for any color turns out to be rather complicated. However, as the
angle of incidence decreases from a large value, the angle of deviation δ is found to decrease at
first and then increase. The angle of minimum deviation δm is found when the ray passes through
the prism symmetrically. This angle is related to the angle of the prism A, and its index of
refraction n by the relation:

The most charming example of color dispersion is that of a rainbow. To understand the
formation of a rainbow we consider a horizontal overhead white sunlight that is intercepted by
spherical raindrops. Figure 12.6 shows refractions and reflection in two raindrops that explain
how light rays from the Sun reach an observer’s eye. The first refraction separates the sunlight
into its color components. Each color is then reflected at the raindrop’s inner surface. Finally, a
second refraction increases the separation between colors, and these color rays finally make it to
the observer’s eye. Using Snell’s law and geometry, we find that the maximum deviation angles
of red and violet are about 42◦ and 40◦, respectively. The rainbow that you can see is a personal
one because different observers receive light from different raindrops.

Figure 12.6 A sketch of a rainbow formed by horizontal sunlight rays. Only two enlarged
raindrops are used to explain the rainbow’s formation for the case of the red and violet colors
only

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12.5. Formation of Images by Reflection
Mirrors gather and redirect light rays to form images of objects by reflection. To explain this, we
will use the ray approximation model in terms of geometric optics, in which light travels in
straight lines.

12.5.1 Plane Mirrors

A plane mirror is a plane surface that can reflect a beam of light in one direction instead of either
scattering it in many directions or absorbing it.
Figure 12.7 (a) shows how a plane mirror can form an image of a point object O located at a
distance p from the mirror. In this figure, we consider two diverging rays leaving O and strike
the mirror and then are reflected to the eye of an observer. The rays appear to diverge from point
I behind the mirror. Thus, point I is the image of point O. The geometry of the figure indicates
that the image I is opposite to object O and is located at a distance as far behind the mirror as the
object is in front of the mirror.

Figure 12.7. A geometric sketch that is used to depict an image of an object placed in front of a
plane mirror. (a) An image formed for a point object. (b) An image formed by an extended
object, where the object is an upright arrow of height h
Figure 12.7 (b) shows how a plane mirror can form an image of an extended object O. The object
in this figure is an upright arrow of height h placed at a distance p from the mirror. The full
image can be inferred by locating the images of selected points on the object. One of the two
rays at the tip of the arrow follows a horizontal path to the mirror and reflects back on itself. The
second ray follows an oblique path and reflects according to the laws of reflection, as shown in
the figure. Using geometry, we find that the image I is upright, opposite to the object, and
located behind the mirror at a distance equal to the object’s distance in front of the mirror. In
addition, the height of the object and its image are equal. Also, the geometry of figure12.7 (b)
indicates that ℎ′⁄ℎ = 𝑖 ⁄𝑝.
The image I in both parts of figure12.7 is called a virtual image because no light rays pass
through it. In addition, the value of i is considered to be negative since the image is behind the
mirror and the value of h_ is considered to be positive since the image is upright.
We define the lateral magnification M of a horizontal overhead image as follows:

Image height ℎ′
𝑀= =
Object height ℎ

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We can use the relation ℎ′⁄ℎ = 𝑖 ⁄𝑝 and the sign convention to write the lateral magnification M
as follows:
ℎ′ 𝑖
𝑀= =−
ℎ 𝑝

For plane mirrors, M = 1, since ℎ′ is positive and equal to h, or i is negative and has a magnitude
equal to p. The image formed by a plane mirror is upright but reversed. The reversal of right and
left is the reason why the word AMBULANCE is printed as across the front
of ambulance vehicles. People driving in front of such an ambulance can see the word
“AMBULANCE” immediately evident when looking in their rear-view mirrors and make way.

12.5.2 Spherical Mirrors

A spherical mirror is simply a mirror in the shape of a small section of the surface of a sphere
that has a center C and radius R. When light is reflected from the concave surface of the mirror,
the mirror is called a concave mirror. However, when light is reflected from the convex surface
of the mirror, the mirror is called a convex mirror.

(a) Focal Point of a Spherical Mirror

The principal axis (or the symmetry axis) of a spherical mirror is defined as the axis that passes
through its center of curvature C and the center of the mirror c, see figure 12.8. We consider the
reflection of light coming from an infinitely far object O located on the principal axis of a
concave or convex spherical mirror. Because of the great distance between the object and the
mirror, the light rays reach the mirror parallel to its principal axis.

Figure 12.8 (a) Two parallel light rays will meet at a real focal point after reflecting from a
concave mirror. (b) The same rays will diverge from a convex mirror and appear to come from a
virtual focal point.

When parallel rays reach the surface of the concave mirror of figure 12.8 (a), they will reflect
and pass through a common point F. If we place a card at F, a point image would appear at F.
Therefore, this point is called the real focal point. However, in the case of the convex mirror of
figure 12.8 (b), the parallel rays reflect from the mirror and appear to diverge from a common
point F behind the mirror. If we could place a card at F, no image would appear on the card.
Therefore, this point is called the virtual focal point. The distance f from the centre of the mirror
to the focal point (real or virtual) is called the focal length of the mirror.

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For concave and convex mirrors, the following relation relates the focal length f to the radius of
curvature R:
𝑅
𝑓=
2
(b) The Mirror Equation
This equation shows the relationship between an object’s distance p, its image distance i, and the
focal length f of a spherical mirror. It is given by

1 1 1
+ =
𝑝 𝑖 𝑓

Table 1 gives the sign conventions for the quantities f, i, ℎ′ and M.

Table 1 Sign conventions for spherical mirrorsa

12.6 Formation of Images by Refraction

Lenses gather and redirect light rays to form images of objects by refraction. Again, we will use
the ray-approximation model of geometric optics in which light travels in straight lines to form
images.

12.6.1 Thin Lenses

A lens is a transparent object with two refracting surfaces of different radii of curvature R1 and
R2 but with a common principal axis, and when light rays bend across these surfaces, we get the
image of an object. When a lens converges light rays parallel to the principal axis, we call it a
converging lens, see figure 12.9 (a). If instead it causes such rays to diverge, we call it a
diverging lens, see figure 12.9 (b).

Figure 12.9 (a) An enlargement of the top part of a converging lens. (b) An enlargement of the
top part of a diverging lens

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(a) The Thin Lens Equation
First, we consider a thick glass lens bounded by two spherical surfaces, air-to-glass and glass-to-
air. This lens is defined by the radii R1 and R2 of the two surfaces, and its index of refraction n.
The focal length f of such a thin lens is given by the equation.

1 1 1
= (𝑛 − 1) ( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2

The above equation is called the lens-makers’ equation, because it can be used to determine R1
and R2 for the desired values of n and f.
The equation which relates the focal length f, the object’s distance from the lens p, and the
image’s distance i from the lens is identical to the mirror equation, written as:

1 1 1
+ =
𝑝 𝑖 𝑓

This is called the thin-lens equation. The sign conventions for R1 and R2 are presented in table
2. Just as with mirrors, the thin lens lateral magnification is:

ℎ′ 𝑖
𝑀= =−
ℎ 𝑝

Since light rays can travel in both directions of a lens, then each lens has two focal points F1 and
F2. Both focal points are at the same distance f (the focal length) from a thin lens. The focal
length f is the same for light rays passing through a given lens in either direction. This is
illustrated in figure 12.10 for a biconvex lens (converging lens) and a biconcave lens (diverging
lens).

Figure 12.10 Parallel rays passing through: (a) a converging lens, and (b) a diverging lens

(b) Ray Diagrams for Thin Lenses

Ray diagrams are convenient tools that help us locate images formed by thin lenses. They also
clarify our sign conventions. For the purpose of locating an image, we only use two special rays
drawn from the top of the object to the top of the image as follows:
• Ray 1 starts parallel to the principal axis.

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 ➢ For a converging lens, the ray is refracted by the lens and passes through the focal point
F2 on the back side of the lens.
➢ For a diverging lens, the ray is refracted by the lens and appears to originate from the focal
point F1 on the front side of the lens.
• Ray 2 passes through the centre of the lens and continues in a straight line.

Figure 12.11 shows ray diagrams for converging and diverging lenses.

Figure 12.11 Ray diagrams for locating the image formed by a thin lens. (a) An object in front of
a converging lens (double convex lens). When the object is outside the focal point, the image is
real, inverted, and on the back side of the lens. (b) When the object is between the focal point
and the converging lens (double convex lens), the image is virtual, upright, larger than the
object, and on the front side of the lens. (c) When an object is anywhere in front of a diverging
lens (double concave lens), the image is virtual, upright, smaller than the object, and on the front
side of the lens.

When using the lens-makers’ and thin-lens equations, it is very important to use the proper sign
conventions introduced in table 2.

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 Table 2 Sign conventions for thin lenses

(c) Combination of Thin Lenses

Let us consider the case were two lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 are in contact with each other.
Thus, two thin lenses in contact are equivalent to a single thin lens of focal length f given by

1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2

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