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08 Transport in Humans

The circulatory system comprises of:

• Blood: medium to transport materials around the body
• Blood vessels: tubes to allow blood to be carried from the heart to all parts of the body
and back to the heart
• Heart: to act as a pump to pump blood round the body

Blood

55% plasma

45% RBC, WBC,

platelets

Can be separated into different components through centrifugation (densest components

sink to the bottom and the least dense components are found at the top).
Plasma:
- 90% water
- 10% proteins and dissolved substances (like salts, nutrients, wastes, hormones etc.)
Cellular elements:
- Red blood cells  In large numbers so blood seems red
- White blood cells  Almost colourless
- Platelets  Almost colourless

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Components of blood
Red Blood cells (RBC) / Erythrocytes

White blood cell (WBC)/ Leucocytes

Platelets

Plasma

Red blood cell (Erythrocyte)

Structure Function
Contains haemoglobin Combines reversibly with oxygen to form
oxyhaemoglobin.
Enables RBC to transport oxygen from lungs to all cells
in the body
Circular biconcave shape Increases the surface area to volume ratio
Allows rapid diffusion of oxygen in and out of the cell
Absence of nucleus Enables RBC to have more space to carry more amount
of haemoglobin
And more oxygen
Elastic and can turn bell-shaped To squeeze through small and narrow capillaries
To ensure oxygen can be transported to all tissues

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• Produced in the bone marrow

• Life span is about 3-4 months
• The diameter of RBC is slightly bigger than the diameter of the blood capillary The
RBC is forced to slow down as it passes through so there is more time for exchange
of gases between the blood and cells
• Worn out RBC destroyed in spleen which will then release haemoglobin
Haemoglobin released from worn out red blood cells brought to liver and broken
down Iron is released and stored in the liver OR Bile pigments excreted into the
gut as bile

What is Haemoglobin?
• A protein containing iron which combines reversibly with oxygen to form
oxyhaemoglobin.
• At the lungs, the concentration of oxygen is high so the oxygen will combine with
haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin
• At the tissues, the concentration of oxygen is low, so oxyhaemoglobin will release
the oxygen which will then diffuse into the cells

Hb + 4O2 Hb(O2)4
Haemoglobin Oxygen Oxyhaemoglobin

Acclimatisation (Adapting to the environment)

• At high altitudes, concentration of oxygen in atmosphere is lower
• Body cannot obtain sufficient oxygen to maintain its metabolic rate
• Body produces more RBC and haemoglobin, thus increasing the haemoglobin
content per volume of blood  Cause rosy cheeks
• Hence more oxygen can be transported to the cells per unit time

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Why do some athletes train at high altitudes for several weeks before returning to sea level
to compete?
At high altitude, the oxygen concentration in the air is low. The body compensates by
producing more red blood cells. More red blood cells will increase the haemoglobin content
per unit volume of blood. This enables the body to carry more oxygen to the tissue cells.
When the athlete returns to sea level, the red blood cell count remains high for some time.
During this period, if he competes in a race, his body is able to transport more oxygen to
the muscle cells. There is more oxygen for respiration and the muscle cells can release more
energy for the race. That gives him an advantage over his competitors.

White blood cell (Leucocyte)

• Colourless – does not contain haemoglobin
• Irregular in shape
• Contains a nucleus
• Function: Defend body against foreign particles

Two main types of white blood cells:

1. Phagocyte 2. Lymphocyte

Phagocytes Lymphocytes
Contains lobed nucleus Contains large, rounded nucleus
May be granular or non-granular Non-granular cytoplasm
cytoplasm

Does not produce antibodies Produces antibodies

Engulf and ingest foreign particles (e.g. Involves in tissue rejection and killing of
bacteria) by phagocytosis tumor cells
Produced by bone marrow Produced by lymph nodes, lymph glands and
bone marrow

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Able to move and change its shape to Limited movement and remains in blood
squeeze out of capillaries to site of vessels
injury

Function of phagocytes
Phagocytes carry out phagocytosis.

What is phagocytosis?
• A phagocyte moves to the site of infection.
• It engulfs and ingests foreign particles (bacteria / germs).
• Forms a food vacuole
• Pus forms in a wound as dead tissue, dead and living bacteria and phagocytes
accumulate in the inflamed areas.
Phagocytes squeezes through capillary walls to reach the tissues or sites of infection.

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Lymphocytes produce antibodies.

What are the functions of antibodies?
• Cause bacteria to clump together so that phagocytes can engulf and ingest foreign
particles them more easily
• Destroy the bacteria by attaching to them and cause the bacterial surface membrane
to rupture
• Attach to viruses to prevent binding to host cell
• Neutralise the toxins produced by bacteria (therefore, the antibodies can also be
called antitoxins)
• Stay in the blood long after the disease has been overcome which will provide
immunity against the disease

How does tissue rejection occur?

Answer
• An organ from another person is treated by a recipient as a foreign object and therefore
attacked by the immune system, especially the white blood cells.
• The white blood cells will produce antibodies to destroy the transplanted organ
• The patient will have to take immunosuppressive drugs to reduce rejection of the tissue.
These will reduce lymphocyte and antibody formation. Unfortunately, this may also
mean that the defense mechanism of the body towards other germs is also weakened.

To prevent tissue rejection:

• To prevent tissue rejection, doctors must be careful to obtain transplants from suitable
donors to avoid tissue rejection
• There will be no tissue rejection if the transplanted tissue/organ came from the same
person
• A tissue match is necessary Tissues from both donor and recipient must be genetically
as close as possible

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Platelet (Thrombocyte)

• They are not cells. They are cytoplasmic fragments from bone marrow cells.

• They are involved in blood clotting (note: different from agglutination of RBCs)

The process of blood clotting

Damaged tissues and
platelets

release
Thrombokinase
Prothrombin Thrombin
Calcium ion

Insoluble
Soluble Fibrinogen fibrin
threads

Fibrin

• Fibrin threads form a mesh to trap blood cells and a clot is formed
• Importance of platelets:
- Seals wound to prevent excessive bleeding
- Stops foreign particles from entering the blood

• In undamaged blood vessels, the blood does not clot due to the presence of heparin.
When tissues are damaged, thrombokinase which is released, neutralises the heparin so
clotting can take place

• Heparin is produced in the liver

• Haemophilia – a genetic disorder where a person lacks the clotting factors and can bleed
to death after slight injuries.

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Blood Plasma (55% of blood)

• A clear, sticky, pale yellow watery liquid.
• It is 90% water, 10% proteins and dissolved substances (like salts, nutrients, wastes,
hormones etc.)

Substances present in plasma

The amounts of various substances in the blood plasma are kept relatively constant

Functions of plasma
• Transports digested food from digestive system to all cells in the body
• Transports excretory waste from tissue cells to the excretory organs for removal
• Transports hormones from endocrine glands to target organs
• Distributes heat throughout body to keep body temperature constant

Blood serum = plasma without clotting factors like fibrinogen and prothrombin

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Blood groups:
Blood Group
Blood groups are classified based on
Antigen Natural antibodies (Not produced by
lymphocytes as those are used to kill
bacteria)
Special proteins found on surface of red Always present in the blood plasma
blood cells
Only 2 types of antigens Only 2 types of antibodies
Denoted by capital letters: A and B Denoted by small letters: a and b

• Antibody a is complimentary to antigen A. They will bind together and result in clumping
• Antibody b is complimentary to antigen B. They will bind together and cause clumping
• Clumping / Agglutination may lead to death

Blood Group A B AB O
Antigen on RBC Antigen A Antigen B Antigens A and No antigens
B

Antibody in serum Antibody b Antibody a No antibodies Antibodies a

and b
Note: Serum does
not have RBC

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To determine the blood group in a given sample:

Test the blood with Anti-Serum A and Anti-Serum B
Anti-A serum contains antibodies a
Anti-B Serum contains antibodies b

test results
Antigen A
Group AB
Antigen B

Group B Antigen B

Group A

no Antigen A
Group O no Antigen B

During blood transfusion:

- Only consider the effect of the antibodies from the recipients’ plasma on the donor’s
antigens (Look at donor’s antigen and recipient’s antibody)
- For blood transfusion to be successful, the antibodies in the recipient’s plasma must
not be complimentary to doner’s antigens
- Donor’s antibodies will be diluted by the recipients blood that they will not have any
effect on the recipient’s red blood cells

Who can donate to who:

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Blood Group of Donor

Blood Antibody in A B AB O
Group of recipient’s antigen A antigen B antigen A and B No antigen
Recipient plasma

A antibody b √ X X √

B antibody a X √ X √

AB No antibody √ √ √ √

O antibody a and b X X X √

- Blood group O is a universal donor

- Blood group AB is the universal recipient

Transport in Humans

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Double circulation and blood vessel

Double Circulation in Mammals
• Blood passes through the heart twice in one complete circuit
• Consists of pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation

Circulation
of blood
from heart
to lungs
and back
to heart

Circulation
of blood
from heart
to rest of
body except
lungs and
back to heart

Pulmonary circulation
• Blood flows from heart to lungs and back to heart
• Blood flows from right side of heart to the left
• Blood enters the lungs at lower pressure due to thin walls to ensure that blood flows
more slowly through the lungs, allowing sufficient time for blood to be well oxygenated
before returning to the heart.

Systemic circulation
• Blood flows from heart to body and back to heart
• Blood flows from left side of the heart to the right side
• Heart pumps blood at higher pressure to ensure oxygenated blood is distributed to the
tissues more quickly, thus maintaining high metabolic rate in mammals.

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Arteries  Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart with the exception of coronary
artery and pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood away from heart
Veins  Carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart except for pulmonary vein which
carries oxygenated blood towards the heart
Coronary arteries Carry blood to heart MUSCLES not the heart chamber

To organ Away from

organ
Heart Vena Cava Aorta
Lungs Pulmonary Pulmonary
artery vein
Liver Hepatic vein Hepatic
artery
Kidney Renal artery Renal vein

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Blood Vessel

Artery
• All arteries carry blood away from the heart. (Since it’s from heart, it will have high
pressure)
• All arteries carry oxygenated blood (except pulmonary arteries)
• Arteries except pulmonary arteries (carry deoxygenated blood) transport oxygenated
blood at high pressure from the heart to all parts of the body

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Tranverse cross-section of an artery

Connective tissue
Thick muscular and elastic wall
Elastic band
Endothelium
Small and hollow lumen

Structure Function
Thick muscular wall Withstands the high pressure of blood which is forced out of
the heart so as to prevent backflow of blood as there is a
constant force pushing the blood (NOT pump blood)
Thick elastic wall Enables artery wall to stretch and recoil to push the blood in
spurts along the artery, giving rise to pulse (NOT pump blood)
Vein
• All veins carry blood towards the heart
• All veins carry deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary veins)
• Blood moves sluggishly  Slow and smoothly
• Veins except pulmonary veins (carry oxygenated blood) transport deoxygenated blood
at low pressure from all parts of the body back to the heart

Connective tissue

Thin muscular and elastic wall

Endothelium

Large lumen

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Structure Function
Semi-lunar valves Prevent backflow of blood
Large lumen (relative to diameter) Reduces resistance of blood flow

• Movement of blood along the veins is assisted by skeletal muscles. When skeletal
muscles contract, they compress the vein, pushing the blood back to the heart.
• Direction of blood will always follow the arrow head that represents the direction of
blood flow

Capillary
• Transports blood from arteries to veins
• Blood changes from oxygenated at the arteriole end to deoxygenated at venule end

One-celled thick
wall/endothelium

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Structure Function
One-celled thick wall Shortens diffusion distance for substances to diffuse quickly from
the capillary into the tissue fluid (Fluid surrounding cells)
Capillaries branch Provides a large surface area to volume ratio for substances to
repeatedly diffuse in and out of capillaries at a faster rate

Increases the total cross-sectional area, thus lowering blood

pressure in capillaries, giving more time for the exchange of
substances

• RBC becomes bell-shaped as it passes through narrow blood capillaries.

• Advantages:
- Diameter of RBC is reduced so that it can easily pass through lumen of capillaries
- Surface area of RBC is increased to speed up absorption or release of oxygen
- Rate of blood flow is reduced to increase the efficiency of exchange of materials
between blood and tissue

Arteries Veins Capillaries

Direction of blood Carry blood away from Carry blood towards heart Connects arteries to
flow heart
veins

Blood pressure high lowest low

Speed of blood flow Fast, in spurts, reflects Slow (but faster than capillaries) slow
rhythmic pumping of heart

Type of blood carried Oxygenated blood Deoxygenated blood (except Mix of both, depending
pulmonary veins which carry on exchange of gases
(except pulmonary arteries
oxygenated blood from lungs to
which carry deoxygenated

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blood from heart to lungs) heart)

Walls of blood vessel Thick, muscular, elastic Relatively thin, slightly muscular One-cell thick

Lumen size Ratio of lumen diameter to Ratio of lumen diameter to Ratio of lumen diameter
overall diameter is smaller overall diameter is larger to overall diameter is
largest

Semi-lunar valves absent present absent

Difference in bloodflow between the three types of blood vessels

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Transfer of materials between blood capillaries and tissue fluid

• Tissue fluid or interstitial fluid is the liquid between tissue cells.
• Useful substances such as dissolved food substances and oxygen diffuse from blood
in the blood capillaries into the tissue fluid and then into the cells.
• Excretory waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide diffuse from the cells
into the tissue fluid and into the blood capillary.

Heart

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• External view
(from LV) aorta
(from RV)
pulmonary
arteries
(to LA)
left pulmonary
right atrium
(to RA) atrium veins
right left
vena cava ventricle
ventricle

• Internal view
pulmonary
arteries
aorta
pulmonary
vena cava veins

Direction of blood flow in the right side of heart:

Vena cava  Right atrium  Right ventricle  Pulmonary arteries  Lungs

Direction of blood flow in the left side of heart:

Pulmonary veins  Left atrium  Left ventricle  Aorta  All parts of the body (except
lungs)
2 interesting observations

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1. Atria have comparatively thin muscular walls as compared to ventricles.

Reason:
 Atria pump blood into the ventricles, which are at a short distance away and therefore,
does not require a high pressure.
 Ventricles pump blood to all parts of the body which is farther away and this requires a
higher pressure.

2. Left ventricle has comparatively thicker muscular walls as compared to the right
ventricle.

Reason:
 Left ventricle pumps blood round the body and this requires high pressure.
 Right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, which is close to the heart and requires a
comparatively lower pressure.

semi-lunar valve
semi-lunar valve
bicuspid valve
tricuspid valve

median septum
chordae tendinae

Structure Function
Semi-lunar valves Prevent backflow of blood from pulmonary arteries to right
ventricle/from aorta to left ventricle
tricuspid valves Prevent backflow of blood from right ventricle to right atrium
bicuspid valves Prevent backflow of blood from left ventricle to left atrium
chordae tendineae Prevent flaps of valves from reverting into the atria when ventricles
contract
Note: Semi-lunar valves are not held by chordae tendineae
median septum Prevents mixing of deoxygenated blood in the right side with the
oxygenated blood in the left side

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The Cardiac Cycle

• Atrial diastole, Ventricular diastole
- Muscles in the walls of the atria and ventricles relax
(R: atrium and ventricle relax, atrium and ventricle are just
chambers in the heart).
- The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the
vena cavae.
- The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the
pulmonary veins.

‘Dub’ Sound
- When pressure of the pulmonary arteries is higher than pressure of the relaxing right ventricle, semi-
lunar valves close.
- The closed valves prevent backflow of blood from pulmonary arteries to right ventricle.
- When pressure of aorta is higher than pressure of the relaxing left ventricle, semi-lunar valves close.
- The closed valves prevent backflow of blood from aorta to left ventricle.
- The closing of the semi-lunar valves produces a soft ‘dub’ sound.

Atrial systole, Ventricular diastole

- Muscles in the walls of the atria contract, muscles in the
walls of the ventricle relax
- Blood is pumped from the right atrium to the right
ventricle, passing by the tricuspid valves.
- Blood is pumped from the left atrium to the left ventricle,
passing by the bicuspid valves.

• Atrial diastole, Ventricular systole

- Muscles in the walls of the atria relax, muscles in the
walls of the ventricles contract.
- Blood from right ventricle is forced up to the pulmonary
arteries and to the lungs, passing by the semi-lunar
valves.
- Blood from left ventricle is forced up to the aorta and to
the rest of the body, passing by the semi-lunar valves.

‘Lub’ Sound
- When pressure of right ventricle is higher than pressure of right atrium, tricuspid valve closes.
- In addition, chordae tendineae attached to the valves prevent the valves from reverted into the
atria when ventricles contract.
- The closed valves prevent backflow of blood from right ventricle to right atrium.
- When pressure of left ventricle is higher than pressure of left atrium, bicuspid valve closes.
- In addition, chordae tendineae attached to the valves prevent the valves from reverted into the
atria when ventricles contract.
- The closed valves prevent backflow of blood from left ventricle to left atrium.
- The
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• Cycle repeats. Atrial diastole, Ventricular diastole

• One cardiac cycle (~0.8 seconds) = One heartbeat =
- One atrial systole + One atrial diastole /
- One ventricular systole + One ventricular diastole/
- One ‘lub’ + One ‘dub’
• Average heartbeat of an adult is about 72 Beats Per Minute (BPM)

Pressure changes in the heart

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• Pressure changes in the right side of the heart is similar to the left side of the heart,
except that the pressure is lower
Blood pressure
• The force that blood exerts on the wall of blood vessels
• measured using a sphygmomanometer
• On average, systolic pressure ranges from 120-140mm of mercury
• On average, diastolic pressure ranges from 75-90mm of mercury
• High blood pressure will be a reading of 140/90 or higher
• Persistent high blood pressure is a dangerous medical condition

Main arteries and veins of the body

Head &
Neck

Lungs pulmonary vein

vena cava

RA LA

tricuspid bicuspid valve or mitral

RV L coronary arteries
pulmonary artery aorta

hepatic vein hepatic artery

Liver

Intestines
hepatic portal vein

renal vein renal artery

Kidney
s

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Coronary Heart Disease

coronary arteries branch from the aorta

• Coronary arteries lie on the outside of the heart.

• Coronary arteries carry blood to the cardiac muscles, supplying glucose and oxygen to
the cardiac muscles.

• Fatty substances such as cholesterol and saturated fats may be deposited on the inner
surface of the coronary arteries. This is called atherosclerosis.
• This leads to a smaller lumen in the arteries resulting in increasing (high) blood pressure.

• If a blood clot is formed (thrombosis) and trapped in the coronary artery, the supply of
blood and oxygen to the heart muscles may be cut off. This leads to a heart attack.

Factors that increase risk of atherosclerosis

• Diet rich in cholesterol and
saturated animal fats
• Emotional stress
• Smoking
Preventive measures
• Healthy diet
• Reduce smoking
• Proper stress management
• Regular exercise

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Transport in Humans