Chapter 4: Memory

What is computer memory?

Computer memory is any physical device, used to store data, information or instruction
temporarily or permanently. It is the collection of storage units that stores binary information in
the form of bits. The memory block is split into a small number of components, called cells.
Each cell has a unique address to store the data in memory, ranging from zero to memory size
minus one. For example, if the size of computer memory is 64k words, the memory units have 64
* 1024 = 65536 locations or cells. The address of the memory's cells varies from 0 to 65535.
Why do we need a computer memory?
In the computer system, we need computer memory to store various types of data like text,
images, video, audio, documents, etc. We can retrieve it when the data is required. For example,
when we write and execute any computer program, it is initially stored in primary memory. If the
processor does not need particular items for a longer time, the program or data is automatically
saved into the permanent or secondary memory. Then the data is called from secondary memory
to main memory and performs the execution of codes.

Features of Memory
Following are the different features of the memory system that includes:
1. Location: It represents the internal or external location of the memory in a computer. The
internal memory is inbuilt in computer memory. It is also known as primary memory. the
example of primary memory are registers, cache and main memory. Whereas, external
memory is the separate storage device from the computer, such as disk, tape, USB pen drive.
2. Capacity: It is the most important feature of computer memory. Storage capacity can vary in
external and internal memory. External devices' storage capacity is measured in terms of
bytes, whereas the internal memory is measured with bytes or words. The storage word
length can vary in bits, such as 8, 16 or 32 bits.
3. Access Methods: Memory can be accessed through four modes of memory.
➢ DMA: As the name specifies, Direct Memory Address (DMA) is a method that allows
input/output (I/O) devices to access or retrieve data directly or from the main memory.
➢ Sequential Access Method: The sequential access method is used in a data storage
device to read stored data sequentially from the computer memory. Whereas, the data
received from random access memory (RAM) can be in any order.
➢ Random Access Method: It is a method used to randomly access data from memory.
This method is the opposite of SAM. For example, to go from A to Z in random access,
we can directly jump to any specified location. In the Sequential method, we have to
follow all intervening from A to Z to reach at the particular memory location.
➢ Associative Access Method: It is a special type of memory that optimizes search
performance through defined data to directly access the stored information based on a
memory address.

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4. Unit of transfer: As the name suggests, a unit of transfer measures the transfer rate of bits
that can be read or write in or out of the memory devices. The transfer rate of data can be
different in external and internal memory.
❖ Internal memory: The transfer rate of bits is mostly equal to the word size.
❖ External memory: The transfer rate of bit or unit is not equal to the word length. It is
always greater than a word or may be referred to as blocks.
5. Performance: The performance of memory is majorly divided into three parts.
❖ Access Time: In random access memory, it represents the total time taken by memory
devices to perform a read or write operation that an address is sent to memory.
❖ Memory Cycle Time: Total time required to access memory block and additional
required time before starting second access.
❖ Transfer rate: It describes the transfer rate of data used to transmit memory to or from
an external or internal memory device. Bit transfer can be different for different external
and internal devices.
6. Physical types: It defines the physical type of memory used in a computer such as magnetic,
semiconductor, magneto-optical and optical.
7. Organization: It defines the physical structure of the bits used in memory.
8. Physical characteristics: It specifies the physical behavior of the memory like volatile, non-
volatile or non-erasable memory. Volatile memory is known as RAM, which requires power
to retain stored information, and if any power loss has occurred, stored data will be lost. Non-
volatile memory is a permanent storage memory that is used to obtain any stored
information, even when the power is off. Non-erasable memory is a type of memory that
cannot be erased after the manufactured like ROM because at the time of manufactured ROM
are programmed.
Classification of Memory

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Primary or Main Memory
Primary memory is also known as the computer system's main memory that communicates
directly within the CPU, Auxiliary memory and the Cache memory. Main memory is used to
kept programs or data when the processor is active to use them. When a program or data is
activated to execute, the processor first loads instructions or programs from secondary memory
into main memory, and then the processor starts execution. Accessing or executing of data from
primary memory is faster because it has a cache or register memory that provides faster response,
and it is located closer to the CPU. The primary memory is volatile, which means the data in
memory can be lost if it is not saved when a power failure occurs. It is costlier than secondary
memory, and the main memory capacity is limited as compared to secondary memory.

The primary memory is further divided into two parts:

RAM (Random Access Memory)

ROM (Read Only Memory)
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Random Access Memory (RAM) is one of the faster types of main memory accessed directly by
the CPU. It is the hardware in a computer device to temporarily store data, programs or program
results. It is used to read/write data in memory until the machine is working. It is volatile, which

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means if a power failure occurs or the computer is turned off, the information stored in RAM
will be lost. All data stored in computer memory can be read or accessed randomly at any time.
There are two types of RAM: SRAM and DRAM.
DRAM: DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM that is used for the
dynamic storage of data in RAM. In DRAM, each cell carries one-bit information. The cell is
made up of two parts: a capacitor and a transistor. The size of the capacitor and the transistor is
so small, requiring millions of them to store on a single chip. Hence, a DRAM chip can hold
more data than an SRAM chip of the same size. However, the capacitor needs to be continuously
refreshed to retain information because DRAM is volatile. If the power is switched off, the data
store in memory is lost.
Characteristics of DRAM

It requires continuously refreshed to retain the data.

It is slower than SRAM
It holds a large amount of data
It is the combination of capacitor and transistor
It is less expensive as compared to SRAM
Less power consumption
SRAM: SRMA (Static Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM used to store static data in
the memory. It means to store data in SRAM remains active as long as the computer system has a
power supply. However, data is lost in SRAM when power failures have occurred.

Characteristics of Static Ram

It does not require to refresh.
It is faster than DRAM
It is expensive.
High power consumption
Longer life
Large size
Uses as a cache memory

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SRAM DRAM

It is a Static Random-Access Memory. It is a Dynamic Random Access Memory.

The access time of SRAM is slow. The access time of DRAM is high.

It uses flip-flops to store each bit of information. It uses a capacitor to store each bit of information.

It does not require periodic refreshing to preserve the It requires periodically refreshing to preserve the
information. information.

It uses in cache memory. It is used in the main memory.

The cost of SRAM is expensive. The cost of DRAM is less expensive.

It has a complex structure. Its structure is simple.

It requires low power consumption. It requires more power consumption.

Advantages of RAM

o It is a faster type of memory in a computer.

o It requires less power to operate.
o Program loads much faster
o More RAM increases the performance of a system and can multitask.
o Perform read and write operations.
o The processor can read information faster than a hard disc, floppy, USB, etc.

Disadvantages of RAM

o Less RAM reduces the speed and performance of a computer.

o Due to volatile, it requires electricity to preserve the data.
o It is expensive than ROM
o It is unreliable as compared to ROM
o The Size of RAM is limited.

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Read-Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is a memory device or storage medium that is used to permanently store information inside
a chip. It is a read-only memory that can only read stored information, data or programs, but we
cannot write or modify anything. A ROM contains some important instructions or program data
that are required to start or boot a computer. It is a non-volatile memory; it means that the stored
information cannot be lost even when the power is turned off or the system is shut down.

Types of ROM

There are five types of Read Only Memory:

1. MROM (Masked Read Only Memory):

MROM is the oldest type of read-only memory whose program or data is pre-configured
by the integrated circuit manufacture at the time of manufacturing. Therefore, a program
or instruction stored within the MROM chip cannot be changed by the user.
2. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):
It is a type of digital read-only memory, in which the user can write any type of information
or program only once. It means it is the empty PROM chip in which the user can write the
desired content or program only once using the special PROM programmer or PROM
burner device; after that, the data or instruction cannot be changed or erased.
3. EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):
It is the type of read only memory in which stored data can be erased and re-programmed
only once in the EPROM memory. It is a non-volatile memory chip that holds data when
there is no power supply and can also store data for a minimum of 10 to 20 years. In
EPROM, if we want to erase any stored data and re-programmed it, first, we need to pass
the ultraviolet light for 40 minutes to erase the data; after that, the data is re-created in
EPROM.
4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):
The EEROM is an electrically erasable and programmable read only memory used to erase
stored data using a high voltage electrical charge and re-programmed it. It is also a non-
volatile memory whose data cannot be erased or lost; even the power is turned off. In
EEPROM, the stored data can be erased and reprogrammed up to 10 thousand times, and
the data erase one byte at a time.

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 5. Flash ROM:
Flash memory is a non-volatile storage memory chip that can be written or programmed in
small units called Block or Sector. Flash Memory is an EEPROM form of computer
memory, and the contents or data cannot be lost when the power source is turned off. It is
also used to transfer data between the computer and digital devices.

Advantages of ROM

1. It is a non-volatile memory in which stored information can be lost even power is turned
off.
2. It is static, so it does not require refreshing the content every time.
3. Data can be stored permanently.
4. It is easy to test and store large data as compared to RAM.
5. These cannot be changed accidently
6. It is cheaper than RAM.
7. It is simple and reliable as compared to RAM.
8. It helps to start the computer and loads the OS.

Disadvantages of ROM

1. Store data cannot be updated or modify except to read the existing data.
2. It is a slower memory than RAM to access the stored data.
3. It takes around 40 minutes to destroy the existing data using the high charge of ultraviolet
light.

RAM ROM

It is a Random-Access Memory. It is a Read Only Memory.

Read and write operations can be performed. Only Read operation can be performed.

Data can be lost in volatile memory when the power Data cannot be lost in non-volatile memory when the power
supply is turned off. supply is turned off.

It is a faster and expensive memory. It is a slower and less expensive memory.

Storage data requires to be refreshed in RAM. Storage data does not need to be refreshed in ROM.

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The size of the chip is bigger than the ROM chip to The size of the chip is smaller than the RAM chip to store
store the data. the same amount of data.

Types of RAM: DRAM and SRAM Types of ROM: MROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM

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Secondary Memory

Secondary memory is a permanent storage space to hold a large amount of data. Secondary
memory is also known as external memory that representing the various storage media (hard
drives, USB, CDs, flash drives and DVDs) on which the computer data and program can be saved
on a long term basis. However, it is cheaper and slower than the main memory. Unlike primary
memory, secondary memory cannot be accessed directly by the CPU. Instead of that, secondary
memory data is first loaded into the RAM (Random Access Memory) and then sent to the processor
to read and update the data. Secondary memory devices also include magnetic disks like hard disk
and floppy disks, an optical disk such as CDs and CDROMs, and magnetic tapes.

Features of Secondary Memory

o Its speed is slower than the primary/ main memory.

o Store data cannot be lost due to non-volatile nature.
o It can store large collections of different types, such as audio, video, pictures, text, software,
etc.
o All the stored data in a secondary memory cannot be lost because it is a permanent storage
area; even the power is turned off.
o It has various optical and magnetic memories to store data.

Types of Secondary Memory

The following are the types of secondary memory devices:

Hard Disk

A hard disk is a computer's permanent storage device. It is a non-volatile disk that permanently
stores data, programs, and files, and cannot lose store data when the computer's power source is
switched off. Typically, it is located internally on computer's motherboard that stores and retrieves
data using one or more rigid fast rotating disk platters inside an air-sealed casing. It is a large
storage device, found on every computer or laptop for permanently storing installed software,
music, text documentation, videos, operating system, and data until the user did not delete.

Floppy Disk

A floppy disk is a secondary storage system that consisting of thin, flexible magnetic coating disks
for holding electronic data such as computer files. It is also known as Floppy Diskette that comes
in three sizes like 8 inches, 5.5 inches and 3.5 inches. The stored data of a floppy disk can be
accessed through the floppy disk drive. Furthermore, it is the only way through a new program
installed on a computer or backup of the information. However, it is the oldest type of portable
storage device, which can store data up to 1.44 MB. Since most programs were larger, that required

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multiple floppy diskettes to store large amounts of data. Therefore, it is not used due to very low
memory storage.

CD (Compact Disc)

A CD is an optical disk storage device, stands for Compact Disc. It is a storage device used to store
various data types like audio, videos, files, OS, Back-Up file, and any other information useful to
a computer. The CD has a width of 1.2 mm and 12 cm in height, which can store approximately
783 MB of data size. It uses laser light to read and write data from the CDs.

Types of CDs

1. CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read Only Memory): It is mainly used for bulk size mass like
audio CDs, software and computer games at the time of manufacture. Users can only read
data, text, music, videos from the disc, but they cannot modify or burnt it.
2. CD-R (Compact Disc Recordable): The type of Compact Disc used to write once by the
user; after that, it cannot be modified or erased.
3. CD-RW (Compact Disc Rewritable): It is a rewritable CD disc, often used to write or
delete the stored data.

DVD Drive/Disc

DVD is an optical disc storage device, stands for Digital Video Display or Digital Versatile Disc.
It has the same size as a CD but can store a larger amount of data than a compact disc. It was
developed in 1995 by Sony, Panasonic, Toshiba and Philips four electronics companies. DVD
drives are divided into three types, such as DVD ROM (Read Only Memory), DVD
R (Recordable) and DVD RW (Rewritable or Erasable). It can store multiple data formats like
audio, videos, images, software, operating system, etc. The storing capacity of data in DVD is 4.7
GB to 17 GB.

Blu Ray Disc (BD)

Blu Ray is an Optical disc storage device used to store a large amount of data or high definition of
video recording and playing other media files. It uses laser technology to read the stored data of
the Blu-ray Disk. It can store more data at a greater density as compared to CD/ DVD. For example,
compact discs allow us to store 700 MB of data, and in DVDs, it provides up to 8 GB of storage
capacity, while Blu-ray Discs provide 28 GB of space to store data.

Pen Drive

A pen drive is a portable device used to permanently store data and is also known as a USB flash
drive. It is commonly used to store and transfer the data connected to a computer using a USB
port. It does not have any moveable part to store the data; it uses an integrated circuit chip that

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stores the data. It allows the users to store and transfer data like audio, videos, images, etc. from
one computer to any USB pen drive. The storing capacity of pen drives from 64 MB to 128 GB or
more.

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Cache Memory

It is a small-sized chip-based computer memory that lies between the CPU and the main memory.
It is a faster, high performance and temporary memory to enhance the performance of the CPU. It
stores all the data and instructions that are often used by computer CPUs. It also reduces the access
time of data from the main memory. It is faster than the main memory, and sometimes, it is also
called CPU memory because it is very close to the CPU chip. The following are the levels of cache
memory.

1. L1 Cache: The L1 cache is also known as the onboard, internal, or primary cache. It is
built with the help of the CPU. Its speed is very high, and the size of the L1 cache varies
from 8 KB to 128 KB.
2. L2 Cache: It is also known as external or secondary cache, which requires fast access time
to store temporary data. It is built into a separate chip in a motherboard, not built into the
CPU like the L1 level. The size of the L2 cache may be 128 KB to 1 MB.
3. L3 Cache: L3 cache levels are generally used with high performance and capacity of the
computer. It is built into a motherboard. Its speed is very slow, and the maximum size up
to 8 MB.

Advantages of Cache Memory

1. Cache memory is the faster memory as compared to the main memory.

2. It stores all data and instructions that are repeatedly used by the CPU for improving the
performance of a computer.
3. The access time of data is less than the main memory.

Disadvantage of Cache Memory

1. It is very costly as compared to the Main memory and the Secondary memory.
2. It has limited storage capacity.

Register Memory

The register memory is a temporary storage area for storing and transferring the data and the
instructions to a computer. It is the smallest and fastest memory of a computer. It is a part of
computer memory located in the CPU as the form of registers. The register memory is 16, 32 and
64 bits in size. It temporarily stores data instructions and the address of the memory that is
repeatedly used to provide faster response to the CPU.

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Primary Memory Secondary Memory

It is also known as temporary memory. It is also known as a permanent memory.

Data can be access directly by the processor or CPU. Data cannot be accessed directly by the I/O processor or
CPU.

Stored data can be a volatile or non-volatile memory. The nature of secondary memory is always non-volatile.

It is more costly than secondary memory. It is less costly than primary memory.

It is a faster memory. It is a slower memory.

It has limited storage capacity. It has a large storage capacity.

It required the power to retain the data in primary It does not require power to retain the data in secondary
memory. memory.

Examples of primary memory are RAM, ROM, Examples of secondary memory are CD, DVD, HDD,
Registers, EPROM, PROM and cache memory. magnetic tapes, flash disks, pen drive, etc.

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