ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

KAI 501

UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO Al

PART A

1(A). Define Artificial Intelligence (AI).

The study of how to make computers do things at which at the moment, people are better.

Systems that think like humans

Systems that act like humans

Systems that think rationally

Systems that act rationally

1(B). Define Artificial Intelligence formulated by Haugeland.

The exciting new effort to make computers think machines with minds in the full and literal

sense.

1(C). Define Artificial Intelligence in terms of human performance.

The art of creating machines that performs functions that require intelligence when performed by

people.

1(D). Define Artificial Intelligence in terms of rational acting.

A field of study that seeks to explain and emulate intelligent behaviors in terms of computational

processes-Schalkoff. The branch of computer science that is concerned with the automation of

intelligent behavior-Luger & Stubblefield.

1(E). Define Artificial in terms of rational thinking.

The study of mental faculties through the use of computational models-Charniak & McDermott.

The study of the computations that make it possible to perceive, reason and act-Winston.

2. What is meant by Turing test?

To conduct this test we need two people and one machine. One person will be an interrogator

(i.e.) questioner, will be asking questions to one person and one machine. Three of them will be

in a separate room.

Interrogator knows them just as A and B. so it has to identify which is the person and

machine.

The goal of the machine is to make Interrogator believe that it is the person’s answer. If machine

succeeds by fooling Interrogator, the machine acts like a human. Programming a computer to
pass Turing test is very difficult.

3. What is called materialism?

An alternative to dualism is materialism, which holds that the entire world operate according to

physical law. Mental process and consciousness are therefore part of physical world, but

inherently unknowable they are beyond rational understanding.

4. What are the capabilities, computer should posses to pass Turing test?

Natural Language Processing

Knowledge representationS

Automated reasoning

Machine Learning

5. Define Total Turing Test?

The test which includes a video signals so that the interrogator can test the perceptual abilities of

the machine.

6. What are the capabilities computers needs to pass total Turing test?

Computer Vision

Robotics

7. Define Rational Agent.

It is one that acts, so as to achieve the best outcome (or) when there is uncertainty, the best

expected outcome.

8. Define Agent.

An Agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving (i.e.) understanding its environment

through sensors and acting upon that environment through actuators.

9. Define an Omniscient agent.

An omniscient agent knows the actual outcome of its action and can act accordingly; but

omniscience is impossible in reality.

10. What are the factors that a rational agent should depend on at any given time?

1. The performance measure that defines degree of success.

2. Ever thing that the agent has perceived so far. We will call this complete perceptual history the

percept sequence.

3. When the agent knows about the environment.

4. The action that the agent can perform.

11. Define Architecture.

The action program will run on some sort of computing device which is called as Architecture

12. List the various type of agent program.

Simple reflex agent program.

Agent that keep track of the world.

Goal based agent program.

Utility based agent program

13. Give the structure of agent in an environment?

Agent interacts with environment through sensors and actuators.

An Agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving (i.e.) understanding its environment

through sensors and acting upon that environment through actuators.STUDENTSFOCUS.COM

14. Define Percept Sequence.

An agent’s choice of action at any given instant can depend on the entire percept sequence

observed to elate.

15. Define Agent Function.

It is a mathematical description which deals with the agent’s behavior that maps the given

percept sequence into an action.

16. Define Agent Program.

Agent function for an agent will be implemented by agent program.

17. How agent should act?

Agent should act as a rational agent. Rational agent is one that does the right thing, (i.e.) right

actions will cause the agent to be most successful in the environment.

18. How to measure the performance of an agent?

Performance measure of an agent is got by analyzing two tasks. They are How and When

actions.

19. Define performance measures.

Performance measure embodies the criterion for success of an agent’s behavior.

20. Define Ideal Rational Agent.

For each possible percept sequence, a rational agent should select an action that is expected to

maximize its performance measure, given the evidence provided by the percept sequence and

whatever built in knowledge the agent has.

21. What is important for task environment?

PEAS → P- Performance measure

E - Environment

A- Actuators

S – Sensors

Example

Interactive English tutor performance measure maximize student’s score on test.

Environment

Set of students testing Agency

Actuators

Display exercises suggestions, corrections.

Sensors

Keyboard entry

22. What is environment program?

It defines the relationship between agents and environments.

23. List the properties of environments.

o Fully Observable Vs Partially Observable

o Deterministic Vs Stochastic

o Episodic Vs Sequential

o Static Vs Dynamic

o Discrete Vs Continuous

o Single Agent Vs Multi agent

a. Competitive Multi agent

b.Co – operative Multi agent

24. What is the structure of intelligent Agent?

Intelligent Agent = Architecture + Agent Program

25. Define problem solving agent.

Problem solving agent is one kind of goal based agent, where the agent

Should select one action from sequence of actions which lead to desirable states.

30. List the steps involved in simple problem solving technique.

i. Goal formulation
ii. Problem formulation

iii. Search

iv. Solution

v. Execution phase

26. What are the different types of problem?

Single state problem, multiple state problems, Contingency problem, Exploration problem.

27. What are the components of a problem?

There are four components. They are

i. initial state

ii. Successor function

iii. Goal test

iv. Path cost

v. Operator

vi. state space

vii. path

28. Define State Space.

The set of all possible states reachable from the initial state by any sequence of action is called

state space.

34. Define Path.

A path in the state space is a sequence of state connected by sequence of actions.

35. Define Path Cost.

A function that assigns a numeric cost to each path, which is the sum of the cost of the each

action along the path.

36. Give example problems for Artificial Intelligence.

i. Toy problems

ii. Real world problems

37. Give example for real world end toy problems.

Real world problem examples:

i. Airline travel problem.

ii. Touring problem.

iii. Traveling salesman problem.

iv. VLSI Layout problem

v. Robot navigation

vi. Automatic Assembly

vii. Internet searching

Toy problem Examples:

Vacuum world problem.

8 – Queen problem

8 – Puzzle problem

38. Define search tree.

The tree which is constructed for the search process over the state space is called search tree.

39. Define search node.

The root of the search tree that is the initial state of the problem is called search node.

40. Define fringe.

The collection of nodes that have been generated but not yet expanded, this collection is called

fringe or

frontier.

PART – B

1. Describe briefly the various problem characteristics?

Heuristic search is a very general method applicable to a large class of problem. It

includes a variety of techniques. In order to choose an appropriate method, it is necessary to

analyze the problem with respect to the following considerations.

A very large and composite problem can be easily solved if it can be broken into smaller

problems and recursion could be used. Suppose we want to solve.

Ex:- ∫ x2 + 3x+sin2x cos 2x dx

This can be done by breaking it into three smaller problems and solving each by applying

specific rules. Adding the results the complete solution is obtained.

1. Ignorable problems Ex:- theorem proving

· In which solution steps can be ignored.

2. Recoverable problems Ex:- 8 puzzle

· In which solution steps can be undone

3. Irrecoverable problems Ex:- Chess

· In which solution steps can’t be undone good solution absolute or relative

There are two categories of problems. In one, like the water jug and 8 puzzle problems,

we are satisfied with the solution, unmindful of the solution path taken, whereas in the other

category not just any solution is acceptable.

Problem Classification

Actual problems are examined from the point of view , the task here is examine an input and

decide which of a set of known classes.

Ex:- Problems such as medical diagnosis , engineering design.

2. Explain in detail about Uninformed Search and Informed Search Strategies.

Uninformed Search Strategies have no additional information about states beyond that

provided in the problem definition.Strategies that know whether one non goal state is ―more
promising than another are

called informed search or heuristic search strategies.

There are five uninformed search strategies as given below.

o Breadth-first search

o Uniform-cost search

o Depth-first search

o Depth-limited search

o Iterative deepening search

3. Explain in detail about Depth first search Algorithm?

The h function can be extended to be applicable to (non-empty) paths. The heuristic value

of a path is the heuristic value of the node at the end of the path. That is:

h(

⟨no,...,nk

⟩)=h(nk)

A simple use of a heuristic function is to order the neighbors that are added to the stack

representing the frontier in depth-first search. The neighbors can be added to the frontier so that

the

best neighbor is selected first. This is known as heuristic depth first search. This search chooses

the locally best path, but it explores all paths from the selected path before it selects another path.

Although it is often used, it suffers from the problems of depth-fist search.

Another way to use a heuristic function is to always select a path on the frontier with the

lowest heuristic value. This is called best-first search. It usually does not work very well; it can

follow paths that look promising because they are close to the goal, but the costs of the paths

may keep increasing.

5. Explain in details about Production System?

Types of Production Systems.

A Knowledge representation formalism consists of collections of condition-action

rules(Production Rules or Operators), a database which is modified in accordance with the rules,

and a Production System Interpreter which controls the operation of the rules i.e

The 'control mechanism' of a Production System, determining the order in which

Production Rules are fired. A system that uses this form of knowledge representation is called a

production system.

A production system consists of rules and factors. Knowledge is encoded in a declarative

from which comprises of a set of rules of the form

Situation ------------ Action

SITUATION that implies ACTION.

Example:-

IF the initial state is a goal state THEN quit.

The major components of an AI production system are

i. A global database

ii. A set of production rules and

iii. A control system

The goal database is the central data structure used by an AI production system. The

production system. The production rules operate on the global database. Each rule has a

precondition that is either satisfied or not by the database. If the precondition is satisfied, the rule

can be applied.

Application of the rule changes the database. The control system chooses which

applicable rule should be applied and ceases computation when a termination condition on the

database is satisfied. If several rules are to fire at the same time, the control system resolves the

conflicts.

Four classes of production systems:-

1. A monotonic production system

2. A non monotonic production system

3. A partially commutative production system

4. A commutative production system.

6.Discuss N-queen’s problem in detail.

7. Discuss Tower of Hanoi in detail.