2. Fundamentals of Logic Primitive statement: a statement that can not be broken down into simpler form and it is either true or false but can not be both.
Example: p: John is a student q: UK is a university
Compound statement: a statement that is formed of primitive state- ments with logical connectives such as
1. Negation: p (or, ¬ p) 2. Conjunction: p Λ q ( p and q) 3. Disjunction: p V q ( p or q) 4. Implication: p → q ( p implies q) 5. Equivalence: p← → q ( p if and only if q) -31- "If x = 3 then x 2 = 9" is a true statement "If x = 5 then x + 2 = 11" is a false statement ------------------------------------------------------------------
truth tables are the same. -32- Note: ( p → q) ← → ( p V q)
p→q (not ture only if the
implication is violated)
If the hypothesis is not satisfied, then no
matter what truth value q has, the implication is not violated
Tautology: a statement that is always true
pV p Contradiction: a statement that is always false pΛ p
Notations: T o : tautology F o : contradiction -33- Theorem: a (mathematical) statement that can be shown to be true.
Example: p V p is a tautology
p p pV p 0 1 1 1 0 1
p → ( p V q) is a tautology
p q pVq p → ( p V q) 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 -34- Logical Equivalence: The Laws of Logic: - use truth tables and propositions to determine when two statements are functionally equiv- alent
Def: Two statements s1 and s2 are said to be
logically equivalent, denoted s1 <=> s2 , when the truth tables for s1 and s2 are the same.
Examples:
( p → q) <=> ( p V q)
→q) <=> ( p → q) Λ (q → p) ( p←
DeMorgan’s Law pΛq <=> p V q
p V q <=> p Λ q -35- Distributive Law p Λ (q V r) <=> ( p Λ q) V ( p Λ r)
p V (q Λ r) <=> ( p V q) Λ ( p V r)
Commutative Law p V q <=> q V p
p Λ q <=> q Λ p
Associative Law p Λ (q Λ r) <=> ( p Λ q) Λ r
p V (q V r) <=> ( p V q) V r
Idempotent Law p V p <=> p ; p Λ p <=> p
Idnetity Law p V F o <=> p ; p Λ T o <=> p -36- Inverse Law p V p <=> T o ; p Λ p <=> F o
Domination Law p V T o <=> T o ; p Λ F o <=> F o
Absorpion Law p V ( p Λ q) <=> p ; p Λ ( p V q) <=> p
Law of Double Negation
p <=> p
Example: Prove the following is true
( p V q) Λ ( p Λ ( p Λ q)) <=> ( p Λ q)
LHS <=> ( p V q) Λ (( p Λ p) Λ q)
<=> ( p V q) Λ ( p Λ q)
<=> ( p Λ ( p Λ q) V (q Λ ( p Λ q))
<=> (( p Λ p) Λ q) V ( p Λ q) -37- <=> (F o Λ q) V ( p Λ q)
s d : dual of s, by replacing Λ , V , T o , F o with V , Λ , F o T o
Example: s: pV p sd : pΛ p -38- Theorem 2.1: (The Principle of Duality) s, t: statements If s <=> t then s d <=> t d
Proof can be proved using Boolean algebra.
However, we will not prove it until Chapter 15.
Subsitution Rule: (1) P: compound statement and a tautology If p is a statement that appears in P and we replace each occurence of p with the same statement q then the resulting compound statement Q is also a tautology
Proof. If p is replaced with q, then the same
truth values can be applied to q as well. Since with these truth values, P is a tautol- ogy, Q must be a tautology too. -39- (2) P: compound statement p: a statement appears in P If q is a statement such that p <=> q then if we replace each occurence of p in P with q then the resulting compound statement Q <=> P
Proof. Similar to the above case.
Example: Simplify (P Λ q) → r
<=> ( p Λ q) V r
<=> ( p Λ q) Λ r
<=> ( p Λ q) Λ r -40- How to use logic laws to simplify logic circuits:
Example: Network with one switch:
p T1 T2
Current flows from T 1 to T 2 if the switch p is
closed.
p p q T1 T2 T1 T2 q pVq pΛ
In the first case, current flows from T 1 to T 2 if
either of the switches p, q is closed. In the sec- ond case, current flows from T 1 to T 2 if both switches are closed. -41- In the following, prove that (a) and (b) are equivalent.
