ASSIGNMENT

SUBJECT :- MICROPROCESSOR

NAME ROLLNO

CHIMPURANJAN DUTTA SIP/21/EL/028

BHARGAV JYOTI GUWALA SIP/21/EL/033

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SILCHAR POLYTECHNIC , MEHERPUR

CACHAR,ASSAM , PIN 788015

MEMORY
Computer memory is a device or system that is used to store information for immediate use in a
computer or related computer hardware and digital electronic devices. It is divided into two
main categories: primary memory and secondary memory. Primary memory is also known as
main memory or RAM (Random Access Memory) and is located on microchips that are
physically close to a computer's microprocessor. Primary memory holds only those data and
instructions on which the computer is currently working and is volatile, meaning it isn't retained
when the power is switched off. Secondary memory, on the other hand, is used for long-term
storage of data and programs and is non-volatile, meaning it retains data even when the power
is off. Examples of secondary memory include hard disk drives, solid-state drives, and optical
storage devices such as CDs and DVDs. RAM is the most common type of primary memory
and is used by a computer's operating system, hardware, and software. It allows a computer to
perform most of its everyday tasks, such as loading applications, browsing the internet, editing
a spreadsheet, or experiencing the latest game. Having more RAM means that more data can be
accessed and read almost instantly, as opposed to being written on your hard drive .A memory is
just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the
storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For
example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −
 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data
and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can
access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
  It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the
main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not
access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of
secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

Types of computer memory

In general, memory can be divided into primary and secondary memory; moreover, there are
numerous types of memory when discussing just primary memory. Some types of primary
memory include the following

 Cache memory. This temporary storage area, known as a cache, is more readily available to
the processor than the computer's main memory source. It is also called CPU
memory because it is typically integrated directly into the CPU chip or placed on a separate
chip with a bus interconnect with the CPU.

 RAM. The term is based on the fact that any storage location can be accessed directly by the
processor.

 Dynamic RAM. DRAM is a type of semiconductor memory that is typically used by the
data or program code needed by a computer processor to function.

 Static RAM. SRAM retains data bits in its memory for as long as power is supplied to it.
Unlike DRAM, which stores bits in cells consisting of a capacitor and a transistor, SRAM
does not have to be periodically refreshed.

 Double Data Rate SDRAM. DDR SRAM is SDRAM that can theoretically improve
memory clock speed to at least 200 MHz.
 Double Data Rate 4 Synchronous Dynamic RAM. DDR4 RAM is a type of DRAM that
has a high-bandwidth interface and is the successor to its previous DDR2 and DDR3
versions. DDR4 RAM allows for lower voltage requirements and higher module density. It
is coupled with higher data rate transfer speeds and allows for dual in-line memory modules
(DIMMS) up to 64 GB.

 Rambus Dynamic RAM. DRDRAM is a memory subsystem that promised to transfer up to

1.6 billion bytes per second. The subsystem consists of RAM, the RAM controller, the bus
that connects RAM to the microprocessor and devices in the computer that use it.

 Read-only memory. ROM is a type of computer storage containing nonvolatile, permanent

data that, normally, can only be read and not written to. ROM contains the programming that
enables a computer to start up or regenerate each time it is turned on.

 Programmable ROM. PROM is ROM that can be modified once by a user. It enables a
user to tailor a microcode program using a special machine called a PROM programmer.

 Erasable PROM. EPROM is programmable read-only memory PROM that can be erased
and re-used. Erasure is caused by shining an intense ultraviolet light through a window
designed into the memory chip.

 Electrically erasable PROM. EEPROM is a user-modifiable ROM that can be erased and
reprogrammed repeatedly through the application of higher than normal electrical voltage.
Unlike EPROM chips, EEPROMs do not need to be removed from the computer to be
modified. However, an EEPROM chip must be erased and reprogrammed in its entirety, not
selectively.

 Virtual memory. A memory management technique where secondary memory can be used
as if it were a part of the main memory. Virtual memory uses hardware and software to
enable a computer to compensate for physical memory shortages by temporarily transferring
data from RAM to disk storage.
Timeline of the history and evolution of computer memory
In the early 1940s, memory was only available up to a few bytes of space. One of the more
significant signs of progress during this time was the invention of acoustic delay line memory.
This technology enabled delay lines to store bits as sound waves in mercury, and quartz crystals
to act as transducers to read and write bits. This process could store a few hundred thousand
bits. In the late 1940s, nonvolatile memory began to be researched, and magnetic-core memory
-- which enabled the recall of memory after a loss of power -- was created. By the 1950s, this
technology had been improved and commercialized and led to the invention of PROM in 1956.
Magnetic-core memory became so widespread that it was the main form of memory until the
1960s.

Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors, also known as MOS semiconductor

memory, was invented in 1959. This enabled the use of MOS transistors as elements for
memory cell storage. MOS memory was cheaper and needed less power compared to magnetic-
core memory. Bipolar memory, which used bipolar transistors, started being used in the early
1960s.

In 1961, Bob Norman proposed the concept of solid-state memory being used on an integrated
circuit (IC) chip. IBM brought memory into the mainstream in 1965. However, users found
solid-state memory to be too expensive to use at the time compared to other memory types.
Other advancements during the early to mid-1960s were the invention of bipolar SRAM,
Toshiba's introduction of DRAM in 1965 and the commercial use of SRAM in 1965. The
single-transistor DRAM cell was developed in 1966, followed by a MOS semiconductor device
used to create ROM in 1967. From 1968 to the early 1970s, N-type MOS (NMOS) memory also
started to become popularized.

By the early 1970s, MOS-based memory started becoming much more widely used as a form of
memory. In 1970, Intel had the first commercial DRAM IC chip. One year later, erasable
PROM was developed and EEPROM was invented in 1972.