Unit-5

Transistor Characteristics

Principle of Operation of NPN and PNP transistors – Input and Output characteristics
of CE, CB CC. JFETs – Drain and Transfer characteristics,-Current Equations - Pinch
off voltage and its significance MOSFET- Characteristics- Threshold voltage -Channel
length modulation, Comparison of BJT, JFET, MOSFET.

Transistor
Transistor is an electronic device made of three layers of semiconductor material that
can act as an insulator and a conductor. The three layered transistor is also known as
the bipolar junction transistor.

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device consisting of either two n- and

one ptype layers of material or two p- and one ntype layers of material.
The former is called an npn transistor, while the latter is called a pnp transistor
So, there are two types of BJT i) pnp transistor ii) npn transistor

In each transistor following points to be noted

i) There are two junction, so transistor can be considered as two diode connected
back to back.
ii) There are three terminals.
iii)The middle section is thin than other.
Transistor Symbols

Transistor has three section of doped semiconductor.

The section one side is called “emitter” and the opposite side is called “collector”.
The middle section is called “base”.
1) Emitter:
The section of one side that supplies carriers is called emitter.
Emitter is always forward biased with respect to base so it can supply carrier.
For “npn transistor” emitter emits the electrons.
For “pnp transistor” emitter emits the holes.
2) Collector:
The section on the other side that collects carrier is called collector.
The collector is always reversed biased with respect to base.
For “npn transistor” collector receives electrons.
For “pnp transistor” collector receives holes.
3) Base:
The middle section which forms two pn junction between emitter and collector is
called Base.
Transistor Operation
Working of npn transistor:

Forward bias Is applied to emitter base junction and reverse bias is applied to
collector base junction.
The forward bias in the emitter-base junction causes electrons to move toward base.
This constitute emitter current, IE

As this electrons flow toward p-type base, they try to recombine with holes. As base
is lightly doped only few electrons recombine with holes within the base. These
recombined electrons constitute small base current. The remainder electrons crosses
base and constitute collector current.
IE=IB+IC

Working of pnp transistor:

Forward bias is applied to emitter base junction and reverse bias is applied to
collector base junction.
The forward bias in the emitter-base junction causes holes to move toward base. This
constitute emitter current, IE
As this holes flow toward n-type base, they try to recombine with electrons. As base
is lightly doped only few holes recombine with electrons within the base. These
recombined holes constitute small base current. The remainder holes crosses base and
constitute collector current.
Transistor Operating Modes
• Active Mode
Base- Emitter junction is forward and Base-Collector junction is reverse biased.
• Saturation Mode
Base- Emitter junction is forward and Base-Collector junction is forward biased.
• Cut-off Mode
Both junctions are reverse biased.

Transistor Connection
Transistor can be connected in a circuit in following three ways- 1) Common Base 2)
Common Emitter 3) Common Collector

Common Base Configuration

The common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the base is common to
both the input and output sides of the configuration.
First Figure shows common base npn configuration and second figure shows
common base pnp configuration.

Current amplification factor (α) :

The ratio of change in collector current to the change in emitter current at constant
VCB is known as current amplification factor,

Practical value of is less than unity, but in the range of 0.9 to 0.99

Expression for Collector Current

Total emitter current does not reach the collector terminal, because a small portion of
it constitute base current. So,

IE=IB+IC

Also, collector diode is reverse biased, so very few minority carrier passes the
collector-base junction which actually constitute leakage current.
So, collector current constitute of portion of emitter current αIE and leakage current
ICBO.

IC=αIE+ICBO
Characteristics of common base configuration

Input Characteristics

VBE vs IE characteristics is called input characteristics.IE increases rapidly with

VBE .
It means input resistance is very small.IE almost independent of VCB.

Output Characteristics

VBc vs Ic characteristics is called output characteristics.

IC varies linearly with VBC ,only when VBC is very small. As, VBC increases, Ic
becomes constant.

Input and Output Resistance of common base configuration

Input Resistance: The ratio of change in emitter-base voltage to the change in

emitter current is called Input Resistance.
Output Resistance: The ratio of change in collector-base voltage to the change in
collector current is called Output Resistance.

Common Emitter Configuration

The common-emitter terminology is derived from the fact that the emitter is common
to both the input and output sides of the configuration

First Figure shows common emitter npn configuration and second figure shows
common emitter pnp configuration.
Base Current amplification factor ( β) :
• In common emitter connection input current is base current and output current is
collector current.
• The ratio of change in collector current to the β change in base current is known as
base current amplification factor,

Normally only 5% of emitter current flows to base, so amplification factor is greater

than 20. Usually this range varies from 20 to 500.
Relation Between α and β

Expression for collector current

Characteristics of common emitter configuration

Input Characteristics
VBE vs IB characteristics is called input characteristics.
IB increases rapidly with VBE . It means input resistance is very small.
IE almost independent of VCE.
IB is of the range of micro amps

Output Characteristics

VCE vs Ic characteristics is called output characteristics. IC varies linearly with VCE

,only when VCE is very small. As, VCE increases, IC becomes constant.

Common Collector Configuration

The common-collector terminology is derived from the fact that the collector is
common to both the input and output sides of the configuration.

First Figure shows common collector npn configuration and second figure shows
common collector pnp configuration
Current amplification factor (γ):
In common emitter connection input current is base current and output current is
emitter current.
The ratio of change in emitter current to the change in base current is known as
current amplification factor in common collector configuration.

Relation between γ and α

Expression for Emitter current

Characteristics of common emitter configuration

Input Characteristics

VBC vs IB characteristics is called input characteristics.IB increases rapidly with

VBC.It means input resistance is high.

Output Characteristics

VEC vs IE characteristics is called output characteristics. IE varies linearly with VEC

,only when VEC is very small. As, VEC increases, IE becomes constant.
Comparison of Transistor Connection

Transistor applications

1.Transistor as a switch

When used as an electronic switch, the transistor is normally operated alternately in

cut-off and saturation regions. Transistor applications Transistor as a switch
2.Transistor as amplifier

Due to the small changes in base current the collector current will mimic the input
with greater amplitude.

During positive half cycle input ac will keep the emitter base junction more forward
biased. So, more carrier will be emitted by emitter, this huge current will flow
through load and output signal gets amplified.
• During negative half cycle input ac will keep the emitter-base junction less forward
biased. So, fewer carriers will be emitted by emitter. Hence collector current
decreases.
• This results in decreased output voltage (In opposite direction).

Field Effect Transistor (FET)

Field effect Transistor is a semiconductor device which depends for its operation on
the control of current by an electric field

FET has several advantages over BJT

1.Current flow is due to majority carriers only
2.Immune to radiation
3.High input resistance
4.Less noisy than BJT
5.No offset voltages at zero drain current
6.High thermal stability
Classification of FET

Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

JFET is one of the types of FET. It is voltage controlled device. JFET is used as a
voltage controlled resistor or switch or as an amplifier. There are two types of JFET
namely N-Channel JFET and P-Channel JFET.

In N channel the generation of the current is due to the movement of electrons, in P

channel the generation of current is due to the movement of holes. Since the
movement of electrons is faster than the movement of holes, N- Channel JFET is
preferred more than the P-Channel JFET.

Symbol of N channel and P channel JFET:

JFET has three terminals Drain, Source and Gate equivalent to Collector, Base and
Emitter in BJT. BJT have PN Junctions but JFET have channels made of either P
type or N type. In P-Channel JFET arrow points outside and in N-Channel JFET
arrow points inside.

Three terminals of JFET:

Source:
The majority carriers enters the Field Effect transistor through the source terminal.
Gate:
By controlling the Gate voltage the flow of majority carriers from Source to drain can
be controlled.
Drain:
The majority charge carriers leaves the channel through drain. This current is
designated by the source gate voltage VGS
Channel:
The region between source and drain and also between the gate region is called the
channel.
Construction of P channel JFET:

As it is shown in the figure in P Channel JFET in the P type substrate drain and
source terminals are taken by creating ohmic contacts.

N type material is used at the either side of the channel and the gate terminals are
taken from the N type materials.
Construction and working of N channel JFET:

In N Channel JFET in the N type substrate drain and source terminals are taken by
creating ohmic contacts and P type material is used at the either side of the channel
and the gate terminals are taken from the P type materials.

The drain and source terminal is taken from the both the sides of the channel. A small
voltage at the Gate terminal controls the current flow between source and drain.
Working of N channel when Bias is zero
The Gate to source voltage controls the flow of current from source to drain. When
no gate to source voltage is applied or when bias is zero the resistance in the channel
is low. So when a small drain to source voltage is applied it causes the current to flow
from source to drain.
Working of N channel when moderate bias is applied

When the gate terminal is reverse biased or when negative gate source voltage is
applied the size of the depletion layer increases and the resistance in the channel
increases. Thus it controls the flow of current in the channel.

Working of N channel when bias greater than Pinch off is applied

When the reverse bias at the gate terminal is increased the depletion region increases
and they meet at a point of time. This is called Pinch off mode. At this point the
source to drain current is zero, but some reverse saturation current exists. The Gate to
source voltage at which the Drain current is zero is called “ Pinch off Voltage.

JFET Parameters

Electrical behavior is described in terms of the parameters of the Device. They are
obtained from the characteristics. Important Parameters for FET are
1.DC Drain resistance
2.AC drain Resistance
3.Transconductance

DC Drain resistance: Defined as ratio of Drain to source Voltage VDS to Drain

current ID. Also called static or Ohmic Resistance
Mathematically

AC Drain resistance: Defined as the resistance between Drain to source when JFET
is operating in Pinch off Region or saturation Region

Transconductance (gm): It is given by the ratio of small change in drain current to

the Corresponding change in the Gate to source Voltage VGS. Also known as
Forward Transmittance
Mathematically

Amplification factor(µ)
It is given by the ratio of small change in drain to source voltage (∆Vds) to the
corresponding change in gate to source voltage (∆Vgs)for a constant drain current
(Id).
Thus µ=∆Vds/∆Vgs when ID held constant
The amplification factor µ may be expressed as a product of transconductance (gm)
and ac drain resistance (rd)
µ =gmrd

Drain Characteristics or V-I Characteristics of JFET:

Drain characteristics show the relation between the drain to source voltage and V DS
and drain current ID.

Drain characteristics of N-channel JFET Drain characteristics of P-channel JFET

Ohmic Region:
It is the region when gate source voltage is zero V GS=0

Saturation Region:
In this region JFET is ON and active.

Cut Off Region:

JFET is OFF in this region and there is no drain current flowing.

Breakdown Region:
When the drain voltage exceeds the maximum necessary voltage, current flows from
drain to source without any resistance and the device breakdown and the JFET enters
the breakdown region.
Transfer characteristics

Transfer Characteristics of JFET are a plot of ID versus VGS. The gate-source voltage
of a FET controls the level of the drain current, so, the transfer characteristic shows
how ID is controlled by VGS. The transfer characteristic extends from ID = IDSS at
VGS = 0, to ID = 0 at VGS = Vp (VGS(off)) Pinch off Voltage.

Drain current ID is given by

Difference in Working of n channel FET and p channel FET

Difference between FET and BJT

FET Applications
 Phase shift oscillators: The high input impedance of FET is especially valuable
in phase shift oscillator to minimize the loading effect.
 In voltmeters: The high input impedance of FET is useful in voltmeters to act
as an input stage.
 As a buffer amplifier which isolates the preceding stage from the following
stage.
 FET has low noise operation. So it is used in RF amplifiers in FM tuners and
communication equipment.
 FET has low input capacitance, so it is used in cascade amplifiers in measuring
and test equipment.
 Since FET is a voltage controlled device, it is used as a voltage variable
resistor in operational amplifiers and tone controls.
 FET has low inner modulation distortion. So it is used in mixer circuits in FM
and TV receivers, and communication equipment.
 Since it is low-frequency drifts, it is used in oscillator circuits.

DISADVANTAGES OF FET OVER BJT

 FETs have a drawback of smaller gain bandwidth product compared to BJT.

  The high input impedance, low output impedance and low noise level make
FET for superior of the bipolar transistor.

Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET)

MOSFET is an acronym for Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor.

It is a type of FET (Field Effect Transistor) that has an insulated metal oxide layer
between its gate and channel. On the contrary, JFETs gate is connected with its
channel. The plus point of the insulated gate is its superior speed and performance
with very little leakage current.

It is also called as insulated gate FET (IGFET)

MOSFETs operates both in the depletion mode as well as an the enhancement mode

MOSFET is classified into two types depletion type MOSFET “D-MOSFET” and
Enhancement type MOSFET “E-MOSFET. Both of these MOSFET’s are widely
used in electronics, integrated and embedded circuits.

The MOSFET has 4 terminals Drain, Gate, Source and Body. However, the body
terminal is always connected with the source terminal. Therefore,only three terminals
are considered. The MOSFET conducts current between the source and drain. The
path for current between the source and drain is called a channel. The width of this
channel is controlled by the voltage at the gate terminal.
Depletion MOSFET Enhancement MOSFET
The type of MOSFET where the The type of the MOSFET where the
channel depletes with the gate voltage channel is enhanced or induced using
is known as depletion or simply D- the gate voltage is known as E-
MOSFET. MOSFET.
The channel is fabricated during There is no channel during its
manufacturing. manufacturing.
It conducts current between its source
It does not conduct current when there
and drains when there is no Gate
is no Gate voltage VGS.
voltage VGS.
Applying reverse voltage does not
Applying reverse voltage to the gate
affect E-MOSFET since there is no
reduces the channel width.
channel.
Applying the forward voltage
Applying forward voltage to the gate
generates and increases the width of
increases the channel width.
the channel.
It can work in both depletion and It can only work in enhancement
enhancement mode. mode.
It is a normally ON transistor. It is a normally OFF transistor.
It switches OFF with reverse biasing It switches ON with the forward
of gate. biasing of the gate.
There is no threshold voltage for There a threshold voltage at which the
switching ON the MOSFET. MOSFET switches ON.
Diffusion or subthreshold current does E-MOSFET has sub-threshold current
not exist. leakage between its source and drain.
D-MOSFET or “Depletion MOSFET” symbols

Depletion MOSFET or D-MOSFET

The type of MOSFET where the channel depletes with the gate voltage is known as
depletion or simply D-MOSFET. The channel is fabricated during manufacturing.

Construction of N channel Depletion MOSFET

Figure shows the construction of an N-channel depletion MOSFET. It consists of a

highly doped P-type substrate into which two blocks of heavily doped N-type
material are diffused forming the source and drain. An N-channel is formed by
diffusion between the source and drain. The type of impurity for the channel is the
same as for the source and drain. Now a thin layer of SiO 2 dielectric is grown over
the entire surface and holes are cut through the SiO2 (silicon-dioxide) layer to make
contact with the N-type blocks (Source and Drain). Metal is deposited through the
holes to provide drain and source terminals, and on the surface area between drain
and source, a metal plate is deposited. This layer constitutes the gate.

Operation of N channel Depletion MOSFET

D-MOSFET can be operated with either a positive or a negative gate. When gate is
positive with respect to the source it operates in the enhancement—or E-mode and
when the gate is negative with respect to the source, as illustrated in figure, it
operates in depletion-mode.
When the drain is made positive with respect to source, a drain current will flow,
even with zero gate potential and the MOSFET is said to be operating in E-mode. In
this mode of operation gate attracts the negative charge carriers from the P-substrate
to the N-channel and thus reduces the channel resistance and increases the drain-
current. The more positive the gate is made, the more drain current flows.
On the other hand when the gate is made negative with respect to the substrate, the
gate repels some of the negative charge carriers out of the N-channel. This creates a
depletion region in the channel, as illustrated in figure, and, therefore, increases the
channel resistance and reduces the drain current. The more negative the gate, the less
the drain current. In this mode of operation the device is referred to as a depletion-
mode MOSFET. Here too much negative gate voltage can pinch-off the channel.
Thus operation is similar to that of JFET.

Drain Characteristics of Depletion MOSFET.

Typical drain characteristics, for various levels of gate-source voltage, of an N-

channel MOSFET are shown in figure. The upper curves are for positive VGS and the
lower curves are for negative VGS. The bottom drain curve is for VGS = V GS(OFF).
For a specified drain-source voltage VDS, VGS (OFF) is the gate-source voltage at
which drain current reduces to a certain specified negligibly small value, as shown in
figure. This voltage corresponds to the pinch-off voltage Vp of JFET. For
VGS between VGS (0FF) and zero, the device operates in depletion-mode while for
VGS exceeding zero the device operates in enhancement mode. These drain curves
again display an ohmic region, a constant-current source region and a cut-off region.
MOSFET has two major applications: a constant current source and a voltage
variable resistor.
Transfer Characteristics of Depletion MOSFET

The transfer (or transconductance) characteristic for an N-channel Depletion

MOSFET is shown in figure. IDSS is the drain current with a shorted gate. Since the
curve extends to the right of the origin, IDSS is no longer the maximum possibledrain
current.

A P-channel Depletion MOSFET is constructed like an N-channel Depletion

MOSFET, starting with an N-type substrate and diffusing P-type drain and
source blocks and connecting them internally by a P-doped channel region.
Enhancement MOSFET or E-MOSFET

E-MOSFET (Enhancement Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) is

the type of MOSFET which can be operated only in the enhancement mode of
operation and cannot be operated in depletion mode.
Based on the nature of the conduction channel, E-MOSFETs are classified into the
following two types:
 N-Channel E-MOSFET
 P-Channel E-MOSFET

Enhancement MOSFET or E-MOSFET symbols

Construction of N-Channel Enhancement Type MOSFET

The type of E-MOSFET which has a conduction channel of N-type, i.e. majority of
charge carriers are electrons is termed N-channel E-MOSFET. The construction
and circuit symbol of N-channel E-MOSFET is shown in figure-1.
From the construction diagram, it is clear that the conduction channel from source to
drain is absent physically in E-MOSFET because the semiconductor substrate
extends completely to the SiO2 layer as shown in figure-1. Hence, in E-MOSFET, the
channel between the source and drain is induced only by the application of a
proper voltage at the gate terminal.

Working of N-Channel Enhancement MOSFET

The circuit diagram of N-channel E-MOSFET with biasing batteries VDS and VGS is
shown in figure-2. The positive potential applied at the gate terminal repels the holes
(+ve charges) away from the SiO2 layer. As a result, holes leave the area near the
SiO2 layer and enter the deeper region into the P-type substrate.
Electrons (minority charge carriers) in the P-type substrate are attracted towards the
SiO2 layer due to the positive potential of the gate terminal. Although, these electrons
cannot cross the metal-oxide layer of SiO2. Thus, they are accumulated near the
SiO2 layer. Consequently, the area near to the SiO 2 layer becomes rich in electrons
and acts like an induced N-channel. This N-channel is also called the inversion
layer.
This N-channel or inversion layer helps electrons of the source-side N+ region to
move towards the drain-side N+ region. When this N-channel is absent, all the
electrons leaving the source N+ region to combine with holes of the P-type substrate
and no electron can reach the drain N+ region. Therefore, the drain current (ID) is
reduced to zero. It also proves that the gate voltage enhances the drain current (I D) in
the Enhancement Type MOSFET.
Here, the minimum value of gate-to-source voltage (VGS) required to induce the N-
channel is referred to as Threshold Voltage (VTh). When the voltage VGS is less than
VTh, the drain current (ID) is very small (usually of the order of nano-amperes) and
hence considered equal to zero.

When the gate to source voltage (VGS) is kept constant and the drain to source voltage
(VDS) is increased, the drain current (ID) reaches a saturation level after some time as
shown in figure-3.
This saturation of ID happens due to the pinching-off of the induced N-channel. In
this case, a depletion layer is developed between the N-channel and P-type substrate
whose thickness depends upon the amount of reverse bias between the PN-junction.
When voltage VDS increases, the potential of the induced N-channel increases in a
positive manner, whereas the potential of the P-substrate still remains at zero volts.
As a result, the reverse bias between PN-junction increases, which in turn, increases
the size of the depletion layer. This depletion layer is thinnest at the source side and
thickest at the drain side. The increased size of the depletion layer reduces the
effective width of the induced N-channel.
Ultimately, at a particular value of the drain to source voltage (V DS), the N-channel
will be reduced to the point of pinch-off and the drain current (ID) saturates as shown
in figure-3.

Note: The working of P-Channel E-MOSFET is similar to that of N-Channel E-

MOSFET. The only difference is that the negative potential applied at the gate
terminal induces a P-channel between the source-side P+ region and the drain-
side P+ region.
V-I Characteristics of Enhancement MOSFETs
Enhancement MOSFETs (E-MOSFETs) have the following two types of V-I
characteristics:
 Output Characteristics or Drain Characteristics
 Transfer Characteristics

Drain Characteristics of E-MOSFET

The graphs or curves that show the relationship between drain current (ID) and drain-
to-source voltage (VDS) for a given value of gate-to-source voltage (VGS) are
called drain characteristics or output characteristics of E-MOSFET.
The drain characteristics (output characteristics) of N-Channel and P-Channel E-
MOSFETs are shown in figure-6.

From the drain characteristics of E-MOSFETs, the following important points can be
concluded:
 For small values of VDS, the drain current (ID) increases linearly with the
increase in VDS. This region is called the ohmic region of operation.
 After a certain value of VDS, the pinch-off takes place and the drain current
ID saturates and becomes independent of the voltage V DS. This is called
a constant current region.
 If the gate-to-source voltage (VGS) is below the threshold voltage (VTh), the
drain current (ID) is reduced to zero.
 For N-Channel E-MOSFET, if the voltage VGS is increased in a positive
manner, the drain current (ID) increases. This happens because the positive
increment in VGS strengthens the induced N-channel.
  For P-Channel E-MOSFET, if the voltage VGS is increased in a negative
manner, the drain current (ID) increases. This happens because the negative
increment in VGS strengthens the induced P-channel.

Transfer Characteristics of E-MOSFET

The graphs or curves showing the relationship between drain current (I D) and
gate-to-source voltage (VGS) for a constant value of VDS are called transfer
characteristics of E-MOSFET.

Figure-7 below shows the transfer characteristics of N-channel E-MOSFET and

P-channel E-MOSFET.

From these transfer characteristics, the following important points can be concluded:
 For VGS < VTh, the drain current (ID) is zero. This is because no significant
channel is induced between the source and drain regions to support the flow of
charge carriers (electrons or holes).
 For VGS > VTh, the drain current (ID) increases sharply with the increase in
VGS in a parabolic sense.
Channel Length Modulation
The Channel length modulation can be defined as the change or reduction in length
of the channel (L) due to increase in the drain to source voltage (V DS) in the
saturation region.

Current Equation

Drain current of JFET

Drain current of MOSFET