ENTO 231 (1-1) - SSNAIK - SM - V Deans

STUDY MATERIAL
ENTO 231 (1+1) – FUNDAMENTALS OF ENTOMOLOGY-II & IPM
WRITTEN & COMPILED BY
G Raghavaiah
T Ramesh Babu
K Hari Prasad
S R KoteswaraRao
P V Krishnayya
K Manjula
P Seetha Ramu
K Sridevi
S Upendhar
S.Srinivasnaik
DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, POLASA, JAGTIAL-505 529
PROFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANAGANA STATE
AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

PROFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA STATE AGRICULTURAL
UNIVERSITY
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, POLASA, JAGTIAL-505529
LECTURE OUTLINES
ENTO 231 (1+1): FUNDAMENTALS OF ENTOMOLOGY-II & IPM
THEROY:
Lecture Content
Ecology – introduction - autecology and synecology – population, community
- importance of insect ecological studies in Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
- environment and its components – soil, water, air and biota.
Abiotic factors - temperature-its effect on the development, fecundity
Lecture 1. distribution, dispersal and movement of insects - adaptations of insects to
temperature - thermal constant
Moisture- adaptation of insects to conserve moisture. - humidity- its effect on
development, fecundity and colour of body - rainfall - its effect on emergence,
movement and oviposition of insects
Light – phototaxis - photoperiodism - its effect on growth, moulting activity or
behaviour, oviposition and pigmentation - use of light as a factor of insect
Lecture 2.
control; Atmospheric pressure and its effect on behavior. Air currents - effect
on dispersal of insects – edaphic factors – water currents.
Concept of balance of life – biotic potential and environmental resistance –
normal coefficient of destruction – factors contributing to increase or decrease
Lecture 3.
of population – causes for outbreak of pests in agro-ecosystem – explanation
for these causes.
Pest Surveillance – definition –importance in IPM – advantages – components
of pest surveillance – pest forecasting - types of forecasting ( short termand
long term forecasting and their advantages) – insect pests – definitions of
Lecture 4.
negligible, minor and major pests : Different categories of pests – regular,
ocassional, seasonal, persistent, sporadic , epidemic and endemic pests with
examples.
IPM – introduction - importance – evolution of IPM, collapse of control
systems, patterns of crop protection and environmental contamination –
Lecture 5. concepts and principles of IPM – Economic Threshold Level (ETL) –
Economic Injury Level (EIL) and General Equilibrium Position (GEP) – tools
or components of IPM – practices, scope and limitations of IPM
Host-plant resistance- principles of host plant resistance – ecological resistance
– phenological asynchrony, induced resistance and escape – genetic resistance
– mono, oligo and polygenic resistance –major gene resistance
(vertical/specific/qualitative) and minor gene resistance
Lecture 6.
(horizontal/nonspecific/quantitative) – host-plant selection process- host
habitat finding, host finding, host recognition, host acceptance, host suitability-
Mechanisms of Genetic resistance- nonpreference (antixenosis), antibiosis and
tolerance – transgenic plants.
Cultural control- normal cultural practices which incidentally control the pests
and agronomic practices recommended specifically against the pests with
Lecture 7.
examples; Mechanical control- different mechanical methods of pest control
with examples.
Lecture 8. Physical control – use of inert carriers against stored product insects - steam
sterilization – solarization - solar radiation - light traps - flamethrowers etc.;
Legislative measures - importance of quarantine - examples of exotic pests -
different legislative measures enforced in different countries including India.
Biotic factors – Food - classification of insects according to nutritional
requirements - other organisms – Parasitoids, Predators & Pathogens
Biological control - types of biological control – introduction , augmentation
and conservation – parasite – parasitoid - parasitism - grouping of parasitoids
Lecture 9 based on nature of host, stage of host, site of parasitisation, duration of attack,
degree of parasitisation and food habits – Kinds of parasitism –
qualities/attributes of an effective parasitoid to be successful one. Biological
control - Predators – predatism – qualities of insect predator – differences
between predator and parasitoid
Microbial control – Bacteria, Viruses, fungi, nematodes and protozoa –
important species of microorganisms against major pests for incorporation in
Lecture 10.
IPM – Entomopathogenic nematodes – important species – mode of infectivity
and examples ; - advantages and disadvantages of biological control.
Chemical control - importance and ideal properties of insecticide -
classification of insecticides based on origin, mode of entry, mode of action
and toxicity - toxicity evaluation of insecticides - LC50 (Lethal
Lecture 11
Concentration), LD50 (Lethal Dose), ED50 (Effective Dose), LT50 ((Lethal
time), KD50 (Knockdown Dose) and KT50 (Knock Down Time) –
Inorganic insecticides - arsenic Compounds - fluorine and sulphur
Botanical Insecticides – Plant derived insecticides – neem based products –
different commercial formulations containing azadirachtin, neem seed kernel
Lecture 12.
extract, neem cake and their uses – nicotine, rotenone, plumbagin and
pyrethrum – source – properties and uses.
Synthetic organic insecticides – chlorinated hydrocarbons – toxicity and mode
of action.
Organo phosphates - systemic, non-systemic and translaminar action of
insecticides with examples – brief mode of action – toxicity.
Carbamates - mode of action – toxicity.Synthetic pyrethroids - brief mode of
Lecture 13.
action – toxicity.
Novel insecticides – nicotinoid insecticides - brief mode of action – toxicity.
Macro cyclic lactones – Oxadaizines – Thioureas - Pyridine azomethines -
Pyrroles -. Formamidines – Ketoenols b -Diamides brief mode of action –
toxicity
IGR - Chitin synthesis inhibitors – brief mode of action - toxicity;Juvenile
hormone (JH) mimics – brief mode of action - toxicity, ;Anti JH or
precocenes, Ecdysone agonists - brief mode of action – toxicity, formulations.
Recent methods of pest control- repellants (physical and chemical) and
Lecture 14.
antifeedants - importance of antifeedants and limitations of their use –
attractants - sex pheromones - list of synthetic sex pheromones - use in IPM -
Insect hormones – gamma irradiation – genetic control – sterile male
technique.
Application techniques of spray fluids - high volume, low and ultra low
volume sprays - phytotoxic effects of insecticides - advantages and limitations
Lecture 15. of chemical control
Safe use of pesticides. Symptoms of poisoning - first aid and antidotes for
important groups of insecticides; Insecticide resistance-insect resurgence-
insecticide residues – importance - Maximum Residue Limits (MRL) –
Average Daily Intake (ADI) – waiting periods – safety periods - Insecticides
Act 1968 – important provisions.
Rodents- Important major rodent sps.- Nature of damage- management -
Rodenticides – zinc phosphide, aluminum phosphide, bromodilone; Fumigants
- aluminum phosphide
Lecture 16 Mites- Importance - morphology and biology of mites.
Mites- Classification- characters of important families tetranychidae,
tenuipalpidae, tarsonimidae and eriophyidae- host range - Management Other
non-insect pests- Mollusc pests, vertebrate pests and their management
PRACTICALS:
S.No. Content
1. Study of distribution pattern of insects in crop ecosystem
2. Sampling techniques for estimation of insect population and damage
3. Pest surveillance and pest forecasting
4. Pest surveillance through light traps, pheromone traps
5. Assessment of crop yield losses, calculations based on economics of IPM
6. Insecticide formulations (new formulations)
7. Calculation of doses / Concentrations of different insecticide formulations
8. Compatibility of Pesticides, Phytotoxicity of insecticides
9. Mass multiplication of Predators
10. Mass multiplication of Parasitoids
11. Mass multiplication of Entomopathogenic fungi
12. Mass multiplication of Nuclear polyhydrosis virus
13. Agro ecosystem Analysis
14. IPM module for Paddy, Cotton and Maize
15. Identification of different mite species
16. Identification of different non-insect pests: Birds, Rodents, crabs and snails
REFERENCES:
Dhaliwal, G.S and Ramesh Arora. 2001. Integrated Pest Management: Concepts and
approaches, Kalyani Publishers Ludhiana
Gautam,R.D. 2008. Biological Pest Suppression. Westville Publishing House, New Delhi.
Metcalf, R.L. and Luckman W.H. 1982.Introduction to Insect Pest Management. Wiley inter
science publishing, New York.
Nair, K.K., Anantha Krishnan, T.N and B.V. David. 1976. General and Applied Entomology,
Tata McGraw Hill publishing co. Ltd, New Delhi
Larry, P Pedigo 1991. Entomology and Pest Management, Prentice Hall of India Private Ltd.,
New Delhi
VenugopalaRao, N., Umamaheswari, T., Rajendraprasad, P., Naidu,V.G and
Savithri,P.2004.Integrated Insect Pest Management.Agrobios (India) Limited,Jodhpur
Vasanthrai David, B. 2003. Elements of Economic Entomology. Popular Book Depot,
Coimbatore.
Yazdani,S.S and Agarwal,M.L.1979.Elements of Insect Ecology.Narosa Publishing
House,New Delhi

LECTURE NO: 01
ECOLOGY – INTRODUCTION-IMPORTANCE OF INSECT ECOLOGICAL
STUDIES IN INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM) - ENVIRONMENT–
SOIL, WATER, AIR AND BIOTA & ABIOTIC FACTORS –TEMPERATURE,
MOISTURE, HUMIDITY EFFECTS
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The word ecology is the modified form of ‘Oekologie’ derived from the Greek
‘Oikos’, meaning ‘Home’ and ‘Logos’ meaning ‘Discourse’ introduced by Reiter in
1869 and later anglicized to ‘Ecology’.
Ecology is a multidisciplinary subject and derives support from other sciences.
Definitions of Ecology
Ernst Haeckel (1869) coined the word ecology and defined it as the total relations of
the animal to both its organic and inorganic environment.
Charles Elton (1927) in his pioneering book Animal Ecology defined ecology as the
scientific natural history
Allee (1949) defined as Ecology is „the science of inter-relations between living
organisms and their environment including both the physical and the biotic
environments and emphasizing inter species and intra species relations‟
Odum (1953) defined ecology as „the study of the structure and functions of nature
(or Environmental biology)‟.
Andrewartha (1961) defined ecology as the scientific study of the distribution and
abundance of organisms.
Krebs (1972) modified the definition as follows: Ecology is the scientific study of the
interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms.
Levels of organizations
1. Molecules
2. Subcellular
organelles
Complexity increases from molecule to Biosphere
3. Cells
4. Tissues
5. Organs
6. Organ systems
7. Oraganisms
8. Population
9. Community
10. Ecosystem
11. Biosphere
Population, community, ecosystem are directly connected to insect pest
management. Hence the following definitions should be understand.
 Population: Individual organisms of the same species live together as a
„Population‟. Population can be defined as „a group of individuals or a species
occurring in a given area or locality at a specific time‟.
 Community:Populations of different species live together and form a
„Community‟, meaning „all populations in the area at a specific time‟. The
community is influenced by its physical environment.
 Ecosystem: The complex system of biotic and abiotic factors constitutes an
„Ecosystem‟. Whereas the crops, insects, other animals and the physical
abiotic factors together constitute an „Agro-ecosystem’.
Habitat and Niche
Habitat - The place in which an organism lives
 provides the kinds of food and shelter, the temperature, and the amount of
moisture the organism needs to survive
 Very complex
 Can contain 100‟s to 1000‟s of interacting species.\\
Niche An organism‟s habitat + role + tolerance limits to all limiting factors
Its role in the ecosystem (herbivore, carnivore, producer etc)
 Its tolerance limits (e.g. soil pH, humidity)
 Its requirements for shelter, nesting sites etc etc, all varying through time
Braches of Ecology
Ecology is divided mainly into „Autecology‟ and „Synecology‟.
Autecology is the study of individual organisms or an individual species in relation
to the environment
Synecology is the study of the group or groups of organisms associated in a
community in the same environment i.e., in relation to various other species living in
the same environment.
Importance of Ecology in Pest Management:
Indiscriminate uses of pesticides lead to a regular resurgence of pests due to
the fact that the natural enemies get killed. The increase in pest population is also
due tothe interference of man by monoculture, using high yielding and susceptible
varieties, giving more number of irrigations, use of high nitrogenous fertilizers etc.
Because of which the balance of life in nature gets upset and the pest appears in
severe form every year. The importance of ecology was then felt and integrated
approaches in pest management are now made to avoid the violent fluctuations in
pest populations.
1. Ecological studies assist pest control programmes by explaining pest
problemsand suggesting alternate ways of combating insects. The outbreaks
of the pests canalso be predicted.
2. The ecological studies investigate the causes for the changes inpopulation
number and the mechanism of natural control.
3. The key mortality factors in anatural population help to integrate the various
methods of control, without disturbingthe balance of nature.
4. The pest surveillance programmes form a part of ecology.
5. Forecasting of the possible attack by different pests can be done and
accordingly thecontrol measures can be initiated in time.
6. Suitable chemicals can be selecteddepending on the presence or absence of
natural enemies. As such ecological studiesform a basic part of the approach
to the integrated pest management (IPM).
Components of Environment
In nature the living organism and the non-living substances of environment
interact to form ecosystem. The environmental complex constitute
(1) Biotic factors known as ‘Density dependent factors’ include
a) Food and b) Other organism and
2) Abiotic factors known as ‘Density independent factors’ comprise
a) Temperature
b) Humidity
c) Rainfall
d) Light
e) Air
f) Water
g) Soil etc

1) Temperature
This is the most important physical factor which determines the duration of the
various stages in the insect life cycle and consequently the number of generations
during any period of time. It acts on insects in two fold manner
1.By acting directly on the survival and development which determine the abundance
of a pest
2. Indirectly through food and other environmental factors such as moisture, rainfall,
wind etc.
Depending on the maintenance of body temperature, animal kingdom is divided into
i) Warm Blooded Animals (Homeothermic): These animals maintain a constant
body temperature within certain narrow limits irrespective of the temperature
variations in the external environment. These are also called as ‘Endothermic
animals’ because they rely on internal source of heat to compensate the lost heat to
cooler surroundings. Eg. Mammals
ii) Cold Blooded Animals (Poikilothermic): These animals are not capable of
maintaining constant body temperature .They do not have internal mechanism of
temperature regulation and therefore their body temperature varies with that of the
surroundings. These are also called as ‘Ectothermic animals’ as they depend upon
the environment than the metabolic heat to raise their body temperature. Eg. Insects
iii) Socio-homeothermic Animals: These organisms maintain their body
temperature slightly above the atmospheric temperature and are able to air condition
their nests. They maintain their own temperature inside their colony irrespective of
the temperature outside. Eg. Honey bees, Ants, Termites
Temperature effects on insects
A. Development
B. Fecundity
C. Feeding
D. Distribution of insects.
E. Dispersal and Movement
A) Development
In general insects grow more rapidly in warm weather than in cold weather. A
given species of insects is active within certain limits of temperature. In general the

optimum temperature for the normal development of insects is 10 to 35°C and is
known as ‘Zone Of Optimum or Normal Development.
Depending on the development of insects at different temperature levels, the
temperature is divided into different zones as follows:
i) Zone of effective temperature (10 to 35°C) in which some development takes

place, the limits of which are known as
a) Minimum effective temperature or threshold of development (10 to - 5°C): at
which on descending scale development ceases and on ascending scale the
development starts. The growth of poikilothermic animals is arrested at 0°C and this
temperature is called as „Developmental zero’
b) Maximum effective temperature (35 to 50°C): The upper vital limit at which on
ascending scale the development ceases and on descending scale the development
begins.
ii). Temperature zones of inactivity
The temperature immediately above and below the zone of effective
temperature are the „Zones of inactivity‟. In these zones the insect is alive but there
will not be any development and they can recover if removed to favourable
temperature.
iii). Fatal Zones of Temperature
Beyond the zones of inactivity are the „Fatal high (50 to 60°C)’ and ‘Fatal
low (-5 to -14°C)’ temperature zones, indicating ‘Minimum fatal (-14°C)’ and
‘Maximum fatal (60°C).
Death at fatal high temperature is due to loss of water, coagulation of
proteins, high metabolic rate, accumulation of toxins and affected enzymatic
activity.
Death at fatal low temperature is due to low enzymatic activity, low
metabolic rate and freezing of body fluids. Some insects do not freeze but survive
even under 0°C as their body fluids contain polyols like glycerols.
If an insect is given a choice to move along a temperature gradient it prefers a
narrow limit of temperature known as the „Temperature preferendum’ or
‘Preferred temperature’.
Thermal constant: The total heat energy required to complete a certain stage of
development in the life cycle or in the completion of a physiological process of a
species is constant and is termed as thermal constant and measured in Day
Degrees.
Under unfavourable seasonal temperature the insects suspend their activities. These
are of two types
1) Hibernation: A period of suspended activity in individuals occurring during
seasonal low temperature
2) Aestivation: A period of suspended activity of individual occurring during
seasonal high temperature or in a dry weather.

Adaptations to temperature: At high temperature, locusts expose minimum body
surfaces to sun‟s rays by lying parallel to them while they expose maximum body
surface to sun‟s rays at low temperature lying at right angle to them
B. Fecundity
Insects fecundity will be maximum at moderately high temperatures and
declines at upper and lower limits of favourable temperature. Aphids remain
parthenogenetic under high temperature and many hours of sunshine while
the opposite condition give rise to oviparous forms.
C. Distribution:
 Tropical and subtropical conditions as in India are ideal for the distribution and
establishment of insects. Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis caiptata could not
establish in England and North Europe since its immature stages cannot
stand below 10°C.
 Mosquitoes are more abundant at 70 to 80°F but are rare at 112 to 113°F.
 Pink boll worm of cotton Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) is serious in
Punjab where the temperature is within 95.5°F in August and September and
not present in West Pakistan due to high temperatures at that period (99° F).
D. Dispersal and Movement:
 Insects try to move away from unfavourable temperatures. The rice weevil
Sitophilus oryzae(Linnaeus) is found in the upper layers of bins irrespective
of whether the initial infestation started at the depth of the bin or at surface
due to rise in temperatures i.e. when the temperature reaches 32°C, the
adults migrate to cooler upper layer.
 Mass flight of desert locust Schistocerca gregaria (Forskal) or migration
starts at 17 to 22°C and they do not migrate when temperature is in between
14 to 16°C.
2. Moisture
Insect body consists of 80 to 90 per cent water. Aquatic larvae contain about
98 per cent while insects which feed on dry food like Tribolium sp, Sitophilus sp etc.
constitute about 50 per cent. Water is generally lost through spiracles and
integument. Insects cannot afford to lose more water than they take and hence
conserve water depending on the situation.

Adaptations to conserve moisture:
1. Body pigments
Insects develop dark pigment in cooler areas which help to absorb more heat
from sun for raising body temperature. This aids in getting rid of excessive moisture
from the body. Light colour in desert insects helps to reflect sun‟s rays and save
them from excessive evaporation.
2. Integument
Well developed integument and fused sclerites in beetles end weevils aid in
conserving body moisture. Waxy coating of integument also saves from excessive
evaporation.
3. Winglessness
Grasshoppers and crickets in arid regions have poorly developed wings and
some are wingless by which the area of evaporation is reduced.
4. Pilocity
Dense hairs on the body prevent evaporation.
5. Form of body:
Oval and compressed body of some desert beetles protects them from hot
winds. Some desert insects have burrowing habit by which they go into deeper
layers of soil when sufficient moisture is not available.
6. Reabsorption of water from products of excretion.
7. Aestivation: Some insects links Amsacta spp. enter into aestivation when dry
conditions prevail. The fall of water content of body below a certain minimum proves
disastrous to insects and if it is considerably above the normal (in very wet places)
harmful effects like disease outbreaks are noticed in insects.
3. Humidity
Unlike in temperature, there are no definite ranges of favourable humidity to
all insects. Different species and their different immature stages have their own
range. Humidity effects the speed of development, fecundity, colour etc. If water
content of the body is high, dry air accelerates the development. Locusts sexually
mature quicker and the number of eggs laid are more at 70% R.H. Rhinooceros
beetle develops dark chitin in moist air and light chitin in dry air. Survival is indirectly

affected by extremely high humidity conditions that favours the spread of diseases in
insects.
4. Rainfall
 Relative humidity is dependent on rainfall. The total amount of rainfall
distribution in time influences the abundance of insects in an area.
 More than 12.5 cm rain during May-June results in increase in soil moisture
which is not favourable to the cutworms and hence forced to come out of the
soil and fall a ready prey to their parasites and predators. On the other hand if
the rainfall is less than 10 to 12.5 cm during summer, cutworms remain
protected in soil and there is outbreak of the pest in next season. Hence, the
outbreak of pest can be forecasted.
 if the number of wet days (0.8 cm) during May-July is noted. If there are less
than 10 wet days there will be an increase of cutworms in the following year.
If there are more than 10 wet days there will be a decrease.
 Desert locust does not lay eggs and even if laid does not hatch unless soil
has sufficient moisture. Rainfall also plays an important role in movement of
swarms of desert locust.
 Saturated condition of moisture is injurious for the development of spotted
boll worm Earias fabia
 Red pumpkin beetle (Aulacophora foveicollis) withholds eggs until it come
across moist soil. Rain induces emergence of most of the insects from soil.
Eg: Ants, termites, red hairy caterpillar, root grub beetles etc., emerge out
from the soil after the receipt of rains.
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LECTURE NO: 02
ABIOTIC FACTORS- EFFECTS OF LIGHT, ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE, AIR,
WATER CURRENTS & EDAPHIC FACTORS
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5. Light
Sunlight is the greatest single source of energy for all most all biological
systems. Light as an ecological factor has been defined as all shorter wavelengths of
radiant energy up to and including the visible spectrum which is measurable.
Wavelengths of visible parts of spectrum range from 4000 (Violet) to 7600 (Red)
Angstroms. Light is a non lethal factor. It helps in orientation or rhythematic
behaviuour of insects, bioluminescence, period of occurrence and inactivity. The
different properties of light that influence organisms are illumination, photoperiod,
wave length of light rays, their direction and degree of polarization. Visible and ultra
violet light influences the following:
1. Growth, moulting and fecundity
Silkworms develop faster in light than in darkness. Grubs of Trogoderma
also develop more rapidly in light. Moths of spotted boll worm of cotton and red
hairy caterpillar lay most of their eggs during periods of darkness. The bean weevil
lays more eggs in total darkness than in light.
2. Other activities
In honey bees there is a correlation between hours of sunshine and their
activity. Orientation of animals through directed movements by light is called
phototaxis which also depends on temperature, moisture, food and age. Green
leafhopper, Nephotettix spp. are attracted to light on hot and humid evenings but is
indifferent to it during dry weather. Chafer beetles, many moths pass the day in
concealment. Cockroaches hide during day time. Dusk is most usual time for flight
and copulation of moths, for emergence of winged white ants etc.
Based on daily activity cycle, insects or animals are categorized as
Diurnal: Insects which are active during daylight hours
Nocturnal: Insects which are active at night
Crepuscular: Insects which are active at dusk
Photoperiodism: The number of hours of light in a day length (24 hours) is termed
as photoperiod and the response of organisms to the photoperiod (length of the
day) is known as photoperiodism, photoperiod induces diapause. Insects in which
dispause is induced by long day are known as short day species. Eg: Mulberry
silkworm Bombyx mori (Linnaeus).While the insects in which diapause in induced
by short day lengths are known as long day species. Eg. Pink bollworm of cotton,
Pectinophora gossypiella. Photoperiod also known to control mode of
reproduction, body form etc. In reduced photoperiod sexual forms (winged) are
produced in aphids.
3. Oviposition: Light stimulates oviposition in mantids and inhibits in Periplaneta sp.
4. Pigmentation: In dark areas, pigmentation develops in insects i.e., dark colour
develops in dark areas.
Bioluminescence
Famous luminous insects are the glow-worms and fireflies. The enzyme
luciferase in the presence of oxygen and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) promotes
the oxidation of luciferin. This causes the production of light in insects. In most
cases, females produce flash of light to attract males for mating.
Use of light as a factor in insect management:
Many insects are either attracted or repelled to artificial light and this reaction
is known as phototaxis. Grubs of Trogoderma sp. show negative reaction and
are termed photonegative species. Most of the moths are attracted to light and are
known as photopositive or phototropic. Based on this principle artificial light can be
employed as a source for attracting insects and there after they can be trapped and
destroyed and these devices are known as light traps.
6. Atmospheric pressure
It is generally of little importance. Locusts show great excitement and
abnormal activity about half an hour before the occurrence of storm when the
atmospheric pressure is low. Drosophila flies stop moving when put under vacuum.
7. Wind and Water currents
Most of the insects will not take flight when speed of wind exceeds the normal
flight speed. Air currents, especially in the upper air being strong, carries many
insects like aphids white flies, scales etc. to far-off places and is an important factor
in dispersal. Air movement may also be directly responsible for death of insects.
Severe wind coupled with heavy rains cause mortality and moisture evaporation from
body surface of insects.

8. Edaphic (Soil) factors:
Loamy soils allow digging and burrowing operation and are usually
favourable for insects. Agrotis spp. live in soil of fairly light texture in which they
move around freely in response to daily or seasonal temperature and moisture
changes.
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LECTURE NO: 03
CONCEPT OF BALANCE OF LIFE
BIOTIC POTENTIAL – ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE –FACTORS-PEST
OUTBREAK
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The population of an insect or any animal may be defined as the number of

individuals of a particular species existing in a particular area at a time. The
population never remains constant for long, but it tends to oscillate all the time about
a theoretical optimum for the species. Balance of life in nature is the maintenance of
a more or less fluctuating population density of an organism over a given period of
time within certain definite upper and lower limits by the action of biotic and abiotic
factors.
Factors Contributing to Population Increase
Any organism will multiply enormously if the environment is optimum. Different
organisms multiply at different rates. Hence it is well known that every organism has
an inherent capacity to survive, reproduce and multiply in numbers. The extent to
which a species can multiply in a given period of time if no adverse factors interfere
is called its ‘Biotic potential’ which is also known as ‘Maximum reproductive
power’. This concept was first introduced by R.N. Chapman in 1928. The biotic
potential or innate capacity to increase depends on
1) Initial population: The more the initial population of an organism the more will be
its progeny,
2) Fecundity: It is the average number of eggs laid by a female in its life. The more
the fecundity the more will be the resultant population.
3) Sex ratio: It is the ratio of females to the total population and is represented by
number of females / Total number of males and females. Up to a limit the more the
proportion of females, the more the multiplication capacity.
4) Number of generations in an unit time or a year: Obviously the greater the
number of generations in a unit time the larger will be the resultant population

Based on the above factors the biotic potential can then be represented by the
formula,
B. P. = P (fxS)n
Where, P = Initial population
s = Sex ratio;
f = Fecundity;
n = Number of generations in a unit time.
Some insects like whiteant queens and house flies lay large number of eggs
while others lay very few eggs. Some insects reproduce very fast. Mustard aphid has
over 40 generations a year. If all survive, a single pair of house flies may produce
191, 010, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, flies from April to August which if spread over the
entire earth form a layer about 14 meters deep. Similarly a progeny of a pair
Drosophila flies produced in a year would cover the whole of Indian subcontinent and
Myanmar with a solid cake of flies. Such is the biotic potential of insects when there
is no interference of biotic and abiotic factors of the environment.
Factors tending to reduce populations
However, in nature there are other powerful factors working against the biotic
potential. These are (1) Abiotic or climatic factors and (2) Biotic factors. These biotic
and abiotic factors are known as the constituents of environmental resistance which
always tend to destroy a considerable proportion of insect life. The proportion of the
population which is normally eliminated as a result of environmental resistance is
known as ‘Normal Coefficient of destruction’ which can be expressed by the
formula
Qn = 1 – ( 1/s )n / fn.
Where,
„Q „= the coefficient of destruction,
„s= the sex ratio when population is taken as 1
n = the number of generations in a unit interval of time and
„f „= fecundity.
Balance of life
In nature there are two sets of tendencies namely the biotic potential tending
to increase the population and the environmental resistance tending to reduce the
population. As such there is a constant interaction between these two opposing
forces and then maintains a dynamic equilibrium known as ‘Balance of life’. It is
evident from the above that in any case, the insects or other animals never attain the

high density which they are potentially capable of doing which is because of
environmental limiting factors like abiotic factors comprising mainly temperature and
humidity which at too high or too low levels adversely affects insects. Natural
disturbance like heavy rain, hail storms, snow, sand storms, dust storms, and very
high wind velocity are adverse to insect life. Biotic factors i.e. limitation of food,
competition for food and space and natural enemies act adversely depending on the
density of population
Causes for outbreak of pests in agro-ecosystems
The insect‟s pest problems in agriculture are probably as old as agriculture
itself. However, under subsistence agriculture the pest numbers were generally low
as the productivity was poor. The insects under favourable conditions multiply
enormously and different species multiply at different rates. When the numbers of an
insect increase, it reaches the pest status. Rapidly increasing human population
during last century has necessitated intensification of agriculture through expansion
of irrigation facilities, growing of new crops, introduction of improved and exotic
varieties, application of increased amounts of agrochemicals. Definitely modern
agriculture technology package has resulted in increased higher yields and it has
also contributed in severe outbreaks of insect pests in agricultural crops.
Following are a few of factors that have contributed in outbreak of crop pests
1. Excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers
Excess use of inorganic nitrogenous fertilizers creates congenial conditions
for rapid multiplication and subsequent outbreaks of pests. Application of
nitrogenous fertilizers gives luxurious growth of the crop and makes it more
vulnerable to insect attack as in case of rice and cotton which show higher
incidence of yellow stem borer and sucking insects like aphids, whiteflies and
leafhoppers, respectively, because there will be no competition for food.
2. Indiscriminate use of pesticides
Sometimes use of insecticides as a prophylactic or curative measure results
in reducing one of the competitive species of pests while allowing the others to
multiply. Repeated use of same insecticides may also lead to the secondary
infestation in which it is not effective. Continuous spraying of carbaryl on cotton
against bollworms and on brinjal against shoot and fruit borer results in the mite
infestation which is often very severe. Indiscriminate use of pesticides also destroys

the natural enemies of the pest and sometimes leads to the pest outbreak.
Application of deltamethrin, phorate etc in rice fields against BPH destroy its
natural enemies like mirid bugs and spiders which are bioagents of BPH and
sometimes enhance the population of BPH. Similarly, indiscriminate use of
insecticides on cotton resulted in the outbreak of whitefly in Guntur and
Prakasam districts during 1985.
3. Use of high yielding varieties and introduction of new crops
Mostly improved strains of crop plants are susceptible to pests. Sometimes,
the insects which are considered of minor importance, become major importance
with the introduction of new varieties and strains. The improved combodia cotton
strains are highly susceptible to the spotted bollworm Earias sp. and the stem weevil
Pempherulus affinis. The hybrid sorghum CSH-1 was severely attacked by shoot fly,
Atherigona varia soccata stem borer Chilo partellus and ear head gall midge
Stenodiplosis sorghicola. The rice variety RP 4-14 was subjected to severe attack by
BPH. Spread of the gall midge resistant varieties surekha and kakatiya in Telangana
region made the gall midge incidence negligible while other pests like BPH, stem
borer and whorl maggot became serious pests on paddy. The growing of cabbage
crop in the plains of Madurai district (Tamil Nadu) as a new venture resulted in the
wide spread incidence of the green semi looper, Trichoplusia ni
4. Destruction of forests and bringing forest area under cultivation
The destruction of forest over wide areas for cultivation affects several of the
weather factors viz.,temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind velocity etc., in that locality
and thus set conditions favourable for some insects to develop enormously. The
insects feeding on the trees and plants in the forest area are driven to neighbouring
areas where they may infest the cultivated crops and become new pests.
5. Monoculture (intensive and extensive cultivation of crops without proper crop
rotation).
When a single crop is raised over extensive area, limitation of food gets
nullified and there is no competition for food and shelter and these results in the
increase in pest populations. The effect is more pronounced if the cropping is done
in more than one season for the year. The incidence of borers is high when
sugarcane crop is raised over extensive areas continuously. Rice grown
continuously creates favourable conditions for stem borer, BPH, green

leafhoppers. Cotton monocropping over large areas, prolonging the crop growth
beyond the regular duration and non-removal of crop residues before the next crop
accentuates population of American bollworm Helicoverpa armigera and pink
bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella. Even if there is crop rotation with closely
related crops or when there are alternative food plants for the insect pests
concerned, again the population of insect pests is likely to increase. Cotton
followed by bhendi increases the incidence of pests like bollworms, aphids,
mites, whiteflies etc.
6. Introduction of a new pest in a new area
When an insect gets introduced into a favourable new area without its natural
enemies it becomes more abundant. The wooly aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum,
became a serious pest of the apple in Niligiris as there was no natural enemy of the
pest to check its multiplication. It was brought under control only when its specific
parasitoid Aphelinus mali was introduced from Punjab.
7. Accidental introduction of foreign pests
Immature and adult stages of certain insects adhere closely to the plants such
as scales and aleurodids and those which bore into the tissues of plant parts such as
leaf miners, stem borers, gall insects etc., and are more liable to be introduced into
other countries. Some of such insects introduced into India from foreign countries
are the diamond back moth Plutella xylostella on cruciferous vegetables the Sanjose
scale Quadraspidiotus pernicioususon fruit trees on hills, the green mealybug
Coccus viridis on coffee and the potato tuber moth Phthorimoea operculella, cotton
cushiony scale, Icerya purchasi, serpentine leaf miner Liriomyza trifolii, Spiralling
whitefly, Alerodicus dispersus , Coconut mite Aceria guerreoronis etc,
8. Destruction of natural enemies
The natural enemies keep the insect pests under check. The destruction of
these either by man or other agencies tends to increase the population of insect
pests in an area. Sometimes the weather conditions may be favourable to the pest
and unfavourable to its natural enemies. The insecticides may often affect the
parasitoids and predators more than the host insects. DDT kills parasitoids and
predators and thus encourages aphids, scales mealybugs and spider mites to
multiply into enormous proportions.

9. Large scale storage of food grains
Large scale storage of food grains also leads to pest problems since there is
plenty of food for stored product insects to feed, breed and multiply.
===========================================================

LECTURE NO: 04
PEST SURVEILLANCE-FORECASTING-INSECT PESTS-CATEGORIES
================================================================
Pest surveillance is the systematic monitoring of biotic and abiotic factors of

the crop ecosystem in order to predict the pest outbreak or it is the study of the
ecology of the pest which provides the necessary information to determine the
feasibility of a pest management programme. By the Pest surveillance programmes,
the population dynamics and the key natural mortality factors operating under field
conditions can be known which in turn helps in devising the appropriate
management strategies.
Advantages
1. One can know how a pest is multiplying in an area and when it is expected.
2. Minimize the cost of plant protection by reducing the amount of pesticides used
and in turn reduce environmental pollution.
3. Pest control measures can be initiated in time due to advance forecasting.
4. Useful for pest forecasting.
5. To find out natural enemy population
6. To study the influence of weather parameters on pests
7. Mark endemic areas
8. Maintain the stability of the agro ecosystem.
Components of pest surveillance
1. Identification of the pest.
2. Distribution and prevalence of the pest and its severity.
3. The different levels of incidence and the loss due to the incidence.
4. Pest population dynamics.
5. Assessment of weather.
6. Assessment of natural enemies etc.
This study will give advance knowledge of probable pest infestation and will
help to plan cropping patterns and to get best advantage of pest control measures.

Forecasting for pest management
The Pest surveillance programmes are highly useful in forecasting of the
pests. It is the advance knowledge of probable infestation by the pests in a crop.
Insect forecasting service may serve
(1) To predict the forthcoming infestation levels of a pest which is very useful in
taking control measures and
(2) To findout the critical stages at which the application of insecticides would afford
maximum protection.
During 1941 a nation wide pest forecasting system was established in Japan.
Locust warning station in India was established in 1939.
Forecasting is mainly of two types.
1) Short term forecasting: Covers one or two seasons mainly based on the
populations of the pest within the crop by sampling methods.
2) Long term forecasting: It covers large areas and based mainly on the possible
effects of weather on the insect abundance. Eg. Locust warning stations.
Forecasting is made through
1. Population studies carried over several years.
2. Studies on the pest life history.
3. Field studies on the effect of climate on the pest and its environment.
4. Predictions form the empirical data on the pests of the previous season.
Pest surveillance and monitoring in India
Pest surveillance and monitoring form an integral part of IPM technology.
Directorate of Plant Protection Quarantine and Storage (DPPQS), Faridabad, is
organizing regular rapid roving pest surveys on major field crops in different agro
ecosystems in collaboration with ICAR and SAU‟s and a consolidated report then
issued by Plant Protection Adviser (PPA) to the Government of India.
Insect pests
The word „Pest’ derived from the Latin word „Pestis’ meaning Plague. An
insect reaches the status of a pest when its number increases and inflicts significant
damage. „Pest‟ is defined as insect or other organism that causes any damage to
crops, stored produce and animals. Damage boundary is the lowest level of injury
where the damage can be measured. Insect pests are divided into a) negligible 2)
minor and 3) major depending upon the severity of damage caused on the

plant. Pests that cause less than 5% loss in yield, is said to be negligible.
Insects which normally cause a loss ranging from 5 to 10% are said to be
minor pests and those which cause a loss of 10% or more in general called as
major pests.
Different Categories of Insect Pests
The different categories of insect pests are
1.Regular pest: Occur most frequently (regularly) in a crop and have close
association with that particular crop. Eg: Chilli thrips,
Scirtothrips dorsalis , brinjal shoot and fruit borer,
Leucinodes orbonalis
2.Occasional pests: Here a close association with a particular crop is absent and
they occur infrequently. Eg: Rice case worm, Nymphula
depuctalis castor slug caterpillar, Parasa lepida , mango
stem borer, Batocera rufamaculata
3.Seasonal pests: Occur mostly during a particular part of the year, and usually
the incidence is governed by climatic conditions. Eg: Red
hairy caterpillar on groundnut-June - July, Rice grasshoppers
–June-July, Paddy climbing cutworms
4.Persistent pests: Occur on a crop almost throughout the year. Eg: Scales and
mealybugs on many crops, thrips on chillies, paddy stem
borer.
5.Sporadic pests: Occur on a few isolated localities. Eg: coconut slug
caterpillar, Macroplectra nararia, Contheyla rotunda, Rice
earhead bug - Leptocorisa acuta, castor slug caterpillar-
Latoia lepida
6. Epidemic pest: Occur in a severe form in a region or locality at a particular
season or time only. Eg: Rice hispa, Dicladispa armigera,
rice leaf roller, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis
7. Endemic pest: Occur regularly and confined mostly to a particular area or
locality. Eg: Red hairy caterpillar Amsacta albistriga on
groundnut in Kurnool, Ananthapur, Kadapa, Chittoor,
Srikakulam and Vizag districts, stem borers of rice, paddy
gall fly in Warangal districts.

================================================================
LECTURE NO: 05
IPM INTRODUCTION-EVOLUTION-CONCEPTS & PRINCIPLES OF IPM-
GEP,ETL, EIL, COMPONENTS AND LIMITATIONS OF IPM
================================================================
Modern concept of pest management is based on ecological principles and

integration of different control tactics into a pest management system Integrated
control was defined by Stern et al., (1959) as applied pest control which combines
and integrates the biological and chemical control. Later the concept of pest
management has gained importance .The idea of managing pest population was
proposed by Geier and Clark 1961 who called their concept as protective
management which later was shortened as pest management. Later Smith and Van
Den Borsch in 1967 mentioned that the determination of the insect numbers is
broadly under the influence of total agro ecosystem and the role of the principle
element is essential for integrated pest management. In 1972 the term IPM was
accepted by CEQ (Council of Environmental Quality)
Where, IPM includes
I - Integration that is harmonious use of multiple methods to control the impact of
single pest as well as multiple pests.
P - Pest- any organism that is detrimental to humans including vertebrates and
invertebrate or weed or pathogens.
M - Management refers to a set of decisions or rules based on ecological
principles, economic and social consideration.
The backbone of management of pest in an agricultural ecosystem is the
concept of economic injury level (It is the level of the pest up to which the damage
can be tolerable)
World food prize to the entomologists
S.No. Year Scientists Contribution
Dr.Edward knipling and Dr.Raymond
01 1992 Sterile insect technique
C Bushland
Biological control project of
02 1995 Dr.Hans Harren
Cassava mealybug
03 1997 Dr.Ray F Smith and Dr.Perry IPM concept
L.Adkisson
According to FAO (1967)
IPM was defined as “a pest management system in the context of associated
environment and population dynamics in pest species. It utilizes all suitable
techniques and methods in as compatible manner as possible and maintains the
pest population at levels below those cause economic injury.
or
Protective management of the noxious pest in which all available techniques
should be evaluated and consolidated to manage pest population so that economic
damage is avoided and adverse side effects on the environment are minimized (Gieir
and Clark, 1961).
Evolution of IPM
Green revolution has attain self sufficiency in food through introduction of
hybrids and high yielding varieties. Intensive cultivation of HYV invited or demanded
more of inputs in the form of fertilizers especially inorganic which in turn attracted
more of pest and diseases. This necessitated intensive control measures to curtail
the damage caused to the crops and the control was achieved mainly through
chemical pesticides. Continuous use of chemical pesticides led to pest resurgence,
resistance, residues and ecological imbalance by killing predators and parasitoids
thus affecting prey-predator dynamics and resulting in environmental pollution. The
importance of integrated approaches to pest control was then felt and the concept of
IPM evolved.
Why Pest Management
1) Collapse of control system
After World War II the use of pesticides mushroomed, but with all the benefits
of the use pesticides, it has adverse side effects not just on humans but also in
animals. During the massive use of pesticides, Rachel Carson, an American
biologist, warned the people about the side effects of the use of pesticides
through her book entitled, Silent Spring published in 1962. Through her book,
she raised a lot of questions about the real benefits of the use of pesticides as well
as the risks of pesticides rendered in the environment and public health. An over-
reliance on chemical pesticides led to development of pesticide resistance,
development of multiple resistance , emergence of secondary pest as major pests,

resurgence of pests, elimination of natural enemies of pests, hazards to nontarget
species, hazards to agricultural workmen and deleterious effects on the environment,
2) Phases of crop protection (Collapse of control systems)
Smith. R.F (1969) has classified World wide patterns of crop protection in
cotton agro ecosystem into the following phases which are also applicable to other
crop ecosystems
A) Subsistence phase
The crop is usually grown under non irrigated conditions. Crop does not enter
the world market and is consumed in the villages or bartered in the market place.
Crop yields are low. Crop protection is through natural control, hand picking, host
plant resistance, other cultural practices and rarely insecticides are used.
B) Exploitation phase
The agricultural production increased from subsistence level to higher so as to
reach the market. Pest control solely depend on chemical pesticides. These are
used intensively, often at fixed intervals. Chemical control measures were exploited
to the maximum extent wherein new synthetic insecticides, new methods of
application, intensive use of pesticides resulted in higher yields.
C) Crisis phase
After few years in exploitation phase, more frequent applications of pesticides
and higher doses are needed to obtain effective control. Insect populations often
resurge rapidly after treatments and the pest population gradually becomes tolerant
to the pesticide. Another pesticide is substituted and pest population becomes
tolerant to it too. Occasional feeders become serious pests. Excessive use of
insecticides over a number of years led to serious problems like
i) Pest resurgence
ii) Pest resistance to insecticides
iii) Change of pest status
iv) Increase of production costs, etc.
D) Disaster phase
As a result of all deleterious effects, the cost of cultivation got increased and
the crops were not grown profitably. There were frequent encounters of crop failures
and produce not acceptable at market (rejection of the produce due to residues), and
finally collapse of the existing pest control system.

E) Integrated control phase
In this phase it is aimed to give the control measures to the optimum and not
to the maximum. Pest management concept is followed to avoid crisis and disaster
phases by
a) Combination of the resources
b) Analysis of eco- factors
c) Optimization of techniques
d) Recognizing or restoring the pest at manageable level
3) Environmental contamination
Presence of residues in foods, feed and organisms caused widespread
concern about contamination of Environment
Concepts of IPM
IPM seeks to minimize the disadvantages associated with use of pesticides
and maximizing socio, economic and ecological advantages.
1. Understanding the agricultural ecosystem
An agro ecosystem contains a lesser diversity of animal and plant species than
natural ecosystem like forests. A typical an agro ecosystem contain only 1-4 major
crop species and 6-10 major pest species. An agro ecosystem is intensively
manipulated by man and subjected to sudden alterations such as ploughing , inter
cultivation and treatment with pesticides. These practices are critical in pest
management as pest populations are greatly influenced by these practices. Agro
ecosystem can be more susceptible to pest damage and catastrophic outbreaks
owing to lack of diversity in species of plants and insects and sudden alternations
imposed by weather and man.However, agro ecosystem is a complex of food chains
and food webs that interact together to produce a stable unit.
2. Planning of agricultural ecosystem
In IPM programme the agricultural system can be planned in terms of
anticipating pest problem and also the ways to reduce them that is to integrate crop
protection with crop production system. Growing of susceptible varieties should be
avoided and related crops shouldn‟t be grown. Bhendi followed by cotton increases
incidence of the spotted borer. Groundnut followed by soybean increases incidence
of the leaf miner.

3. Cost benefit ratio
Based on the possibility of pest damage by predicting the pest problem and
by defining economic threshold level, emphasis should be given to cost benefit ratio.
The crop life table to provide solid information analysis of pest damage as well as
cost benefit ratio in pest management. Benefit risk analysis comes when a chemical
pesticide is applied in an agro ecosystem for considering its impact on society as
well as environment relevant to its benefits.
4. Tolerance of pest damage
The pest free crop is neither necessary in most cases for high yields nor
appropriate for insect pest management. Castor crop can tolerate upto 25 per cent
defoliation. Exceptions occur in case of plant disease transmission by vectors. The
relationship between density of pest population and profitability of control measures
is expressed through threshold values. The terms used to express the levels of pest
population are
a) Economic Injury Level (EIL)
Lowest population at which the pest will cause economic damage or it is the
pest level at which the damage can no longer be tolerated and therefore it is the
level at or before which the control measures are initiated. The amount of injury
which will justify the artificial control measures is termed as economic damage. EIL is
usually expressed as the number of insects per unit area
b) Economic Threshold Level (ETL)
It is the index for making pest management decisions. ETL is defined as the
population density at which control measures should be applied to prevent
increasing pest population from reaching the economic injury level. Relationship
between EIL and ETL can be expressed as when no action is taken at ETL the
population reaches or exceeds EIL.
E.g.:- ETL value for BPH in rice is 25 insects/hill; Grasshoppers or cutworms is 1
insect/hill; rice stem borer -5% dead hearts; Gall midge of rice-5% silver shoots.
c) General equilibrium position (GEP)
It is the average population density of insect over a long period of time
unaffected by temporary interventions of pest control .However the economic injury
level may be at any level well above or below the general equilibrium. The EIL may
be at any level from well below to well above the GEP. Based on this insects can be
grouped into FOUR categories

a) Negligible pest Population density never increases high enough to cause
economic injury
b) Occasional pest
Occasionally their density reaches EIL when their population is affected by
unusual weather conditions or the injudicious use of insecticides. At their peaks of
population density, some sort of intervention usually an insecticide is required to
reduce their numbers to tolerable level
c) Perennial pest
EIL‟s are slightly above the GEP and intervention is necessary at nearly every
upward population fluctuation. The general practice is to intervene with insecticides
whenever necessary to produce a modified average population density well below
the EIL

d)Severepest
They have EIL below the GEP. Regular and constant interventions with
insecticides are required to produce marketable crops
EIL decreases as the value of crop increases. It also depends on the stage of
the crop, stage of the pest etc
5. Leaving a pest residue
Natural enemy population is gradually eliminated not only in the absence of
their respective insect hosts because of the indiscriminate use of broad spectrum
insecticides, which in turn also eliminate natural enemies. Therefore, it is an
important concept of pest management, to leave a permanent pest residue below
economic threshold level, so that natural enemies will survive.
6. Timing of treatments
Treatment in terms of pesticide spray should be need based, with minimum
number of sprays, timely scheduled, combined with improved techniques of pest
monitoring and crop development
E.g.: Use of pheromone traps for monitoring of pest population
7. Public understanding and acceptance

In order to deal with various pest problems special effort should be made for
effective communication to the people for better understanding and acceptance of
pest management practices. The IPM practices followed should be economical and
sustainable.
Limitations of IPM
An IPM program requires a higher degree of management: Making the
decision not to use pesticides on a routine or regular basis requires advanced
planning and therefore a higher degree of management. This planning includes
attention to field histories to anticipate what the pest problems might be, selecting
crop varieties which are resistant or tolerant to pest damage, choosing tillage
systems that will suppress anticipated pest damage while giving the crop the
greatest yield potential. IPM can be more labour intensive, consistent, timely and
accurate field scouting takes time. Without this information, intelligent management
decision cannot make. Success of IPM programmes can be weather dependant.
Therefore good IPM planners will have a alternate plan for when these problems
arise.
Different components or tools of IPM include,
1) Pest surveillance
2) Cultural methods
3) Mechanical methods
4) Physical methods
5) Biological methods
6) Legislative methods and
7) Chemical methods
================================================================

LECTURE NO: 06
HOST PLANT RESISTANCE-HOST PLANT SELECTION-MECHANISMS OF
HPR-TRANSGENIC CROPS
================================================================
Relative amount of heritable qualities possessed by the plant which influence

the ultimate degree of damage done by the insect is called „Host plant resistance‟ to
insect attack.
Lesser damage than average damage is taken as resistance while more
damage than average damage constitutes susceptibility. A resistant variety produces
higher yield than susceptible variety when both are subjected to the same extent of
infestation by same insect at the same time. Resistance is a relative term only
compared with less resistance or susceptibility.
Absolute resistance or Immunity refers to the inability of a specific pest to consume
or injure a particular variety under any known-conditions. Immune varieties are rare.
Ecological Resistance or Pseudo Resistance or Apparent Resistance
Ecological resistance relies more on environmental conditions than on
genetics. Certain crop varieties may overcome the most susceptible stage rapidly
and thus avoid insect damage. Early maturing crop cultivars have been used in
agriculture as an effective pest management strategy. However, plants that evade
insect attack by this mechanism are likely to be damaged if the pest populations
build-up early.
Pseudoresistance may be one or combination of the following:
1. Host evasion: Under some conditions, a host plant may pass through the most
susceptible stage quickly or at time when insects are less in number.
Eg: Early planting of paddy in kharif minimize the infestation of stem borer
Scirpophaga incertulas
Sowing of sorghum soon after onset of monsoon in June helps to overcome shoot fly
infestation
2. Induced resistance: is a form of temporarily increased resistance as resulting
from some conditions of plant or its environment such as changes in the amount of
nutrients or water applied to the crop.
Eg: Application of potassium fertilizers.

3. Host escape: It refers to lack of infestation or injury to the host plant because of
transitory circumstances like incomplete infestation, thus finding of uninfested plant
in a susceptible population does not necessarily mean that it is resistant.
Genetic Resistance
The factors that determine the resistance of host plant to insect establishment
include the presence of structural barriers, allelochemicals and nutritional imbalance.
These resistance qualities are heritable and operate in a concerted manner, and
tend to render the plant unsuitable for insect utilization.
Genetic resistance may be grouped based on,
A. Number of genes
i) Monogenic resistance: When resistance is controlled by a single gene, it is called
monogenic resistance
ii) Oligogenic resistance: When resistance is governed by a few genes, it is called
oligogenic resistance.
iii) Polygenic resistance: When resistance is governed by many genes, it is called
polygenic resistance. This is also termed as horizontal resistance.
B. Major or minor genes
i) Major gene resistance: The resistance is controlled by one or few major genes.
Major genes have a strong effect and these can be identified easily. This is also
called Vertical resistance.
ii) Minor gene resistance: The resistance is controlled by a number of minor genes,
each contributing a small effect. It is called minor gene resistance. This is also
referred to as horizontal resistance.
C. Biotype reaction
i) Vertical resistance:
If a series of different cultivars of a crop show different reactions when
infested with different insect biotypes, resistance is vertical. In other words, when
infested with the same insect biotype, some cultivars show a resistant reaction while
others show a susceptible reaction. It is also referred to also as a qualitative or
biotypespecific resistance. Vertical resistance is generally, but not always, of a high
level and is controlled by a major genes or oligogenes. It is considered less stable.
ii) Horizontal resistance
Horizontal resistance describes the situation where a series of different
cultivars‟ of a crop show no differential interaction when infested with different
biotypes of an insect. All resistant cultivars show similar levels of resistance to all
biotypes. This type of resistance is called biotype-non-specific resistance, general
resistance or quantitative resistance. Generally, horizontal resistance is controlled by
several poly genes or minor genes, each with a small contribution to the resistance
trait. Horizontal resistance is moderate, does not exert a high selection pressure on
the insect, and is thus more durable or stable
Host Plant Selection Process by an Insect
Host plant selection is a process by which an insect detects a resource
providing plant within an environment of large population of diversified plant species.
The process of host plant selection involves a sequence of five steps
1. Host-habitat finding
The adult population of any species arrives at general host habitat by
phototaxis or anemotaxis and geotaxis. Temperature and humidity play important
role .Normally crop pests stay within general area where crops are planted and
hence, this becomes less important in host plant selection.
2.Hostfinding
After locating habitat the insect pest makes a purposeful search to locate its
appropriate host plant for its establishment. The essential visual or olfactory
mechanisms help the contact. Once the pest reaches or contacts the host plants,
tactile and olfactory sensory organs arrest further movement causing the insects to
remain on the plant.
3. Host recognition
Although larvae are with sensorial receptors for host recognition, this phase is
usually taken care of by ovipositing female adult. It is usually done with the help of
specific volatile from the plants. Eg:-Onion maggots, Delia sp attracted to its host by
the odour of propryl disulphide. Cabbage maggot fly, Delia brassica get attracted by
crucifer due to presence of few glucocyanolides.
4. Host acceptance
Various chemicals present in the host species actually govern the feeding
process of insects. These chemicals responsible for initial biting, swallowing and
continuation feeding. Eg: Presence of phagostimulants like morin in mulberry Morus
alba is key in continuation of feeding of silkworm Bombyx mori.
5. Host suitability
The nutritional value in terms of sugars, proteins, lipids and vitamins or
absence of deleterious toxic compounds determines the suitability of the host for the
pest in relation to the development of larvae, longevity and feeding.
Mechanisms of Host Plant Resistance
R. H. Painter (1951) has grouped the mechanisms of host plant resistance
into three main categories.
1. Non-preference (Antixenosis) 2. Antibiosis and 3. Tolerance
Though various workers have attempted to classify the mechanisms of
resistance, the terms defined by Painter (1951) - non preference, antibiosis and
tolerance were widely accepted. However, Kogan and Ortman (1978) proposed that
the term non preference should be replaced by antixenosis because the former
describes a pest reaction and not a plant characteristic. The three types of
resistance are described in the context of the functional relationships between the
plant and the insect.
Non-preference or Antixenosis
The term „Non-preference‟ referes to the responce of the insect to the
charecteristics of the host plant, which make is unattractive to the insect for feeding,
oviposition or shelter. Kogan and Ortman (1978) proposed the term „Antigenosis‟, as
the term „Non-preference‟ pertains to the insect and not to the host plant. Some
plants are not choosen by insects for food shelter or oviposition because of either the
absence of desirable characters in that plant like texture, hairyness taste, flavour, or
presence of undesirable characters. Such plants are less damaged by that pest and
the phenomenon is called non preference
Eg. Hairy varieties of soybean and cotton are not preffered by leafhoppers for
oviposition
Open panicle of sorghum supports less Helicoverpa armigera
Wax bloom on crucifers deter diamondback moth Plutella xylostella
Antibiosis
Antibiosis refers to the adverse effect of host plant on the insect due to the
presence of some toxic substances or absence of required nutritional components.
Such plants are said to exhibit antibiosis and hence do not suffer as much damage
as normal plants. The adverse effects may be reduced fecundity, decreased size ,
long life cycle , failure of larva to pupate or failure of adult emergence, and increased
mortality. Indirectly, antibiosis may result in an increased exposure of the insect to its
natural enemies.
Eg: The most classical example of host plant resistance is DIMBOA (2,4 Di hydroxy -
7-methoxy – 1,4 benzaxin – 3) content in maize which imparts chemical defense

against the European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis. Nutrionally related antibiotic effect
in rice variety Mudgo which is resistant to BPH. When young females fed on variety
Mudgo, ovaries of BPH are underdeveloped andcontain few mature eggs in it due to
less quantity of aminoacid asparagine content in the resistant variety.
Tolerance
Some plants withstand the damage caused by the insect by producing more
number of tillers ,roots, leaves etc in the place of damaged plant parts such plants
are said to be tolerant to that particular pest .Tolerance usually results from one or
more of the following factors
1. General vigour of the plant,
2. Regrowth of the damaged tissues
3. Strength of stems and resistant to lodging
4. Production of additive branches
5. Efficient utilization of non vital plant parts by the insect and
6. Compensation by growth of neighbouring plants
Eg: Early attack by the sorghum shoot fly on main shoot induced the production of a
few synchronous tillers that grow rapidly and survive to produce harvestable ear
heads. LRG 41 Red gram for H. armigera
Transgenic Plants (Genetically modified or GM crops)
A transgenic crop plant contains a gene or genes which have been artificially
inserted instead of a plant acquiring them through pollination or simply a normal
plant with one or more additional genes from diverse sources .Transgenic plants
produce insecticidal or antifeedant proteins continuously under field conditions that
proteins are enough to kill target pests. Bacillus thuringensis and cowpea trypsin
protease inhibitors are ideal to impart resistance to insect attack.
B.t a naturally occurring gram positive soil bacterium, upon sporulation forms
a parasporal crystal proteins called delta endotoxins. The cry proteins have selective
toxicity to certain category of insects and require certain specific conditions for their
effective action. The protein has to be ingested by the target insects which happens
when they feed on the transgenic plant tissues. It requires an alkaline pH of 9.5 or
above for effective processing into an active molecule which binds to specific
receptors for binding before it can kill the target insect. All these conditions are
available in the target insects and therefore they succumb when they feed on Bt-
plants. Toxins binds to midgut and creates pores in the intestinal lining resulting in
ion imbalance , paralysis of digestive system, after a few days that leads to insect
death
To develop a B.t transgenic plant,
• Selection of strain of B.t
• Identify the genome
• Isolation of genes (Cry genes, Cry1A, Cry1Ac &Cry3Ab)
• Introduction into plants through genetic engineering methods
Transgenic technology can be utilized to develop plants with various beneficial traits
such as
a) Crop protection traits which include resistance to pests, diseases and herbicides
b) Abiotic stress in the form of tolerance to drought, heat, cold or salinity, thus
enabling plants to be grown in inhospitable habitats, adding more land for cultivation;
and
c) Quality traits leading to enhanced nutrition; prolonged shelf-life or improved taste,
colour or fragrance of fruits, vegetables and flowers; and increased crop yield India
made its long-awaited entry into commercial agricultural biotechnology when the
Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC), Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Govt of India, at its 32nd meeting held in New Delhi on 26th March 2002
approved three Bt-cotton hybrids for commercial cultivation. This is a historic
decision as Bt-cotton became the first transgenic crop to receive such an approval in
India. These transgenic hybrids were developed by MAHYCO (Maharashtra Hybrid
Seed Company Limited) in collaboration with Monsanto.
================================================================

LECTURE NO: 07
CULTURAL CONTROL METHODS AND MECHANICAL METHODS
================================================================
CULTURAL METHODS OF PEST CONTROL

The manipulation of cultural practices at an appropriate time for reducing or
avoiding pest damage to crops is known as cultural control. The cultural practices
make the environment less favourable for the pests and or more favourable for its
natural enemies. It is the cheapest of all methods. There are two categories of
cultural methods,
(a) Normal agricultural practices, which incidentally ward off certain pests
By adopting these, the farmers get two-fold benefits
(1) Improvement of crop yields
(2) The population of certain pests do not increase abnormally
i) Proper preparatory cultivation
Several insects which live or hide in the soil get exposed to sun as well as
predators like birds etc due to Proper preparatory cultivation. Eg. Pupae of moths,
roots grubs etc.
ii) Clean cultivation
Removal of weeds which act as alternate hosts.
 Eg. Paddy gall fly, Orseolia oryzae breeds on grasses such as Panicum sp.,
Cynodon dactylon etc.
 Fruit sucking moth larvae Eudocima ancilla on weeds of Menispermaceae
iii) Systematic cutting and removal of infested parts: Keeps down subsequent
infestation.
 Eg. Removal of sugarcane shoots affected by borers,
 Cutting and removal of infested parts of brinjal attacked by Leucinodes
orbonalis
 Pruning of dried branches of citrus eliminates scales and stem borer.
 Clipping of tips of rice seedlings before transplanting eliminate the egg
masses of
stem borer.
 Clipping of leaf lets in coconut reduces the black headed caterpillar
 Ploughing and hoeing help to burry stages of insects or expose soil inhabiting
insects to be picked up by birds.
 Pests like coccids get carried over to the next season through stubbles, which
should be promptly removed.
iv) Changes in the system of cultivation
 Change of banana from perennial to annual crop reduced the infestation of
banana rhizome weevil Cosmopolitus sordidus in addition to giving increased
yields.
 Avoiding ratoon red gram crop during offseason helps in reducing the carry
over of pod fly Melangromyza obtusa and eriophyid mite Aceria cajani
v) Crop rotation
Crop rotation is most effective practice against pests that have a narrow host
range and dispersal capacity. Lady‟s finger followed by cotton will suffer from
increased infestation of pests. Hence if a non-host crop is grown after a host crop, It
reduces the pest population.
 Eg. Cereals followed by pulses.
 Cotton should be rotated with non hosts like ragi, maize, rice to minimize the
incidence of insect pests.
 Groundnut with non leguminous crops is recommended for minimizing the leaf
miner incidence.
vi) Mixed cropping
Intended for getting some return when one crop is attacked, the other
escapes.
Eg. Garden peas and sun hemp
vii) Growing resistant varieties
Certain varieties resists pest attack
Eg: GEB-24 and MTU–5249 resistance to paddy BPH, Surekha variety to gall midge,
TKM -6 and Ratna for stem borer.
(b) Cultural practices specially adopted for certain pests
1. Adjusting planting or sowing or harvesting times to avoid certain pests
The manipulation of planting time helps to minimize pest damage by
producing asynchrony between host plants and the pest or synchronizing insect
pests with their natural enemies.

Eg.
 Early planting of paddy in kharif and late planting in rabi minimize the
infestation of rice stem borer.
 Delaying the sowing of sun hemp till the onset of South West Monsoon avoids
sun hemp hairy caterpillar (Utethesia lotrix) attack.
 Early sown sorghum in kharif reduces the infestation of shoot fly
 Timely and synchronous planting has been found to reduce bollworm damage
in cotton and stem borer damage in sugarcane.
2. Trap cropping
Growing of susceptible or preferred plants by important pests near a major
crop to act as a trap and later it is destroyed or treated with insecticides. Trap crop
may also attract natural enemies thus enhancing natural control.
Eg:
Trap crop Main crop Insect pest
Castor Chillies Tobacco caterpillar Spodoptera litura
Tomato Citrus Fruit sucking moth, Otheris spp.
Marigold Cotton American bollworm Helicoverpa armigera
3. Trimming field buds
Grasshopper eggs, which are laid in field bunds are destroyed by trimming field
bunds
4. Flooding the field
Flooding of fields is recommended for reducing the attack of cutworms, army worms,
termites, root grubs etc.
Eg: For cutworms like paddy swarming caterpillar (Spodoptera mauritia and
S.exiqua) and ragi cutworm by flooding the fields caterpillars float and leave the
plants
5. Draining the fields
 In case of paddy case worm Nymphula depunctalis which travel from plant to
plant via water. it can be eliminated by draining or drying the field.
 Draining the rice fields for 3-4 days during infestation controls BPH and whorl
maggot.

 Alternate drying and wetting at 10 days interval starting from 35 DAT reduces
the BPH and WBPH.
6. Alley ways
Formation of alley ways for every 2 m in rice field reduces the BPH Nilaparvata
lugens
(c) Other cultural methods
1. Root weevil, Echinonemus oryzae damage in rice can be overcome by
applying 20 kg ammonium sulphate and 40 kg single super phosphate in rice .
2. Raking up and hoeing of the soil around gourds, mango and other fruit trees
serves to destroy pupae of fruit flies.
3. Adoptation of high seed rate in sorghum and later removal and destruction of
shoot fly (Atherigona soccata) affected ones.
4. Trash mulching @ 3 t/ha 3 days after planting or earthing up at a month or
two
after planting minimize early shoot borer (Chilo infuscatellus) attack in
sugarcane
5. Destruction of crop residue: Stubbles of sugarcane and paddy that harbor
borers should be ploughed up and burnt.
6. Deep ploughing in summer exposes most of the soil inhabiting insects to sun
and hot winds and get them killed
7. Periodical drying of stored produce against stored grain pests.
8. Pruning of dried twigs/ branches to eliminate pests like scales and orange
borer

MECHANICAL METHODS OF PEST CONTROL
Reduction or suppression of insect pest population by means of manual devices or
labour
i) Hand picking and collection with hand nets and killing insects
Handpicking is most ancient method which can prove fairly effective under
certain conditions. Egg masses, larvae or nymphs and sluggish adults can be
handpicked and destroyed.
Eg.
 Egg masses of paddy stem borer (Scirpophaga incertulas) and groundnut
hairy caterpillar
 Early stages of Spodoptera litura and hairy caterpillars are easily located by
their
typical damage symptoms
 The moringa caterpillars, which collect at tree trunks in the mornings can be
burnt.
 Most of the insects can be collected with hand nets and destroyed.
 Collection and destruction of fallen fruits is effective against fruit flies and fruit
borers.
 Manual collection and destruction of pink bollworm attacked rosette flowers,
withered and drooped terminals infested by spotted bollworm can reduce the
incidence of these pests in cotton.
ii) Provision of preventive barriers
 Digging of 30 -60 cm wide and 60 cm deep trenches or erecting 30 cm height
tin sheets barriers around the fields is useful against pests like hairy
caterpillars.
 Bagging / wrapping of pomegranate and mango fruits in paper bags avoids
the infestation of pomegranate butterfly Virachola isocrates and mango fruit fly
Bactrocera dorsalis
 Tin bands are fixed over coconut palms to prevent damage by rats.
Other mechanical methods
1. Extraction of adult Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) from the crown of
coconut trees using an arrow headed rod/hook.
2. Construction of rat proof godowns

3. Use of an alkathene band around the tree trunks of mango to check the
migration
of first instar nymphs of mealybugs and red ants
4. Sticky bands around tree trunks against red tree ant (Oecophylla
samaragdina)
5. Systematic shaking of root grub adults harbored trees during evening hours to
dislodge and destroy by dumping in fire.
6. Shaking of red gram plants to collect and destroy later instars of Helicoverpa
armigera
7. Shaking the trees and bushes by which the insects fall to the ground and they
can be collected
8. Sieving and winnowing against stored grain pests
9. Using mosquito nets fly proof cages etc
================================================

LECTURE NO: 08
PHYSICAL AND LEGAL METHODS OF PEST CONTROL
================================================================
PHYSICAL METHODS OF PEST CONTROL

Use of certain physical forces to minimize the pests
1. A material called drie-die, consist of highly porous, finely divided silica gel
which when applied abrades the insect cuticle thus encouraging loss of
moisture resulting in death. It is mainly used against stored product pests.
2. Kaolinic clay after successive activation with acid and heat can be mixed with
stored grain. The clay minerals absorb the lipoid layer of the insect cuticle by
which the insects lose their body moisture and die due to desiccation.
3. Artificial heating and cooling of stored products will prevent insect damage.
Usually high temperatures are more effective than low temperatures.
4. Stored products can be exposed to 550C for 3 hours to avoid stored product
pests
5. Steam sterilization of soil kills soil insects
6. Vapour Heat Treatment (VHT): Heated air is saturated with water (>RH 90%)
for specified period of 6 to 8 hours for raising pulp temperature to 43-44.5°C in
case of mango against fruit flies.
7. Oxygen stress and carbon dioxide concentration: In air tight containers small
volume of air is enclosed, the available oxygen is quickly utilized by insects
and raise concentration of carbon dioxide. High concentration of carbon
dioxide leads to death of stored products insects.
8. Male insects can be made sterile by exposing them to gamma radiation or by
using chemicals. When sterile males are released in normal population they
compete with normal males in copulation and to that extent reductive capacity
of the population are reduced. By sterilizing the pupae of screwworm,
livestock pest (Cochliomyia hominivorax) with radiations, sterile males were
obtained. They were released @ 400/sq mile for 7 weeks. By this method total
eradication was achieved in South East parts of America and in the Curacao
islands in case of screwworm.

9. Light traps are arranged for attracting the insects, which are trapped by
keeping water or oil in a container or a killing bottle below the light trap. Light
traps are useful for monitoring the population of important insect pests in an
area. Eg: Most of the moths and beetles.
10. Flame thrower is a compressed air sprayer with kerosene oil for producing
flames. There is a lance, which is fitted with a burner. When the burner is
heated, the kerosene oil is released and it turns into flames. Used for burning
locust populations, congregation of caterpillars, patches of weeds etc.
LEGISLATIVE / LEGAL / REGULATORY METHODS OF PEST CONTROL
In early days there were no restrictions on the transport of plants and animals
from one country to another since the danger involved in it is not realized, which
resulted in introduction of pests form one country to another. In many countries many
of the dangerous pests have frequently been found to be foreign pests and they
inflict greater damage than the indigenous ones. Potato tuber moth Pthorimea
operculella, cotton cushiony scale Icerya purchasi, wooly aphis on apple
Eriosoma lanigerum, san jose scale Quadraspidiotus perniciosus, golden cyst
nematode Globodera rostochinesis and the giant African snail, Achatina fulica
(Predatory snail Eugladina rosea) , serpentine leaf miner Liriomyza trifolii,
Spiralling whitefly, Alerodicus dispersus , Coconut mite Aceria guerreoronis
etc,are some exotic pests introduced into our country.
Quarantine:
The word quarantine is derived from Latin word Quarantum which means
‘forty (40)’. Plant quarantine is defined as the legal enforcement of the measures
aimed to prevent pests from spreading or to prevent them to multiply further in case
they have already gained entry and have established in new restricted areas.
The importance of imposing restrictions on the movement of pest-infested plants or
plant materials from one country to another was realized when the grapevine
phylloxera got introduced into France from America by about 1860 and the San jose
scale spread into the USA in the later part of the 18th century and caused severe
damage.
The first Quarantine Act in USA came into operation in 1905. While Govt.
of India passed an Act in 1914 entitled “Destructive Insect and Pests Act of

1914” to prevent the introduction of any insect, fungus or other pests into our
country. This was later supplemented by a more comprehensive act in 1917.
The legislative measures in force now in different countries can be grouped
into five classes. They are,
1. Legislation to prevent the introduction of new pests and weeds etc from foreign
countries (International quarantine)
2. Legislation to prevent the spread of already established pests, diseases and
weeds from one part of the country to another (Domestic quarantine)
3. Legislation to enforce upon the farmers regarding the application of effective
control measures to prevent damage by already established pests.
4. Legislation to prevent the adulteration and misbranding of insecticides and
determine their permissible residue tolerance levels in food stuffs and
5. Legislation to regulate the activities of men engaged in pest control operations and
application of hazardous insecticides
1) Legislation to prevent the introduction of foreign pests:
To prevent the entry of foreign pests all countries have restrictions. They enforce
quarantine laws. The imported plant material has to be thoroughly examined at the
ports of entry.
The Directorate of Plant Protection Quarantine and Storage was established in
Faridababd in 1946. Prior to which customs authorities did the enforcement of
quarantine laws. From 1949, DPPQS deals with the commercial import of
consignments of grains, plants and plant products for consumption through its
network of 35 Plant Quarantine Stations spread across the country including
seaports, airports and land frontiers
These operate under the provisions made under the “Destructive Insect and
Pests Act of 1914”. Further Government of India has approved NBPGR, New Delhi
for quarantine processing of all germplasm including transgenic planting material
under exchange for research purposes, Forest Research Institute(FRI)
Dehadradun for forest plants and Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Kolkatta for
ornamental plants to enforce quarantine laws. The importation of plant material from
foreign countries has to be done only through any of these ports. The consignment
should also be accompanied with the certificate issued by the Officers of agriculture
department of the exporting country so as confirm that the consignments are pest

free. This certificate is called as ‘Phytosanitory certificate’. Import of plants by post
or air is not permitted, except by experts for scientific purpose. Import of potatoes
from areas known to be infected with wart disease or golden cyst nematode is totally
prohibited in to our country.
2) Legislation to prevent the spread of already established pests:
The Destructive Insect and Pests Act, 1914, have empowered the states to
enact such laws as are necessary to prevent the spread of dangerous insects within
their jurisdiction. The Madras Government enacted the Madras Agricultural Pests
and Diseases act in 1919 and was the first state to enact such laws in our country.
This act was passed to prevent the spread of pests or diseases or weeds form one
part of the state to another. Cottony cushiony scale when localized in Nilgiris and
Kodiakanal none of the alternate host plants were permitted to get transported from
these areas. Quarantine stations were opened at Mettupalayam and Gudalur of
Nilgiris and at Shenbegmur station of Kodaikanal in 1943 and were closed
subsequently.
3) Legislation to enforce the application of effective control measures to
prevent the damage by established pests.
Under the state pests act, the farmers were asked to remove and destroy
coconut leaf lets infested with black headed caterpillar Opisina arenosella around
Mangalore in 1923 and in 1927 in Krishna and Guntur districts. Later it was
withdrawn as the pest was successfully controlled by biological control agents.
4) Legislation to prevent the adulteration and misbranding of the
insecticides.
To avoid malpractices and supply of substandard chemicals, the pesticide
products are to be standardized through the Indian Standards Institute. Such
products carry ISI mark and are expected to confirm the level of a.i (Active
ingredient)
The Insecticide Act, 1968 has been enforced on 2nd September, 1968 by the
Government of India to regulate the import, manufacture, sale, transport and
distribution and use of insecticides. The government of India also constituted the
Central Insecticide Board (CIB) to advise the state and central governments as per
this act. The insecticide rules of 1971 framed under the Insecticides Act 1968 had
come in to force in 1971.

5) Legislation to regulate the activities of men engaged in pest control
operations
They have to take certain precautionary measures to avoid pesticide
poisoning and undergo regular medical checkup.
Invasive Alien Species (IAS): is a species outside of its native range whose
introduction and or spread threatens biodiversity.
================================================

LECTURE NO: 09
BIOTIC FACTORS – FOOD & OTHER ORGANISMS – PARASITOIDS,
PREDATORS & PATHOGENS- BIOL OGICAL CONTROL
================================================================
1. Food
Each insect species has certain nutritional requirements for completion of its
life cycle. Under normal conditions there is a happy adjustment between the host
and particular species of insect. But in the event of sudden increase in population,
the densities of population become too high to be supported by the food available in
the area. Hence competition for food as well as space will be there.
According to nutritional requirements, insects are categorized into:
1.Omnivorous: Which feed on both plants and animal. Eg. Wasps, cockroaches
2.Carnivorous: which feed on other animal as parasites and predators. Eg:
Predators (Lady bird beetles and Mantids)
3.Herbivorous: which feed on living plants (crop pests) and these can again be
categorized into
(a) Polyphagous: which feed on wide range of cultivated and wild plants.
Eg. Locusts, grasshoppers
(b) Monophagous: which feed on single species of plants. Eg: Rice stem borer
(c) Oligophagous:which feed on plants of one botanical family. Eg: Diamondback
moth, Cabbage butterfly.
4. Saprophagous (Scavengers): which feed on decaying plants and dead organic
matter. Eg: Drosophila flies, House flies, scarabaeid beetles
2) Other organisms
i) Intraspecies associations/relations
Include beneficial and harmful insects. Associations of individuals of the same
species is known as intra specific relations and it may be beneficial. Such
association of two sexes, parental care, associations of social insects etc.,
phenomenon like overcrowding is harmful since shortage of food and space results.
Disease outbreak may occur. Cannibalism may occur
Eg. Preying mantids, larvae of Helicoverpa, Tribolium feeds on its own eggs

ii) Interspecies associations
Associations of individuals of different species are known as inter-specific relations
and these may be beneficial or harmful
A. Beneficial associations
i) Symbiosis: Inter relationship between organisms of different species which live in
close union without harmful effects are known as symbiosis, each member being
known as symbiont.
ii) Commensalism: One insect is benefited by living on or inside another insect
without injuring the other and is known as comensal and it lives on the surplus food
or the waste food of its host. Eg: Gall forming insects. When the commensal uses its
host as a means of transport the phenomenon is termed as phoresy.
Eg: Telonomus beneficiens parasitoid attaches themselves to the anal tufts of female
moths of rice stem borer Scirpohaga incertulas (Walker) for their transport. The
parasitoid parasitizes freshly laid eggs.
iii) Mutualism: When both the symbionts are benefited by the association it is
known mutualism Eg: Ants and aphids. Termites and flagellates
B. Harmful associations
Those that live with the expense of other living organisms are parasites and
Predators and pathogens. Based on this concept the biological control is originated.
The sceintists viz., Paul Debach, Prof.Harry Scott Smith, Albert Koebele, Daniel
W. Coquillet and Charles Valentine Riley etc. are contributed to the field of
biological control
Prof.Harry Scott Smith coined the term Biological Control and given the definition
and he is considered as the Father of Biological Control
Institutions are working for the biological Control
National
1.NBAIR:National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources
2.NCIPM:National Centre for Integrated Pest Management
3.NIPHM:National Institute for Plant Health Management
4.SAUs and state governments through establishment of biocontrol laboratories
International
1.IOBC: International Organization for Biological Control
2. Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control (CIBC)

3.UCR: University of California, Riverside
4.WVC: World Vegetable Centre (Previously it was Asian vegetable Research and
Development Centre (AVRDC))
5.ICIPE :International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology
In 1946 the Government of India started the Directorate of Plant Protection,
Quarantine and Storage. .Plant protection schemes were introduced in different
states from 1947 to look after the pest problems, to advise the Central and State
Governments and to enforce quarantine laws for preventing the possible introduction
of new pests from foreign countries along with imported materials. The
Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control (CIBC) established its Indian
station in 1957 at Bangalore. The Project Directorate of Biological Control
(PDBC), Bangalore established in 1993, is nodal agency in India for organizing
biological control research on agricultural pests at the national level. PDBC was
upgraded as National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects (NBAII) in 2009
in order to exploit the agricultural insect resources from various agro climatic zones.
Now this institution renamed as National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources
(NBAIR) during 2014.
Definitions of Biological Control
The successful management of a pest by means of another living organism
(parasitoids, predators and pathogens) that is encouraged and disseminated by man
is called biological control.
According to Prof.Harry Scott Smith: Suppression of Insect Population by Native
of introduced natural enemies
According to Paul Debach: The action of parasitoides, predators and pathogens in
maintaing other organisms density at a lower average than would occur in their
absence
In such programme the natural enemies are introduced, encouraged,
multiplied by artificial means and disseminated by man with his own efforts instead of
leaving it to nature
Techniques or Types of Biological Control
Biological control practices involve three techniques viz., Introduction,
Augmentation and Conservation.

1. Introduction or classical biological control: It is the deliberate introduction and
establishment of natural enemies to a new locality where they did not occur or
originate naturally. When natural enemies are successfully established, it usually
continues to control the pest population.
2. Augmentation: It is the rearing and releasing of natural enemies to supplement
the numbers of naturally occurring natural enemies. There are two approaches to
augmentation.
a. Inoculative releases: Large number of individuals are released only once during
the season and natural enemies are expected to reproduce and increase its
population for that growing season. Hence control is expected from the progeny and
subsequent generations and not from the release itself.
b. Inundative releases: It involves mass multiplication and periodic release of
natural enemies when pest populations approach damaging levels. Natural enemies
are not expected to reproduce and increase in numbers. Control is achieved through
the released individuals and additional releases are only made when pest
populations approach damaging levels.
3. Conservation: Conservation is defined as the actions to preserve and release of
natural enemies by environmental manipulations or alter production practices to
protect natural enemies that are already present in an area or non-use of those pest
control measures that destroy natural enemies.
Important conservation measures are
 Use selective insecticide which is safe to natural enemies.
 Avoidance of cultural practices which are harmful to natural enemies and use
favourable cultural practices
 Cultivation of varieties that favour colonization of natural enemies
 Providing alternate hosts for natural enemies.
 Preservation of inactive stages of natural enemies.
 Provide pollen and nectar for adult natural enemies
Components of Biological Control
There are three components of Biological control viz., Parasitoids, Predators
and Pathogens

Parasite is one which attaches itself in the body of the other organism either
externally or internally for nourishment and shelter at least for a shorter period if not
for the entire life cycle. The organism which is attacked by the parasite is called host.
1. Parasitoid: An insect parasite of arthropod is parasitic only in immature stages,
destroys its host in the process of development and free living as an adult or
Parasitoid is an insect that feeds on the body of another insect or arthropod during
the larval stage of the their life cycle and adult is a free-living insect, no longer
dependent on the host.
Parasitisation: It is the phenomenon of obtaining nourishment at the expense of the
host to which the parasite is attached.
Kinds of Parasitism
1. Simple parasitism
Irrespective of number of eggs laid the parasitoid attacks the host only once.
Eg. Apanteles taragamae and Goniozus nephantids against larvae of Opisina
arenosella,
2. Super parasitism
Phenomenon of parasitization of an individual host by more larvae of single
species that can mature in the host. Eg. Apanteles glomeratus on Pieris brassica,
Trichospilus pupivora on Opisina arenosella.
3.Multiple parasitism
Phenomenon of simultaneous parasitization of host individual by two or more
different species of primary parasites at the same time.
Eg: Trichogramma, Telenomous and Tetrastichus attack eggs of paddy stem borer
Scirpophaga incertulas. Super parasitism and multiple parasitisms are generally
regarded as undesirable situations since much reproductive capacity is wasted
4. Hyper parasitism
When a parasite itself is parasitized by another parasite. Eg. Goniozus
nephantidis is parasitized by Tetrastichus israeli, Most of the Bethylids and
Braconids are hyper parasites.
Primary parasite: A parasite attacking an insect which itself is not a parasite
(Beneficial to man)
Secondary parasite: A hyperparasite attacking a primary parasite (Harmful to man)

Tertiary parasite: A hyperparasite attacking a secondary parasite (Beneficial to
man)
Quaternary parasite: A hyperparasite attacking tertiary parasite (Harmful to man)
A primary parasitoid becomes harmful in case of productive insects like
silkworms, Bombyx mori and lac insect Kerria lacca
Classification of parasitoids
Parasites can be grouped as furnished below
i). Depending upon the nature of host,
1. Zoophagous - that attack animals (cattle pests)
2. Phytophagous - that attack plants (crop pests)
3. Entomophagous - that attack insects (parasites)
4. Entomophagous insects - parasitoids
ii). Based on the specialization of the site of parasitisation
a. Ectoparasites: they attack its host from the outside of the body of the host. The
mother parasite lays its eggs on the body of the host and after the eggs are hatched
the larvae feed on the host by remaining outside only. Head louse; Epiricania
melanolenca, Epipyrops sp. Sugarcane fly.
b. Endoparasites: They enters the body of the host and feeds from inside. The
mother parasite either lays its eggs inside the tissues of the host or on the food
material of the host to gain entry inside.
Eg. Braconids & Icheneumonids, Apanteles flavipes on jowar stemborer larvae.
iii). Specialization based on the stage of the host
Eg. Host: Coconut black headed caterpillar, Opisina arenosella
TAMGESTT
a. Egg parasite: The parasitoid would attack the egg stage of the host and emerge
out from the host egg itself
Eg: Trichogramma australicum
b. Early larval parasite: The parasitoid would attack the early stage (1/2/3 instar) of
the host and emerge out from the host‟s larval stage itself
Eg: Apanteles taragama
c. Mid larval parasite: The parasitoid would attack the mid/late stage (4/5/6 instar)
of the host and emerge out from the host‟s larval stage itself

d. Prepupal parasite: The parasitoid would attack the mid/late stage (4/5/6 instar) of
the host and emerge out from the host‟s larval stage itself
Eg: Goniozus nephantidis
Elasmus nephantidis
e. Pupal parasite: The parasitoid would attack the prepupal stage at which the
caterpillar stops its feeding and emerge out from the host‟s pupal stage itself
Eg: Stomatoceros sulcatiscutellum
Trichospilus pupivora,
Testrastichus israeli
Complex associations
a. Egg-larval parasitoid: The parasitoid would attack the egg stage of the host and
emerge out from the host‟s larval stage
1. Chelonus blackburni against the Spodoptera litura (Tobacco caterpillar)
2. Copidosoma koehleri against the Phthorimaea operculella (Potato tuber moth)
b. Nymphal-Adult parasitoids: The parasitoid would attack the nymphal stage of
the host and emerge out from the host‟s adult stage
Examples
1. Encarsia formosa against the cotton whitefly, Bemisia tabaci
2. Encarsia perniciosi against the Sanjose scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus)
3. Aphelinus mali against the Apple Woolly aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum)
4. Epiricania melonoleuca against the Pyrilla perpusella
**All the parasitoids are belongs to the Hymenoptera and Diptera except
Epiricania melonoleuca belongs to Lepidoptera**
iv). Depending upon the duration of attack
a. Transitory parasite: It is not permanent but transitory parasite which spends a
few stages of its life in one host and other stages on some other species of hosts or
as a free living organism.
Eg. Braconids and Ichneumonids
b. Permanent parasite
Which spends all the stages of its life on the same host. Eg. Head louse
v). Depending upon degree of parasitization
a. Obligatory parasites: Parasite, which can live only as a parasite and cannot live
away from the host even for shorter period. Eg. Bird lice, Head louse.

b. Facultative parasite: Parasite, which can live away from the host at least for a
shorter period Eg. Fleas.
vi). Depending upon the food habits
1. Polyphagous: develops on number of widely different host species
Eg. Bracon sp., Apanteles spp. on lepidopteran caterpillars
2. Oligophagous: which has very few hosts (more than one host) but all the hosts
are closely related.
Eg. Isotema javensis on sugarcane and sorghum borers.
3. Monophagous: Which has only one host sp. and can‟t survive in another sp. i.e.
host specific. Eg. Goniozus nephantidis on Opisina arenosella
Qualities of a Successful Parasitoid in Biological Control Programme
A parasitoid should have the following qualities for its successful performance.
1. Should be adaptable to environmental conditions in the new locally
2. Should be able to survive in all habitats of the host
3. Should be specific to a particulars sp. of host or at least a narrowly limited range
of hosts.
4. Should be able to multiply faster than the host
5. Should be having more fecundity
6. Life cycle must be shorter than that of the host
7. Should have high sex ratio
8. Should have good searching capacity for host
9. Should be amendable for mass multiplication in the labs
10. Should bring down host population within 3 years
11. There should be quick dispersal of the parasitoid in the locality
12. It should be free from hyperparasitoids
2. Predators
A predator is one which catches and devours smaller or more helpless
creatures by killing them in getting a single meal. It is a free living organism through
out its life, normally larger than prey and requires more than one prey to develop.
Predatism
Based on the degree of use fullness to man, the predators are classified as on
1.Entirely predatory, Eg. Lace wings, tiger beetles lady bird beetles except
Henosepilachna genus

2.Mainly predator but occasionally harmful. Eg. Odonata and mantids occasionally
attack honey bees
3.Mainly harmful but partly predatory. Eg. Cockroach feeds on termites. Adult blister
beetles feed on flowers while the grubs predate on grass hopper eggs.
4.Mainly scavenging and partly predatory. Eg. Earwigs feed on dead decaying
organic matter and also fly maggots. Both ways, it is helpful
5.Variable feeding habits of predator, eg: Tettigonidae: omnivorous and carnivorous
but damage crop by lying eggs.
6.Stinging predators. In this case, nests are constructed and stocked with prey,
which have been stung and paralyzed by the mother insect on which the eggs are
laid and then scaled up. Larvae emerging from the egg feed on paralyzed but not yet
died prey. Eg. Spider wasps and wasps.
Insect predator qualities
1.A predator generally feeds on many different species of prey, thus being a
generalist or polyphagous nature
2.A predator is relatively large compared to its prey , which it seizes and devours
quickly
3.Typically individual predator consumes large number of prey in its life time
Eg: A single coccinellid predator larva may consume hundreds of aphids
4. Predators kill and consume their prey quickly, usually via extra oral digestion
5. Predators are very efficient in search of their prey and capacity for swift
movements
6. Predators develop separately from their prey and may live in the same habitat or
adjacent habitats
7. Structural adaptation with well developed sense organs to locate the prey
8. Predator is carnivorous in both its immature and adult stages and feeds on the
same kind of prey in both the stages
9. May have cryptic colourations and deceptive markings
Eg. Preying mantids and Robber flies

Differences Between predator and a parasite

Some successful examples
1. Control of cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi on fruit trees by its predatory
vedalia beetle, Rodolia cardinalis in Nilgiris. The predator was imported from
California in 1929 and from Egypt in 1930 and multiplied in the laboratory and
released. Within one year the pest was effectively checked.
2. For the biological suppression of Water Fern, Salvinia molesta,the weevil,
Cyrtobagous salviniae, was imported from Australia in 1982. Exotic weevil, C.
salviniae was released for the control of water fern, S. molesta in a lily pond in
Bangalore in 1983-84. Within 11 months of the release of the weevil in the lily
pond the salvinia plants collapsed and the lily growth, which was suppressed
by competition from salvinia resurrected.
3. Biological Control of Water Hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes ,three exotic
natural enemies were introduced in India viz.,hydrophilic weevils – Neochetina
bruchi and N. eichhorniae ( Argentina) and galumnid mite Orthogalumna
terebrantis (South America) in 1982 for the biological suppression of water
hyacinth.
4. Apple woolly aphis, Eriosoma lanigerum in Coonor area by Aphelinus mali
(parasitoid)
5. Control of shoot borers of sugarcane, cotton bollworms, stem borers of paddy
and sorghum with the egg parasitoid, Trichogramma australicum @
50,000/ha/week for 4-5 weeks from one month after planting
6. Centrococcus isolitus on brinjal; Pulvinaria psidi on guava and sapota;
Meconellicoccus hirsutus on grape and Pseudococcus carymbatus on citrus
suppressed by Cryptolaemus montrouzieri.
============================================

LECTURE NO: 10
MICROBIAL CONTROL
================================================================
Microbial control refers to the exploitation of disease causing organism to

reduce the population of insect pest below the damaging levels. Steinhaus (1949)
Coined the term „Microbial Control‟ when microbial organisms or other products
(toxins) are employed by man for the control of pests on plants, animals or man.
1.Bacteria
More than 100 pathogenic bacteria were recorded of which i.e. Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt.) is important and is isolated from flour moth, Ephestia kuhniella by
Berliner (1915) Bt known as a bacterial insecticide is now being using by farmers
mostly on lepidopterous larvae. It can infect more than 150 species of insects. The
entry of the bacteria is by ingestion of the bacteria, which infect the mid gut epithelia
cells and enter the haemolymph to sporulate and cause septicemia.
Properties of Bt.
1. Highly pathogenic to lepidopterous larvae
2. Non-toxic to man
3. Non-phytotoxic
4. Safer to beneficial insects
5. Compatible with number of insecticides
6. So far no resistance is developed in insects
7. Synergistic in combination with certain insecticides like carbaryl
8. Available in different formulations (Trade names Thuricide, Delfin,
Bakthane, Biobit, Halt, Dipel etc).
9. Formulation is so standardized that 1 gm of concentration spore dust
contains 100 million spores. Bacillus popillae (available as Doom) causes
milky disease on Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica
2. Viruses
NPV (Borrellina virus): About 300 isolates of Nuclear polyhedral virus have
been isolated from the order Lepidoptera. Among these viruses Baculoviruses
(Baculoviridae) are successful in IPM. The NPV is observed to affect 200 species of
insects like Corcyra cephalonica, Pericallia ricini, Amsacta albistriga, Spodoptea
litura, Heliothis armigera etc., by ingestion. The virus infected dead larvae hanging
upside down from plant parts (Tree top disease). The cuticle becomes fragile,
rupturing easily when touched, discharges liquefied body fluids. NPV multiplies in
insect body wall, trachea, fat bodies and blood cells. The polyhedra are seen in
nuclei. The polyhedral bodies enlarge in size destroying the host nuclei to get
released into the insect body cavity.
3. Fungi
The fungal disease occurrence in insects is commonly called as mycosis.
Most of the entomopathogenic fungi infect the host through the cuticle. The process
of pathogenesis begins with
 Adhesion of fungal infective units or conidium to the insect epicuticle
 Germination of infective units on cuticle,
 Penetration of the cuticle
 Multiplication in the haemolymph
 Death of the host (Nutritional deficiency, destruction of tissues and releasing
toxins)
 Mycelial growth with invasion of all host organs
 Penetration of hyphae from the interior through the cuticle to exterior of the
insect
 Production of infective conidia on the exterior of the insect. Most of the
entomopathogenic fungi infect their hosts by penetration of the cuticle by
producing cuticle digesting enzymes (Proteases, lipases, chitinases).The
typical symptoms of fungal infection are, mummified body of insects and it
does not disintegrate in water and body covered with filamentous mycelium.
 Specific requirements for successful commercial production and use of
entomopathogenic fungi as mycoinsecticides are
 The fungal isolate selected for mass production or commercialization should
 posses rapid growth, high pathogenicity to target pests and sporulate
profusely
 A simple medium with cheap and easily available components should be
developed

 The production procedure should be easy and also keep the production costs
low.
 Formulation with long shelf life at room temperature without any loss of
infectivity and viability for at least for 12 – 18 months.
More than 5000 species of entomopathogenic fungi are recorded. Important
species are Entomophthora, Metarhizium, Beauveria, Nomuraea and Verticillium.
Eg: Entomophthora grylli on grasshoppers; Aspergillus flavus on Epilachna beetles;
Spicaria sp. on castor whitefly: Metarhizium anisopliae (Green muscardine) on
Orthoptera, white muscardine, Beauveria bassiana on Leptinotarsa decemlineata.
Important entomopathogenic fungi
1. Beauveria bassiana / White muscardine Fungus
2. Metarhizium anisopliea / Green muscardine Fungus
3. Verticillium lecanii / White Halo Fungus (Recent name is Lecanicillium lecanii)
4. Nomuraea rileyi
5. Paecilomyces fumoroseus
6. Hirsutella thomsonii
4.Protozoa
Their mass production is difficult. They infect insect orders like Lepidoptera,
Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Hemiptera and Diptera.
Examples
i. Farinocystis triboli on Tribolium castaneum,
ii. Malpighamoeba locustae on grasshoppers
iii. Nosema bombycis (Pebrine disease) on silk worms. Here it is harmful since
silk worm is a productive insect.
5. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs)
Nematodes about 1000 species are known to attack insects. Especially
Rhabditids (Rhabditidae) are found to have a symbiotic relationship with the bacteria,
forming a disease complex. The best known disease complex was discovered by
Dutky and Hough in 1955 in the caterpillars of the Codling moth, Cydia pomonella on
apple. The complex is known as DD-136 though the nematode itself is often called
so. The nematode involved was Neoaplectana carpocapsae (also known as Dutky
nematode) and the bacterium Achromobacter nematophilus. The nematode serves
as a vector for the bacterium, which produces a septicemia (sporulation in blood;
Milky disease) in the insect body. The bacteria are retained in the nematode intestine
as the latter does not feed during its free-living existence. When such bacteria
possessing nematodes invade fresh insect hosts, the latter are killed. Though a few
nematodes can kill the host, sufficient number of them should invade the host. In
India entampapthogenic nematodes were tried against rice and sugarcane borers.
The EPNs Steinernema sps and Heterorhabditis sps from the families,
Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae have the mutualistic association with
bacteria Photorhabdus and Xenorhabdus spp., respectively. EPN are obligatory
requiring living host for its survival. The only stage that survives outside the host is
the non – feeding 3rd stage Infective Juvenile (IJ). The IJ carries cells of their
bacterial symbiont in their intestinal tract. After locating suitable host insect, the IJ
enters into its haemocoel through natural openings or through the thin cuticle. Once
the nematode (IJ) enters into haemocoel it releases the bacteria into the blood where
they multiply. The bacteria propagate and produce substances that rapidly kill the
host and protect the cadaver from colonization by other micro organisms. The
nematode starts developing inside the cadaver, feeding on bacteria and host tissues
metabolized by the bacteria and go through 1-3 generations. New colony of IJ
emerges from the insect cadaver and start searching for new living host insect.

Tree top symptom/Caterpillar Mycosed white grub
wilt/Wipfelkrankheit
Septicemia in caterpillar EPN infected caterpillar
================================================================

LECTURE NO: 11
CHEMICAL CONTROL-IMPORTANCE-CLASSIFICATION-TOXICITY
EVALUATION
================================================================
Chemical control is one of unavoidable component in the IPM

Control of insects with chemicals is known is chemical control. The term
pesticide is used to those chemicals which kill pests and these pests may include
insects, animals, mites, diseases or even weeds. Chemicals which kill insects are
called as insecticides.
Definition
Insecticide may be defined as a substance or mixture of substances intended
to kill, repel or otherwise prevent the insects. Similarly pesticides include nematicides
– which kill nematodes, miticides or Acaricides which kill mites, Rodenticides – which
kill rats, weedicides- that kill weeds, Fungicides- that kill fungus etc.
Importance of chemical control
 Insecticides are the most powerful tools available for use in pest
management.
 They are highly effective, rapid in curative action, adoptable to most
situations, flexible in meeting changing agronomic and ecological conditions
and economical. Insecticides are the only tool for pest management that is
reliable for emergency action when insect pest populations approach or
exceed the economic threshold.
 A major technique such as the use of pesticides can be the very heart and
core of integrated systems.
 Chemical pesticides will continue to be essential in the pest management
programmes. There are many pest problems for which the use of chemicals
provides the only acceptable solution.
 Contrary to the thinking of some people, the use of pesticides for pest control
is not an ecological sin. When their use made on sound ecological principles,
chemical pesticides provide dependable and valuable tools for the biologist.
Their use is indispensable to modern society.

General Properties of Insecticides
 Pesticides are generally available in a concentrated from which are to be
diluted and used except in ready to use dust and granules.
 They are highly toxic and available in different formulations.
Properties of an ideal insecticide or pesticide
1. It should be freely available in the market under different formulations.
2. It should be toxic and kill the pest required to be controlled.
3. It should not be phytotoxic to the crops on which it is used.
4. It should not be toxic to non target species like animals, natural enemies etc.
5. It should be less harmful to human beings and other animals.
6. It should not leave residues in crops like vegetables.
7. It should have wide range of compatibility.
8. It should not be toxic to bees and fish and other beneficial organisms.
9. It should have higher tolerance limits.
10. It should possess quick known down effect.
11. It should be stable on application.
12. It should not possess tainting effects and should be free from offensive odour.
13. It should be cheaper
Different Classifications of Insecticides
Insecticides are classified in several ways taking into consideration their
origin, mode of entry, mode of action and the chemical nature of the toxicant
I. Based on the origin and source of supply
A. Inorganic insecticides: comprise compounds of mineral origin and elemental
sulphur. This group includes arsenate and fluorine compounds as insecticides.
Sulphur as acaricides and zinc phosphide as rodenticides.
B. Organic Insecticides:
1. Insecticides of animal origin: Nereistoxin isolated from marine annelids,
fish oil rosin soap from fishes etc.
2. Plant Origin insecticides or Botanical insecticides: Nicotinoids, pyrethroids,
Rotenoids etc.
3. Synthetic organic insecticides: Organochlorines, Organophosphorous, Carbamate
insecticides etc.
4. Hydrocarbon oils etc.

II. Based on the mode of entry of the insecticides into the body of the insect
A. Contact poisons
These insecticides are capable of gaining entry into the insect body either
through spiracles and trachea or through the cuticle itself. Hence, these poisons can
kill the insects by mere coming in contact with the body of the insects.
Eg. DDT and HCH (Banned), Chlorpyriphos 20EC, Profenophos 50 EC.
B. Stomach poisons
The insecticides applied on the leaves and other parts of plants when
ingested act on the digestive system of the insect and bring about the kill of the
insect. Eg: Calcium arsenate, lead arsenate.
C. Fumigants
A fumigant is a chemical substance which is volatile at ordinary temperatures
and sufficiently toxic to the insects. Fumigation is the process of subjecting the
infested material to the toxic fumes or vapours of chemicals or gases which have
insecticidal properties. Chemical used in the fumigant and a reasonably airtight
container or room is known as fumigation chamber or “Fumigatorium”. Fumigants
mostly gain entry into the body of the insect through spiracles in the trachea
Commonly used Fumigants and their doses
1.Aluminium phosphide, marketed as Celphos tablets used against field rats
groundnut bruchids etc
2. Carbon disulphide: 8-20 lbs/1000ft3 of food grains
3. EDCT (Ethylene Dichloride Carbon Tetrachloride) 20-30 lbs/1000cft of food
grains
4. EDB: Ethylene dibromide 1 lb/1000ft3 of food grains.
5. SO2: By burning sulphur in godowns SO2 fumes are released
D. Systemic insecticides
Chemicals that are capable of moving through the vascular systems of plants
irrespective of site of application and poisoning insects that feed on the plants.
Ex: Methyl demeton, Phosphamidon, Acephate
‘Non systemic insecticides’ are not possessing systemic action are called
non systemic insecticides. Some non-systemic insecticides, however, have ability to

move from one surface leaf to the other. They are called as „trans laminar
insecticides’. Eg. Malathion, Diazinon, spinosad etc.
An ideal systemic insecticide quality are

1. It should have high intrinsic pesticidal activity
2. The toxicant must be adequately liposoluble for it to be absorbed by the plant
system and water soluble for it to be translocated in the plant system.
3. The toxicant or its metabolites should be stable for sufficiently long period to
exercise residual effect.
4. Sufficiently soluble in water for translocation through vascular system
5. Should degrade to nontoxic form in reasonable time to avoid toxicity to
consumer
Systemic insecticides are applied as seed dressing, granular formulations,
sprays etc. In the leaf, the entry of the toxicant are through stomata and cuticle. On
stem the entry is through lenticels and cracks in the cuticle. In the seed it is through
seed coat especially through the micropyle. Systemic insecticides are highly useful
against sap sucking and vectors such as leafhoppers, whiteflies, thrips, aphids etc.
III. Based on mode of action
A. Physical poisons
It brings about the kill of insects by exerting a physical effect. Eg: Heavy oils,
tar oils etc. which cause death by asphyxiation. Inert dusts effect loss of body
moisture by their abrasiveness as in aluminium oxide or absorb moisture from the
body as in charcoal.
B. Protoplasmic poisons
A toxicant responsible for precipitation of protein especially destruction of
cellular protoplasm of midgut epithelium.
Eg. Arsenical compounds.
C. Respiratory poisons
Chemicals which block cellular respiration as in hydrogen cyanide (HCN),
carbon monoxide etc.
D. Nerve poisons
Chemicals which block Acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) and effect the nervous
system. Eg. Organophosphorous, carbamates.

E. Chitin inhibitors
Chitin inhibitors interfere with process of synthesis of chitin due to which
normal moulting and development is disrupted.
Ex Novaluron, Diflubenzuran, Lufenuron, Buprofezin
F. General Poisons
Compounds which include neurotoxic symptoms after some period and do not
belong to the above categories.
Eg. Chlordane, Toxaphene
IV. Based on stage specificity
1. Ovicides
2. Larvicides
3. Pupicides
4. Adulticides
V. Based on toxicity

VI. Generation wise:
First generation Inorganics and Botanicals
Second generation Synthetic organics
Third generation Recent chemicals for reproductive control, IGRs (Insect
Growth Regulators) like MH & JH mimics
Fourth generation Synthetic pyrethroids
Fifth generation A. Synthetic pyrethroids
Examples
1.Alfamethrin - Alfaguard/ Fartac 10 EC
2.Fenpropathrin – Danitol 10 EC
3.Bifenthrin – Taletar 10 EC
4.Fluvalinate – Mavrik
5.Ethofenpron – Treban 10 EC
B. Novel insecticides
Neonicotinoids
Phenyly pyrazoles
Diamides
Oxadizines
Avermectins etc.
VII. IRAC Classification
 IRAC: Insecticide Resistance Action Committee

 It is based on the mode of action of the insecticides
 It is also called as the modern classification of insecticides based on the
mode of action
 According to this there are 21 classes of insecticide groups are present.
Toxicity evaluation of insecticides
1. LD 50 (Lethal Dose):
In 1952 Finney has given the computation methods. It is the amount of
toxicant required to kill 50% of the test population and is expressed in terms of
milligrams of the substance of toxicant per kilogram body weight (mg/kg) of the test
animal (usually rat, when treated orally). As the test animals usually rat and some
times rabbit it is also referred to as the mammalian toxicity. This forms the general
criteria for acute toxicity and is also known acute oral LD50.
In case of insects the LD50 (Median Lethal Dose) value is expressed in terms of
micrograms of the toxicant per one gram body weight of the insect.
Eg. Phosphamidon – 28; Parathion 3.6 to 13; Malathion 2800; Hydrogen cyanide 1.0
Acute dermal LD50: The amount of toxicant required to be placed on the skin
to cause death of 50% of test population is known as acute dermal LD50. It must be
understood that higher the LD50.value lesser is the toxic nature of the chemical and
vice - versa.
Acute toxicity refers to the toxic effect produced by a single dose of a toxicant
where as chronic toxicity is the effect produced by the accumulation of small
amounts of toxicant over a long period of time. Here the single dose produces no ill-
effect.
2. LC 50 (Median Lethal concentration): It is expressed in terms of percentage of
the toxicant required (concentration) to cause 50% kill of the population of a test
animal and is usually determined by potters tower and probit analysis.
3. ED50/ EC50 (Effective Dose/Concentration 50): Chemicals that gives desirable
effects in 50% of test animals.
4. LT 50 (Lethal time 50): Time required to produce effect in 50% of population
5. KD50/ KT50 (Knockdown Dose /Time 50) Dose / Time required for 50% of
population having knockdown effect.
Bioassay of insecticides
Study of response of individual or group of organisms exposed to the
toxicant is called ‘Bioassay’ or Any quantitative procedure used to determine
the relationship between the amount (dose or concentration) of an insecticide
administered and the magnitude of response in a living organism.
Potter spraying tower apparatus is required for studying the biological
effects of contact poisons on organisms. This air operated spraying apparatus
applies an even deposit of spray over a circular area of 9 cm diameter. Suitable for
studying the biological effects of chemicals, both when applied as direct spray on
organisms or as a residual film. Bioassays are used for screening of potential
insecticides, for determination of valuesLD50 and LC 50. Estimation of residues, and
quality testing of formulated insecticides.

Formulations of Insecticides
It is essential that the toxicant must be amenable to application in an effective
manner so as to come into direct contact with the pest or leaf and uniform and
persistent deposit upon the plant surface. Since very small quality of toxicant is
required to be distributed over a large area, insecticides are formulated in a form
suitable for use as a spray, dust or fumigant.
Definition: Formulation is the processing of a compound by such methods that will
improve its properties of storage, handling, application, effectiveness and safety to
the applicator and environment and profitability is called as formulation.
It is the final physical condition in which insecticide is sold.
A single insecticide is often sold in several different formulations. Following
are the different formulations of insecticides
1. Dusts (D)
These are ready to use insecticides in powder form. In a dust formulation the
toxicant is diluted either by mixing with or by impregnation on a suitable finely divided
carrier which may be an organic flour or pulverized mineral like lime, gypsum, talc
etc., or clay like attapulgite bentonite etc. The toxicant in a dust formulation ranges
from 0.15 to 25% and the particle size in dust formulations is less than 100 microns
and with the decrease in particle size the toxicity of the formulation increases. Dusts
are easy to apply, less labour is required and water is not necessary. However if
wind is there, loss of chemical occurs due to drift hence dusting should be done in
calm weather and also in the early morning hours when the plant is wet with dew.
Eg. HCH 10% dust; Endosulfan 4% D (Banned), Carbaryl 5D
2. Granules or Pelleted insecticides (G)
These are also ready to use granular or pelleted forms of insecticides. In this
formulation the particle is composed of a base such as an inert material impregnated
or fused with the toxicant which released from the formulation in its intact form or as
it disintegrates giving controlled release. The particle size ranges from 0.25 to 2.38
mm, or 250 to 1250 microns and contains 1 to 10% concentration of the toxicant.
The granules are applied in water or whorls of plants or in soil. Action may be by
vapour or systemic. In application of granules there is very little drift and no undue
lose of chemical. Undesirable contamination is prevented. Residue problem is less
since granules do not adhere to plant surface. Release of toxicant is achieved over a
long period. Easy for application as water is not required for application. Less
harmful for natural enemies.
Eg: Carbofuran 3G, Phorate10 G, Cartap hydrochloride 4G
3. Wettable Powders (WP)
It is a powder formulation which is to be diluted with water and applied. It
yields a stable suspension with water. The active ingredient (toxicant) ranges from
15 to 95%. It is formulated by blending the toxicant with a diluent such as attapulgite,
a surface active agent and an auxiliary material. Sometimes stickers are added to
improve retention on plant surface. Loss of chemical due to run off may be there and
water is required for application.
Eg: Carbaryl 50%WP, Thiodicarb 75% WP
4. Emulsifiable Concentrates (EC)
Here the formulation contains the toxicant, a solvent for the toxicant and an
emulsifying agent. It is a clear solution and it yields an emulsion of oil-in water type,
when diluted with water. The active ingredient (toxicant) ranges from 2.5 to 100
%.When sprayed the solvent evaporates quickly leaving a deposit of toxicant from
which water also evaporates. The emulsifying agents are alkaline soaps, organic
amines, alginates, Carbohydrates, gums, lipids, proteins etc.
Eg: Endosulfan 35EC (banned),Chlorpyriphos 20 EC, Profenophos 50EC
5. Soluble Powder or Water Soluble Powder (SP or WSP):
It is a powder formulation readily soluble in water. Addition of surfactants
improves the wetting power of the spray fluid. Sometimes an anti-caking agent is
added which prevents formation of lumps in storage. This formulation usually
contains a high concentration of toxicant and therefore convenient to store and
transport.
Eg: Acephate 75 SP.
6. Suspension Concentrate (SC)/Flowables (F):
Active ingredient is absorbed on to a filler which is then suspended in a liquid
matrix (water).It is not dusty and easier to disperse in water. When an active
ingredient is insoluble in either water or organic solvents, a flowable formulation is
developed. The toxicant is milled with a solid carrier such as inert clay and
subsequently dispensed in a small quantity of water. Prior to application it has to be
diluted with water. Flowables do not usually clog nozzles and require only moderate
agitation Eg: Imidacloprid 50 SC, Methoxyfenozide (Intrepid 2F)

7. Water Dispersible Granules (WDG): This formulation appears as small pellets or
granules. It is easier and safer to handle and mix than wettable powders. When the
granules are mixed with spray water, they break apart and, with agitation, the active
ingredient becomes distributed throughout the spray mixture.
Ex: Thiamethoxam 25 WDG
8. Solutions
Many of the synthetic organic insecticides are water insoluble but soluble in
organic solvents like amyl acetate, kerosene, xylene, pine oil, ethylene dichloride
etc., which themselves possesses some insecticidal properties of their own. Some
toxicants are dissolved in organic solvents and used directly for the control of
household pests. Eg. Baygon
9. Concentrated insecticide liquids:
The technical grade of the toxicant at highly concentrated level is dissolved in
non-volatile solvents. Emulsifier is not added. Generally applied from high altitudes in
extremely fine droplets without being diluted with water at ultra volume rates. There
is greater residual toxicity and less loss through evaporation. Active ingredient
ranges from 80-100%
Eg: Malathion, Bifenthrin,Fenitrothion.
10. Insecticide aerosels
The toxicant is suspended as minute particles 0.1 to 30 microns in air as fog
or mist. The toxicant is dissolved in a liquified gas and if released through a small
hole causes the toxicant particles to float in air with rapid evaporation of the released
gas. Eg: Allethrin
11. Fumigants
A chemical compound which is volatile at ordinary temperature and
sufficiently toxic is known as fumigant. Most fumigants are liquids held in cans or
tanks and quite often they are mixtures of two or more gases. Advantage of using
fumigant is that the places not easily accessible to other chemicals can be easily
reached due to penetration and dispersal effect of the gas.
Eg; Aluminium phosphide
12. Microencapsulation
Microencapsulated formulations consist of dry and liquid pesticide particles
enclosed in tiny plastic capsules which are mixed in water and sprayed. After

spraying, the capsule slowly releases the pesticide. The encapsulation process can
prolong the active life of the pesticide by providing timed release of the active
ingredient.
Ex: Lambda-cyhalothrin
14. Insecticide Mixtures
Insecticide mixtures involve combinations of two or more insecticides in the
right concentration into a single spray solution. Insecticide mixtures are widely used
to deal with the array of arthropod pests encountered in greenhouse and field
production systems due to the savings in labour costs. Furthermore, the use of
pesticide mixtures may result in synergism or potentiation (enhanced efficacy)
and the mitigation of resistance. However, antagonism (reduction in efficacy) may
also occur due to mixing two (or more) pesticides together. Judicious use of
pesticide mixtures or those that may be integrated with biological control agents is
especially important because parasitoids and predators (and even microbials such
as beneficial bacteria and fungi) can suppress arthropod pest populations
irrespective of the arthropod pests‟ resistance traits or mechanisms.
Eg: Chlorpyriphos16% + Alphacypermethrin 1% EC
Chlorpyriphos 50% + Cypermethrin 5% EC
Quinolphos 20% + Cypermethrin 3% EC
Profenofos 40% + Cypermethrin 4% EC
Profenofos25% + Cypermethrin 5% EC
Profenofos10% + Cypermethrin 20% EC
Cypermethrin 20% + Permethrin 10% EC
15. Baits
In baits a.i is mixed with edible substance. These are always stomach poisons
and are used for poison baiting which is chiefly made up of 3 components, Poison
(Insecticide carbaryl), Carrier or base(Rice bran), and Attractant (Jaggery) at ratio of
1:10:1 . Poison should be strong and easily soluble. Base is the filler like rice bran
with just enough water.

I. Inorganic Insecticides
A. Arsenic compounds
In an arsenical compound, the total arsenic content and the water soluble
arsenic content are of importance, the water solubility of arsenic may result in
entering the foliage and causing burning injury to plants, and hence water insoluble
compounds are preferred for insect control. Arsenates are more stable and safe for
application on plants then arsenites.
Arsenites are mainly used in poison baits since they are phytotoxic. However
arsenates are less toxic to insects then arsenites. In insects arsenates cause
regurgitation, torpor (sluggishness) and quiescence. Disintegration of
epithelial cells of the midgut and clumping of the chromatin of the nuclei are
the effects noticed in poisoned insects. Slow decrease in oxygen consumption
is also evident and kill of the insect is primarily due to the inhibition of
respiratory enzymes. Water soluble arsenic causes wilting followed by browning
and shrivelling of the tissue.
1. Calcium arsenate
It was first used by about 1906 as an insecticide. It is a white flocculent power,
formulated as a dust of 25 to 30% metallic arsenic equivalent. Dosage – Calcium
arsenate at 0.675 to 1.350 kg with equal quantity of slaked lime in 450 litres of water.
LD50.for mammals oral 35 to 100. Being a stomach poison it was mainly used for
control of leaf eating insects.
2. Lead arsenate
It was first used as in insecticide in 1892 for the control of gypsy moth. It is a
stomach poison with little contact action LD50.for rat oral 10-100, dermal 2400 mg/kg.
. It is rarely used as dust. 450 g to 1800 g of load arsenate is diluted with 200-240
litres of water. An equal quantity of hydrated lime is some time added to prevent
phytotoxicity to tender foliage. In baits it is used at 450 or 900 g in 1200 g to 45000 g
of carrier such as wheat bran or rice husk respectively.
3. Arsenite
Paris green: It is a double salt of copper acetate and copper arsenite. It was
first used in 1867 for the control of Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa
decemlineata. It is now used as bait for the control of slugs. LD50 for rat oral- 22
mg/kg. Very good against termites.

B. Flourine Compounds
These compounds were used since 1890. They are principally stomach
poisons and to a limited extent contact poisons. The kill is more rapid than that of
arsenicals. Their insecticidal properties are related to the fluorine content and
solubility in the digestive juices of insect. Flouride poisoning produces spasms,
regurgitation, flaccid paralysis and death.
1. Sodium fluoride
It is a white power. Available in 93 to 99% purity in commercial products. It is
highly phytotoxic and used in poison baits used exclusively against cockroaches,
earwigs, cutworms, grasshoppers etc.
Other inorganic compounds
1. Sulphur
It is primarily fungicide and acaricide. Formulated as fine dust (90 to 95% a.i
with 10% inert material. It is also formulated as wettable powders. Effectiveness
increases with fineness of sulphur particles.
2. Lime sulphur
Aqueous solution of calcium polysulphide. It is prepared by sulphur solution in
calcium hydroxide suspension, preferably under pressure in the absence of air and is
used against scales, mites, aphids besides powdery mildew.
Properties
1. Affect nervous system causing excitement at lower doses and paralysis at higher
concentration.
2. Not phytoloxic
3. Leave no harmful side effects.
4. Slightly toxic to mammals.
5. Disappear rapidly from the treated surface.
So can be used safely before harvest of the produce
================================================

LECTURE NO: 12
BOTANICAL INSECTICIDES
================================================================
The insecticides of plant origin extracted from seeds, flowers, leaves, stem
and roots, are termed as botanical insecticides. Insecticides of plant origin unlike
synthetic organic insecticides are safer to use but since they are expensive and lack
residual toxicity, their use has been limited in the country.
There are different groups of plants comes under kingdom plantae.
 Bryophytes: 15,600 species

 Pteridophytes: Eg: Ferns: 11,000 species
 Gymnosperms: Eg: Conifers : 760 species
 Angiosperms –flowering plants: 2,35,000 species.
In India 17,527 species, 296 sub species, 2215 varities, 33 sub varities, 70
forma and 20,141 taxa of angiosperms under 2991 genera and 257 families.It
constitutes 7% of the species in the world.
Among all 2,400 plant species are reported to have pesticidal properties. Most
promising botanic
al pesticides for use are present in substances derived from species of the families
Meliaceae, Rutaceae, Asteraceae, Labiatae and canellaceae.The single most
important botanical source of pesticidal compounds is Azadirachta indica, belongs to
family meliaceae. Azadirachtin a tetranotriterpenoid isolated from the neem tree is
found to be effective as a feeding deterrent, repellent, toxicant, sterilant and growth
disruptant.
Important families having pesticidal properties are
Plant family Number of plants having pesticidal

property
Meliaceae >500
Myrtaceae 72
Asteraceae 70
Ephorbiaceae 65

Leguminosae 60
Fabaceae 55
Botanicals history
 Nicotiana tabacum-1690
 Nicotinoid-1828
 Chrysanthemum cinerarifolium-1840
 Derris, Lonchocorpus-1848
 Rotenone-1895
 Acorus calamus-1942
 Azadirachta indica-1962
 Synthetic pyrethroid-1977
Major botanical products
 Pyrethrum
 Rotenone
 Neem
 Essential oils
Others in limited use
 Ryania
 Nicotine
 Sabadilla
Additional plant extracts and oils
 Garlic oils
 Capsicum oleoresin
1) Neem (Azadirachta indica)
Perennial tree distributed in tropical, subtropical, semi-arid and arid zones. It

posses medicinal, insecticidal, insect repellent, antifeedant, growth regulatory,
nematicidal and antifungal properties. Neem seed extract and oil contains a number
of components such as Azadirachtin, salannin, nimbin, epinimbin nimbidin that gives
insecticidal, insect repellent, ovicidal, Antifeedant and growth regulator characters.
Azadiractitin disrupts moulting by antagonizing the insect hormone
ecdysone.Azadiractitin Acute oral LD50 for rat is 5000mg/kg, Acute dermal for rabbit
is>2000mg/kg.

Preparation of Neem Seed Kernel Extract (NSKE 5%):
Take 50 g of powdered neem seed kernels soak it in one litre of water for 8
hours and stir the contents often. Squeeze the soaked material repeatedly for better
extraction of the azadirachtin in the aquous suspension. Filter the contents through
muslin cloth. Make the filtrate to one litre. Add 1ml teepol or triton or sandovit or soap
water (2%) and spray.
Prepartion of Neem Cake Suspension
Soak one kilogram of neem cake in 5 liters of water for 2 days and filter It
through muslin cloth. Dissolve 200 g of soft soap in the filtrate and make upto 10 L of
water before spraying. This controls tobacco cutworm, leaf miners of citrus,
groundnut, tomato and beans etc. Dried powder of neem leaves are used against
stored grain insect pests. Leaf extracts showed insecticidal property against, Plutella
xylostella, Aproaerema modicella; Spodoptera litura etc. Desert locust Schistocerca
gregaria avoids feeding on neem leaves. Neem leaves are found as attractants to
white grub Holotrichia adults. Neem seed/ kernel extract showed insecticidal
properties against a number of sucking pest. Neem oil can be used against storage
insect pests @ 1 to 2% and field insects @ (0.2 -0.4%, 1 to 2% 5% or 10% neem
oil). Neem products are safer to honey bees, parasitoids, predators. Commercial
formulations of neem are available in 10000 ppm, 1500 ppm and 300 ppm the
market. Some of the neem formulations are Margosan, Neemark, Neemrich, Achook,
Bioneem, Neemazal, Neemax, Nimbicidine,Vepacide, Margocide , Neemgold etc
2) Nicotine
Nicotine is found in the leaves of Nicotiana tabacum and N.rusticafrom 2% to

14%.Nicotine sulphate has been mainly used as a contact insecticide with marked
fumigant action in the control of sucking insects viz., aphids, thrips, psyllids,
leafminers and jassids. Nicotine sulphate is more stable and less volatile. It is a
nerve poison being highly toxic when absorbed through the cuticle taken in through
the tracheae or when ingested. It affects the ganglian blocking conduction at higher
levels. Nicotine sulphate containing 40% alkaloid, is safer and is more convenient to
use and the free alkaloid is liberated by the addition of soap lime or ammonium
hydroxide to the spray solution. Dust formulation of nicotine sulphate releases
nicotine in the presence of moisture. It is also used in aerosols. Tobacco decoction,
useful for controlling aphids, Thrips etc. Can be prepared by boiling 1kg of tobacco
waste in 10lts of water for 30 minutes or steep it in cold water for a day. Then make it
up to 30 litres and add about 90gm of soap. Addition of soap improves wetting,
spreading and killing properties. Nicotine does not leave any harmful residue on
treated surface. LD50for rat oral- 50-60 mg/kg.
3) Rotenone
It is extracted from the roots of Derris plant which many contain 4 to 11%
rotenone depending on the variety. Though rotenone is reported from 68 species of
leguminous plants, principal commercial sources are Derris elliptica
D. Malaccensis from Malaysia and Lonchocarupus utilis and D. uruca from S.
America. Rotenone occurs in Derris roots (4-9%), Lonchocarpus (8-11%). It is
oxidized to non-insecticidal compound in the presence of light and air and hence
rotenone residues are difficult to find after 5 to 10 days in normal sunlight. Insects
poisoned with rotenone show a steady decline in oxygen consumption followed by
paralysis and deaths. It is very specific being highly toxic to fishes and to most insect
species but almost harmless to warm blooded animals except pigs LD50.to white rat
oral-130 to 1500. Dust or spray containing 0.5 to 1.0 per cent and 0.001 to 0.002
percentrotenone are used commercially.
4) Plumbagin
Plumbagin is naturally occurring napthoquinone of plant origin from the roots

of Plumbago europea L. (Plumbaginaceae) and named so in 1828 by Bulong d‟
Astafort. Plumbagin is known for its medicinal, antifertility, antimicrobial,
molluscicidal, nematicidal and other pharmacological properties on diverse fauna.
The yield of plumbagin ranges between 0.5-3.000percent on dry weight basis. The
elucidation of structure of plumbagin and its synthesis in 1936 led to detailed studies.
More recently, its IGR properties viz., inhibition of chitin synthetase and ecdysteroid
titres have been demonstrated (Kubo et al., 1982). The cold alcoholic extract (5%) of
roots of P. zeylanica L was toxic to Euproctis fraterna larvae as contact spray.
Contact toxicity of 5% petroleum ether extracts of P. zeylanica root against
Spodoptera litura Fab. , Dystercus koenigii Fab. Dipaphis erysimi Kalt, Dactynops
carthami H.R.L, Coccinella septumpunctata L was also reported.

5) Pyrethrum
It is extracted from dried flower heads of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium

(Asteraceae). The actual chemical ingredients having insecticidal action are
identified as five esters. They are: Pyrethrin I, Pyrethrin II, cinerins-I and cinerin-II
and Jasmoline, which are predominately found in achenes of flowers from 0.7 to3 %.
The esters are derived from the,
Two acids – Chrysanthemic acid and Pyrethric acid
Three alcohols – Pyretholone, Cinerolone and Jasmolone
Active principles/Esters
Pyrethrin I = Pyrethrolone + Chrysanthemc acid
Pyrethrin II = Pyrethrolone + Pyrethric acid
Cinerin I = Cynerolone + Chrysanthemc acid
Cinerin II = Cynerolone + Pyrethric acid
Cinerin II = Cynerolone + Pyrethric acid
Jasmolin II = Jasmolone + Pyrethric acid
Pyrethrum powder is prepared by grinding the flowers. The powder mixed with
a diluent such as talc or clay is known as pyrethrum dust. It is prepared just before
use. Otherwise it gets deteriorated rapidly. It is also used as emulsions, solutions,
and aerosoles. Pyrethrum is unstable to light, air moisture and alkali. The residues
deteriorate very rapidly after application. Pyrethrins are powerful contact insecticides
but appear to be poor stomach poisons. A characteristic action of Pyrethroid is the
rapid paralysis or „knock down‟ effect and substantial recovery that follow it. This
recovery is due to rapid enzymatic detoxification in the insect. To bring about
mortality equivalent to knock down effect three times increase in dosage may be
required. Compounds such as piperonyl butoxide, propyl isome and sulfoxide are
known to inhibit the detoxication enzyme and increase the toxicities of pyrethroids.
These synergists are used at 10 parts to 100 part of pyrethroid. LD50. for white rat
oral-200 dermal for rat-1800. Pyrocon E 2/22 (1 part of pyrethrin + 10 parts of
piperonyl butoxide) is used for the control of coconut red palm weevil. In household
sprays and as a repellent against external parasites of livestock pyrethrum is useful.
It is also mixed with grains in storage to protect from stored grain pests. Its use alone
or in combination with piperonyl butoxide as food packages has been permitted by
the food and Drug Administration in the U.S.A. and no other chemical has been
approved.
Properties
1. Highly unstable in light, moisture and air.
2. Have no residual effect.
3. Paralyse by more contact.
4. Gains entry through spiracle and cuticle.
5. Act on central nervous system.
6. Having rapid knock down effect.
7. Practically no mammalian toxicity.
8. Good insecticides against household and cattle pests.
6. Sabadilla
 It is an alkaloid found in seeds of tropical lily, Schoenocaulon officinale
(Family: Liliaceae)
 The alkaloids mainly ceyadine and veratridine act as nerve poisons
 It is a primarily contact poison
 Sabadilla is harmful to pollinators and honey bees
7. Ryanodine
 It is an alkaloid derived from woody stems of South American shrub, Ryania
speciosa (Family: Flacourtaceae)
 It acts as muscular poison by blocking the conversion of ADP to ATP in
striated muscles
 It acts as slow acting stomach poison and causes insects to stop feeding after
they eat it
 It is reportedly effective against thrips and worms
 It is used as dust (20-40%)

8. Sweet flag (Acorus calamus)
It is rhizome runner plant intercultivated in rice ecosystem. Beta Azarone is

the active ingredient used against the stored grain insect pests
Promising pesticidal plants
S.No Plant Scientific Family Active Plant Target

name principle parts insect
used
Annona Seeds,
Custard squamosa Alkaloid bark
1 Annonaceae Caterpillars
apple A. Anonaine and
reticulata roots
Periwinkl Vinca All Red cotton
2 Apocynaceae Vinblastine
e rosea parts bug
Chromenes
Goat Ageratum Antijuvemile
3 Asteraceae Prococenes Leaves
weed conzoides hormones
I&II
Mosquito,
Allium Rhizo
4 Garlic Amaryllidaceae Diallylsulfide red cotton
sativum me
bug
Plumbag Plumbago
o zeylanica Plumbaginacea
Plumbagin Root
Plumbagin e
indica Red cotton
5
Ponagamia bug
glabra
karinjin Seeds
Pongamia Leguminaceae
pinnatata
African Tagetus Allyl Iso
6 Compositae Root IGR
marigold erecta thiocyanate
Sweet Acorus Beta- Rhizo Stored grain
7 Araceae
flag calamus asarone me pests
China Melia Antifeedant
berry azedarach Meliantrol, Seed action
8 Meliaceae
Melianone kernel against
locusts
Congres Parthenium Tobacco
Leaf
s grass hysteropho caterpillar,
9 Asteraceae Parthenin extract
rus red cotton
s
bug
Black Piper Helicoverpa
10 Piperaceae Piperine seeds
pepper nigrum armigera
Soybean Glycine Sitophilus
11 Fabaceae Pinitol Pods
max oryzae

Important botanicals
Neem-Azadirachtin Chrysanthemum- Sweet flag-Beta azarone

Pyrethrins
Vinca rosea- Melia azedarach- Garlic- Diallylsulfide

Vinblastine Meliantrol
Tobacco-Nicotiner Goat weed- Chromenes Plumbago- Plumbagin

Prococenes I&II
================================================================

LECTURE NO: 13
SYNTHETIC ORGANIC INSECTICIDES
CHLORINATED HYDRO CARBONS, ORGANOPHOSPHATES, CARBAMATES
AND SYNTHETIC PYRETHROIDS, NOVEL INSECTICIDES
================================================================
I) CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS
The plant protection in India owes its growth to the chemicals under this group
which have revolutionized the control of pests. The properties which have lead to
their extensive use are high insecticidal efficacy, long residual action, wide
range of insect susceptibility, cheapness per unit area and available in
different formulations. They are also known as chlorinated synthetics or
chlorinated organics or chlorinated hydrocarbons.
The chlorinated hydrocarbons classified into two groups:
A.Oraganochlorines
Eg: DDT: Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane
Dicofol
HCH: Hexa Chloro cyclo Hexane (BHC: Benzene Hexa Chloride)
B.Cyclodienes
Eg: Chlordane
Aldrin
Dieldrin
Heptachlor
Endrin
Mirex
Endosulfan
Chlordecone
A.Organochlorines
1. DDT (Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane)
 DDT was first synthesized in 1874 by Othmar Zeidler.
 In 1939 a Swiss entomologist, Paul Hermann Muller found its insecticidal
property for the first time.
 This discovery brought the `Nobel Prize' for medicine to Paul Hermann
Muller in 1948 for the life saving discovery.

 DDT is stomach and contact insecticide.
 It has got long residual action.
 It is also non-phytotoxic except to cucurbits.
 It is not much effective against phytophagous mites.
 Due to low cost of DDT and effectiveness against a variety of insects
particularly against house flies and mosquitoes, it is much popularized but due
to long residual life and accumulation, it is banned in several countries.
 The acute oral LD50 for rats is 113-118 mg/kg.
 It does affect the nervous system preventing normal transmission of nerve
impulses. DDT causes a violent excitatory neurotoxic system in most insects
which are having uncoordinated movement and DDT Jitters (tremor of the
entire body).
2. Dicofol
 It is the analogue of DDT
 It is an effective Acaricide/Miticide
 Trade name: Kelthane
3. Hexa Chloro Cyclohexane (HCH)
 It was first synthesised by Michael Faraday in the year 1825.The gamma-
isomer of BHC has the insecticidal activity. BHC is a stomach and contact
insecticide. It has got slight fumigant action. It is persistent insecticide. It is
non-phytotoxic except cucurbits.
 It has been extensively used as soil insecticides particularly to control
termites, white grubs and cutworms. Highly purified product containing 99% of
gamma isomer of HCH is known as lindane, this name was proposed in
1949 after Vander Linden, a German chemist who isolated this isomer in
1912. Lindane is more acute neurotoxicant than

Mode of action of organochlorines
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Before going to read or understand the mode of action of different insecticides
we need to know how an impulse is conducted through the nervous system i.e.
Axonic transmission and synoptic transmission
Axonic transmission
Every organ in a living organism has its structure and function like that
nervous system having its own structure and transmitting the impulse from outside of
the body to the brain and transferring the message from brain to organ for escaping
that danger and meeting its daily activities of a insect. The structural and functional
unit of nervous system is the neuron.

Structure of Neuron:
Axon is the process of a nerve cell that carries impulses away from it.Nerve
fibres which carry impulses to the central nervous system are termed as afferent
nerve fibres and those carrying impulses from the central nervous system to
periphery are known as efferent nerve fibres.
An axon arises from that part of the nerve cell which is called the axon
hillock.It is long with few branches which are termed as collaterals.The axis cylinder
of the axon contains axoplasm which is a semifluid substance essential for nutrition
and growth of the nerve fibre. Dentrites are processes which collects the impulses
from other neurons and carried them towards the cell body.It is generally short with
many branches.
Stimulus and nerve impulse
A stimulus is an external force, electrical, mechanical, or chemical while and
impulse is the result of that force which is exercises through physico-chemical
changes abd by setting up an alteration in the electrical state
I. Axonic impulse transmission
a) Resting nerve-Membrane potential
The surface membrane of the nerve cell and its axon separated the
intracellular fludi from the extra cellular fluid which have widely different ionic
compostion inside the neuron the cytoplasm is rich in potassium but low in sodium
while outiside the neuron the extracellular fluid is richin sodium.Further in rsting
membrane the surface is positively charged and the interior is negatively charged.
When the surface is stimulated the permeability is increases as a rsult there is
reversal of polarisation. The surface at the stimulated point becomes negative and
when this change arises to a threshold level, the impulse passes like a self
propagated disturbace.Thus depolarisation of the membrane is the first step of the
manifestation of an impulse.After an intiial slow rise, the depolarisation wave
overshoots rapidly and reaches to an isopotential line (Approximately +35 mv).After
that it reversal and begins to fall very rapidly towards the resting potential (-70mv).
At approximately two third of repolarisation the rate of fall is abruplty slowed.The
rapid rise ofd depolarisation wave and the rapid fall of repolarisation wave are known
as spike potential.

b) Mechanism of development of action potential
in resting state the nerve fibre remains in polarises state and the membrane
potetila lies at -70mv.The inside of the nerve is negative and the outside of the nerve
is positive.Na+ concentration outiside the memnbrane is higher, while k +
concentration inside the membrane is higher than outside the memrne.At restinf
stage the k+ can permeate the membrane but Na+ is not capable of being
permeated.Tthe permeability of Na+ to membrane is increased only after excitation
and it is the first event of the action potatial. In the resting state the ca++ ions remain
binding tio the protein surface of the membrane pores an it does not allow Na+ to
permeate through these pores.During excitation Ca ++ ions are dislodged from its
binding site and this permeability of Na+ is increased.So the depolarisation starts
with onset of Na+ entry and its increase within the nerve.The trememdous increae in
Na+ conductance is known as activation if membrane.
Due to this reversal of potential is caused with the development of positivity
inside the membrane and negativity outside the membrane.With the increase of
positivity within the nerve further entry of Na+ is prevented as Ca++ begins to bind
with the protein of the membrane pores.As soon as action potential attains the
volatge approximately +35 mv, K+ begins to come out from inside the membrane the
iside becomes negative and outside becomes positive again.this stage is
repolarisation abd k+ conductance at this stage is maximum.this increases positivity
inside the membrane due to Na+ entry during depolarisation pahse allow the k+ to
come out and resting potetial slowly attained.it is achieved by the action of Na+
pump mechanism and Na+ begins to come out from inside the membrane creating
negativity again.The negativity produced due to the active Na+ pump mechanism
causes the K+ ions to diffuse back to interior of ther nerve fibre.For the active Na+
and K+ pump mechanim ATP is required.
c) Mechanism of conduction of nerve impulse
As soon as the fibre is excited at a point the polarity is changed and for a brief
period it is actually reversed. This reversed polarity is due to the increases
permeability of the Na+ to the membrane and thus depolarisation wave
developed.the adjacent areas inside the axon are negatively charged so that a
current flows in a local circuit away from the point of depolarisation inside the axon

and towards the point of depolarisation outsie the axon. In this way impulse moves in
aoxn along the whole length of the nerve fibre
II. Synoptic impulse transmission

The nerve action potential arriving at the axonal terminals radiates over
synapse causing the liberation of acetylcholine (Ach), a neurotrasmitter substance.
The neurotransmitter substance is synthesized in the region of axonal terminals and
stored there in the synapse vesicles. It diffuses across the presynoptic membrane
and binds with the Ach receptors causing the increased permeability of the
membrane.as soon as the impulse transmitted the transmitter substance is
immediatley destroyed by Ach Esterase into Acetic acid and Choline.

Ach Receptors
Ach Esterase
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mode of action of organochlorines: (DDT and Dicofol):
Axonic Na+ channel modulators
The organochlorines (DDT and Its analogues) bind the Na+ channels present
on the axonic membrane that leads to continuous opening of the Na+ channels and
continuous flow of the Na+ ions into the axonic membrane leads to establishment of
positivity inside and negativity outside of the membrane continuously i.e. continuous
generation of action potentials. These action potentials reach the post synoptic
neuron and the same would be repeated. Because of the repetitive firing of the
action potentials throughout the axonic membrane the energy levels of the insect
depleted and continuous shaking of the appendages would takes place. These
appendages known as DDT jitters
B. Cyclodienes
Cyclodienes also act as neurotoxicants which disturb the balance of sodium
and potassium ions within the neuron resulting into tremors, convulsions, prostration
and ultimately the death. The outstanding characteristic of the cyclodienes is their
longer stability in the soil, resulting in more control of soil inhabiting insect pests.
Some of the compound belonging to this group are chlordane (1945), aldrin and

dieldrin (1948), heptachlor (1949), endrin (1951), mirex (1954), endosulfan (1956)
and chlordecone 1958). Among them aldrin, chlordane and heptachlor were often in
use for termite control as they are most effective, long lasting and economical
insecticides but now banned by GOI.
1) Aldrin
It is persistent and non-systemic soil insecticide. It is usually recommended
for the control of termites throughout India. Two German chemists Otto Paul
Hermann Diels and Kurt Alder first documented the Diels-Aldernovel reaction in 1928
for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1950 for their work
Formulations: EC 30%, Granule 5% and Dusts 5%
Trade names: Octalene, Aldrex, Aldrosol, and Aldrite.
LD50 value: 67 mg/kg
2) Dieldrin
It is persistent and non-systemic insecticide used for mainly soil inhabiting
insect pests. It is also not phytotoxic in recommended doses.
Formulations: Dust 2%
Trade names: Quintox, Alvit
3) Heptachlor
It is a non-systemic, contact poison with fumigant action. It is effective against
termites, white grubs, grass hoppers etc
Formulations: EC 20%, and Dust 5%
LD50 value: 100-162 mg/kg
4) Endosulfan:
It is a non-systemic, contact and stomach poison with slight fumigant action. It
is effective against defoliators, borers, sucking insects and mites but harmless to
honey bees at recommended doses for insect control. It is highly toxic to fish.
Formulations: EC 35%, Granule 4% and Dusts 4%
Trade names: Thiodan, Endocel, Endodhan, Endotaf
Because of the continuous aerial spraying in Kasargod in Kerala on cashew
plantations the peoples are afftected with deadly diseases. By considering this
Supreme Court banned endosulfan in 2011.

Mode of action of Cyclodienes
GABA gated chloride channel antagonists
GABA: Gamma Amino Butyric Acid

 Inhibitory neuro transmitter

SUMMARY SHEET OF ORAGNOCHLORINES
S.No. Group of Insecticide Formulation Trade Mode of

insecticide name name Action
I. Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
A. Organochlorines DDT Dusts 10% - Axonic Na+
Dicofol 18.5 EC Kelthane channel
modulators
B. Cyclodienes
Aldrin EC 30%, Octalene, GABA gated
Granule 5% Aldrex, chloride
Dusts 5% Aldrosol, channel
and Aldrite antagonists
Dieldrin Dust 2% Quintox,
Alvit
Heptachlor EC 20%,
Dust 5%
Endosulfan EC 35%, Thiodan,
Granule 4% Endocel,
and Dusts Endodhan,
4% Endotaf

II. ORGANOPHOSPAHATES
 Organophosphate came to limelight during Second World War.
 The biological activity of these compounds was first discovered by W. Lange
and Krueger in 1932.
 OP compounds as insecticides were mainly due to the work of Gerhard
Schrader in 1937 in Germany.
 First OP compound TEPP (Tetra Ethyl Pyro Phosphate) followed by
parathion and schradan, the first systemic insecticide.
 Organophosphate insecticides have two most important properties such as
higher potency and low residual life.
Mode of action
 The organophosphates (OPs) inhibit the cholinesterase (Ch E) enzyme
leading to blockage of synaptic transmission of nerve impulses and finally
death
Examples
1) Malathion
It is a non systemic contact and stomach insecticide and acaricide of low
mammalian toxicity. Hence it is recommended on fruits and vegetables till a few days
prior to harvest. It is also recommended for storage insects and also for external
application for parasites on animals.
Formulations: EC 50 and Dusts 40
Trade names: Cythion and Himala
2) Methyl parathion:
It is a contact and stomach poison with slight fumigant action. It is widely used
in for sucking insects and foliage feeders.
Formulations: EC 50 and Dusts 2
Trade names: Folidal, Metacid, Paratox, Dhanumar
3) Diazinon
It is a contact persistent insecticide with nematicidal properties. It is very much
useful against household insects such as flies and cockroaches. It has contact,
stomach poison and also fumigant action.

Formulations: EC 20 and 5G
Trade names: Basudin
LD50 value: 300-850 mg/kg .
4) Dichlorvos (Dimethyl Dichloro Vinyl Phosphate - DDVP)
It is contact poison but due to high vapour pressure it has got strong
penetrating power. It is very effective against hidden insects due to its fumigation
action. It is recommended for leaf miners and leaf webbers. It brings quick knock
down effect. It does not leave toxic residues. It is highly toxic to bees. It is a contact
and stomach poison with fumigant action.
Formulations: EC 76 and 5G
Trade names: nuvan, vapona, Doom, Divap
LD50 value: 56 – 108 mg/kg.
5) Fenitrothion
It acts as contact and stomach poison with broad spectrum activity and a
selective acaricide. It is effective against sucking pests including mealy bugs, borer
and mites and external parasites of livestock.
Formulations: EC 35, ULV 0.05 – 0.1 and 5 Dusts
Trade names: Sumithion, Folithion
LD50 value: 50 – 250 mg/kg.
6) Quinolphos
It is contact poison having good penetrating power and It is having Acaricidal
properties.It is widely used against caterpillars and borer on cotton, vegetables and
other crops.
Formulations: EC 25 and 5 G
Trade names: Ekalux, Shakthi Quick, Quinguard, Quinaltaf, Smash, Flash
LD50 value: 62–137 mg/kg.
7) Phosolone
It is a non systemic contact insecticide and acaricide, effective against wide
spectrum of species.
Formulations: EC 35
Trade names: Zolone

8) Chlorpyriphos
It is a non-systemic contact insecticide very effective against sucking and
chewing insects. It is also recommended against house hold insect pests. It is widely
recommended as seed treatment chemical against white grub and termites.
Formulations: EC 20
Trade names: Dursban, Chloroban, Durmet, Radar
9) Phosphomidon
It is a systemic insecticide having low contact action. It is very effective
against sap sucking insect pests. On application it is absorbed in the plant tissues
within 1-3 hours and is translocated more towards the top. It is less toxic to fish and
more toxic to bees.
Formulations: 40 SL
Trade names: Demecron, Sumidon, Chemidan, Hydan, Phamidon
10) Monocrotophos
It is a systemic insecticide and acaricide with contact action. It has wide range
of susceptibility of insects. It is toxic to bees.
Formulations: 36 SL
Trade names: Monocil, Nuvacron, Monophos, Monochem, Monostar
11) Methyl demeton
It is contact and systemic insecticide and acaricide.It is used against soft
bodied insects, which suck the plant sap.
Formulations: 25 EC
Trade names: Metasystox and Dhanusyatax
12) Dimethoate
It is systemic insecticide and acaricide .It is widely used against sucking insect pests
on various crops.
Formulations: 30 EC
Trade names: Rogor, Celgor, Novogor, Tara 909, roxion

13) Triazophos
It has insecticidal, acaricidal and nematicidal properties with translaminar
action. It is very effective against variety of pests particularly Lepidoptera larvae on
fruits and vegetables.
Formulations: 40 EC
Trade names: Hostathion, Trizocel, Truzo, Suthation
LD50 value: mg/kg
14) Profenophos
It is a broad spectrum non-systemic insecticide. It is recommended against
pest of vegetables. It is highly toxic to birds and fish.
Formulations: 50 EC
Trade names: Curacron, Celcron, Bolero, Carina, Proven
15) Acephate
It is a systemic and contact poison. It has low toxicity and safe to
environment.
Formulations: 75 SP
Trade names: Arthane, Starthane, Orthene
16) Phorate
It is a systemic granular insecticide and also possesses acaricidal properties.
It is very effective against sucking insects and also against maize borers, cut worms,
white grubs etc.
Formulations: 10 G
Trade names: Thimet
LD50 value: 1.6-3.7 mg/kg

SUMMARY SHEET OF ORAGNOPHOSPHATES
S.No. Insecticide Formulation Trade name Mode of
name action
1 Malathion EC 50 and 40D Cythion and Himala
Methyl Folidal, Metacid,
2 EC 50 and 2D
parathion Paratox, Dhanumar
3 Diazinon EC 20 and 5G Basudin
Nuvan, vapona, Doom,
4 Dichlorvos EC 76 and 5G
Divap
EC 35, ULV
5 Fenitrothion 0.05 – 0.1 and Sumithion, Folithion
5D
Ekalux, Shakthi Quick,
EC 25 and 5 G
6 Quinalphos Quinguard, Quinaltaf,
Smash, Flash
7 Phosolone EC 35 Zolone
Dursban, Chloroban,
8 Chlorpyriphos EC 20
Durmet, Radar
Acetyl
Demecron, Sumidon,
choline
9 Phosphomidon 40 SL Chemidan, Hydan,
Esterase
Phamidon
inhibitors
Monocil, Nuvacron,
10 Monocrotophos Monophos, Monochem,
Monostar
Metasystox and
11 Methyl demeton 25 EC
Dhanusyatax
Rogor, Celgor,
12 Dimethoate 30 EC Novogor, Tara 909,
roxion
Hostathion, Trizocel,
13 Triazophos 40 EC
Truzo, Suthation
Curacron, Celcron,
14 Profenophos 50 EC
Bolero, Carina, Proven
Arthane, Starthane,
15 Acephate 75 SP
Orthene
16 Phorate 10 G Thimet

III. CARBAMATES
All carbamates are derivatives of carbamic acid.
Mode of action
 Many of the carbamic esters are insecticidal and a few are effective
molluscicides like organophosphates, the carbamate insecticides interfere in
cholinergic transmission.
 The carbamate enters the synapse and inhibits the acetylcholine-esterase as
a result the acetylcholine contains to depolarize the post synaptic membrane,
causing prolonged stimulation resulting into the failure of the nerve or effector
tissue. Carbamates have an analogous action, carbamylating rather than
phosphorylating the enzyme and the ChE recovers more readily from
carbamates than from organophosphates. Thus, unlike, organophosphates,
they are known as reversible inhibitors
1. Carbaryl
Carbaryl is a contact and stomach insecticide. It is most popular insecticide
because it is effective against a wide range of insects and possesses very low
mammalian toxicity. It is compatible with many pesticides except Bordeaux mixture
lime sulphur and urea. It is not effective against mites.
Formulations: WP 50%, Granule 4% and Dusts 5%
Trade names: Sevin.
2. Propoxur (Arprocarb)
It is a broad spectrum, contact and stomach poison with good knock down
properties. It is effective in controlling house hold pests such as cockroaches,
crickets, flies etc. It has long residual action.
Formulations: 20% EC, 50% WP
Trade names: Baygon, Blattamen, Saphaer
3. Carbofuran
It is a plant systemic broad spectrum and long residual insecticide, miticide
and nematicide. It is recommended as soil insecticides against plant sap sucking and
borer pests.
Formulation: 3G,48F

Trade names: Furadan
4. Carbosulfan.
It is a systemic insecticide and nematicide. It is recommended as seed
dresser insecticide
Formulation: 25 DS
Trade name: Marshal
5. Thiodicarb
It is a insecticide with ovicidal properties, and molluscicide.
Formulation: 75WP
Trade name: Larvin
6. Aldicarb
It is systemic pesticide usually applied in soil as seed furrow, band or
broadcast treatments either pre-plant or at planting as well as post emergence side
dress treatments. It has also possessing acaricidal property and toxic to higher
animals
Formulation: 10G
Trade names: Temik
LD50 value: 0.93 mg/kg
5. Methomyl
It is a systemic with contact and stomach insecticide and nematicide. It is very
effective against a wide variety of pests particularly army worms, cabbage
semilooper, Okra stem fly, fruit borers, leaf defoliators, cotton boll worms, etc.
Formulations: 90 WP,12.5 EC, 40SP
Trade names: Lannate, Dunnate

SUMMARY SHEET OF CARBAMATES
S.No. Insecticide Formulation Trade name Mode of
name action
WP 50%, Granule
1 Carbaryl Sevin
4% and Dusts 5%
Propoxur Baygon, Blattamen,
2 20% EC, 50% WP
(Aprocarb) Saphaer Reversible
3 Carbofuran 3G,48F Furadan Acetyl choline
4 Carbosulfan 25 DS Marshal Esterase
5 Thiodicarb 75 WP Larvin inhibitors
6 Aldicarb 10 G Temik
90 WP,12.5 EC, 40
7 Methomyl Lannate, Dunnate
SP

V.SYNTHETIC PYRETHROIDS
Pyrethrum refers to powdered dried flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerarifolium

and pyrethrins are all toxic constituents of the pyrethrum flowers and pyrethroids are
the synthetic analogues of pyrethrins. Pyrethrum is occupied 80% global botanical
insecticide market. Chrysanthemum cinerarifolium is native of Dalmatian mountains,
Croatia. Kenya is a largest producer of pyrethrum
Pyrethrins are esters formed by combination of two acids i.e., chrysanthemic

acid and pyrethric acid with three alcohols namely pyrethrolone, cinerolone and
jasmolone. The esters of chrysanthemic acid are pyrethrin I, Cinerin I and Jasmolin I
and are combined together known as pyrethrins I. The esters of pyrethric acid are
pyrethrin II, Cinerin II and jasmolin II and are together known as pyrethrins II. These
six active principles together are responsible for toxicity and knockdown action
Synthetic pyrethroids have got the properties of plant derivative pyrethrum as

insecticides but are considerably more stable in light and air. Allethrin was first
synthetic analogue of pyrethroids. They act on tiny channel through which sodium is
pumped to cause excitation of neurons and prevent the sodium channels from
closing, resulting in continual nerve transmission, tremors and eventually death. The
synthetic pyrethroids have extremely high insecticidal activity at extremely low doses
and are bio-degradable in nature. Their activity is most pronounced against
lepidopterous pests and they are very effective against beetle, leaf miner and bugs.
They are very effective against eggs, larval and adult stages of insects. They have
antifeedant and repellent properties. They are not readily washed off from the plants
by rain due to lipophilic characters. These synthetic pyrethroids are very less toxic to
mammals and having a quick knock down activity to insects, the lower toxicity to
mammals and increase safety for the user. Very low application rate of synthetic
pyrethroids as compared to conventional insecticides brings reduced environmental
pollution.
Limitations
 A major limitation of synthetic pyrethroids is that these are generally not
effective as soil insecticide.
 Even at low dosages kill non target species
 Synthetic pyrethroids cause resurgence of several groups of insect pests
especially whiteflies and aphids.
 Rapid development of resistance to synthetic pyrethroids in many insect
species.
 This may be due to high selection pressure exerted by high mortality caused
 by synthetic pyrethroids
 Synthetic pyrethroids are poor Acaricides
Mode of action of synthetic pyrethroids
Axonic Na+ Channel modulators
Synthetic pyrethroids generally act by promoting excessive increases in the
excitability (sensitivity to depolarization) of neurons. This causes rapid and repetitive
firing of neurons, which manifest as tremors, hyperexcitabilty, convulsions and
eventual paralysis. This mode of neurotoxicity is called as excitotoxicity. It resembles
the organochlorines neurotoxicity.
The molecules after reaching the axon of the neuron would go and bind with
the Na gates and starts sending the Na ions from outside of the axon to cytoplasm of
the neuron and simultaneously the K ions would come outside. It leads to
depolarization with crossing of action potential and the impulse starts moving
towards synoptic junction. The continuous opening of the gates leads to continuous
movement of the impulses and leads to loss of energy and respiratory failure. Finally
the insect exposed to death
First generation
First generation pyrethroids are considered to be of low toxicity to people and
other mammals because they are rapidly broken down in the body. First generation
pyrethroids decompose quickly in sunlight and air and thus pose little risk in the
environment but all pyrethroids are toxic to aquatic animals

1) Allethrin
It is contact, stomach and respiratory action and bring quick knock down of
flies and mosquitoes when applied in combination with Piperonyl butoxide.
Trade name: Pynamin
LD50 value: rats 572-1100 mg/Kg for rats and Dermal LD50 >2000 mg/kg
Second generation
Second generation pyrethroids are not acutely toxic to people or other
mammals. These pyrethroids decompose rapidly in sunlight. They thus pose little
threat to the environment, but for the same reason they are not suitable for
agricultural use.
2) Resmethrin
Approximately 20 times more effective than pyrethrum in housefly knock
down, and is not synergized to any appreciable extent with pyrethrum synergists.
Trade name: NRDC – 104, SBP-1382, and FMC – 17370
LD50 value Dermal LD50 2000-3000 mg/kg
3) Bioresmethrin
It is stereoisomer of resmethrin. Appeared in 1967.50 times more effective
than pyrethrum against normal (susceptible to insects) houseflies, and also not
synergized with pyrethrum synergists. Both resmethrin & Bioresmethrin decompose
fairly rapidly on exposure to air & sunlight, so never developed for agricultural use.
Trade name: NRDC-107,FMC –18739, and RU-1148
LD50: 8,600 mg/kg (oral) and 10,000 mg/kg (dermal).
4) Bioallethrin
(d-trans –allethrin) introduced in 1969. More potent than allethrin and readily
synergized, but it is not as effective as resmethrin
Third generation
Third generation pyrethroids do not decompose in sunlight and contain some
of the most powerful insecticides known. Third generation pyrethoids are not highly
toxic to people or other mammals mainly because they decompose rapidly in the
body.

5) Fenvalerate
It is contact insecticide and of broad spectrum in nature. It is stable in sunlight
and has longer residual toxicity.
Formulations: 20 EC
Trade names: Fenvel, Bilfen, Belmark, Sumicidin, Pydrin
6) Permethrin
Contact insecticide, light stable, but poor knock down. First agricultural
pyrethroids because of their exceptional insecticidal activity (0.11 kg a.i/ha) and their
photo stability.
Formulations: 25 EC and 5% smoke generation
Trade names: Ambush, pounce, pramex
LD50 value: Acute oral LD50 : 7000 mg/kg, Dermal LD50: >5100 mg/kg
Fourth generation
Offer the most resistance to exposure to sunlight and air and, therefore, are
more persistent. This group is more toxic to people than other pyrethroids and
therefore requires more care in use. More stable in the environment
7) λ cyhalothrin
Non-systemic insecticide with contact and stomach action, and repellent
properties.gives rapid knockdown and long residual activity. It is an insecticide and
acaricide used to control a wide range of pests.
Formulations: 2.5 EC, 5% EC
Trade names: Kung-Fu,Reeva, Charge, Excaliber, Grenade, Hallmark, Karate,
Matador, Samurai and Sentinel.
8) Cyfluthrin
It is a non-systemic contact and stomach poison,with rapid knock down effect.
It is for control of chewing and sucking insects on crops. Cyfluthrin is also used in
public health situations and for structural pest control.
Formulations: 5 EC, 10% EC
Trade names: Contur, Laser, Responsar, Tempo
LD50 value: 869 - 1271 mg/kg

9) Cypermethrin
It is stomach and contact insecticide. It is very effective against different types
of pests on various crops.
Formulations: 10 EC, 25 EC
Trade names: Cyper guard, Ripcord, Cymbush and Cyper kill
LD50 value: ha Oral LD50 303-4123 MG /KG, dermal more than 2400mg/kg
10) Fenpropathrin
It is contact insecticide and of broad spectrum in nature.It is extremely toxic to
fish, wildlife.and aquatic organisms. It have acaricidal and miticidal property.
Formulations: 2.4 EC, 10 or 20% EC.
Trade names: Danitol, Rody and Meothrin
LD50 value:54 mg/kg
11) Flucythrinate
Flucythrinate is a synthetic pyrethroid used to control insect pests in apples,
cabbage, field corn, head lettuce and pears, and to control Heliothis spp. in cotton.
Trade names: AASTAR, AC 222705, Cybolt, Fuching Jujr, OMS 2007, and Pay-Off.
LD50 value: 81 mg/kg .dermal LD50 in rabbits of greater than 1000 mg/kg
12) Decamethrin (Deltamethrin)
It is more potent than any other insecticide. It has also proved effective even against
insects resistant to conventional insecticides. It is contact and stomach insecticide.
Formulations: 2.8 EC, 2.5% WP
Trade names: Decis, Decaguard, Deltex
LD50 value:135mg/kg
13) Fluvalinate
It is a insecticide and acaricide with stomach and contact activity in target insects. It
is used as a broad spectrum insecticide.
Formulations: 25 EC
Trade names: Klartan, Mavrik, Mavrik Aqua Flow, Spur and Yardex
LD50 value: 1,050 to 1,110 mg/kg
14) Fenfluthrin: It is a very potent recent synthetic pyrethroid against a various
groups of insects and mites. Highly toxic to Daphnia spp. (Aquatic Invertebrate)
Trade Names: Bayticol, Bayvarol, Baynac

SUMMARY SHEET OF SYNTHETIC PYRETHROIDS
S.No. Insecticide Trade name Mode of action

name
Allethrin
1 Pynamin
NRDC – 104, SBP-1382, and FMC –
2 Resmethrin
17370
NRDC-107,FMC –18739, and RU-
3 Bioresmethrin
1148
Fenvel, Bilfen, Belmark, Sumicidin,
4 Fenvalerate
Pydrin
Permethrin
5 Ambush, pounce, pramex
Kung-Fu,Reeva, Charge, Excaliber,
6 λ cyhalothrin Na+ gated channel
Grenade, Hallmark, Karate
modulators
7 Cyfluthrin Contur, Laser, Responsar, Tempo
Cypermethrin Cyper guard, Ripcord, Cymbush and
8
Cyper kill
9 Fenpropathrin Danitol, Rody and Meothrin
Flucythrinate AASTAR, AC 222705, Cybolt,
10
Fuching Jujr, OMS 2007, and Pay-Off
Decamethrin
11 Decis, Decaguard, Deltex
(Deltamethrin)
Fluvalinate Klartan, Mavrik, Mavrik Aqua Flow,
12
Spur and Yardex
13 Fenfluthrin Bayticol, Bayvarol, Baynac

NOVEL INSECTICIDES
I. Neonicotinoids
They represent a novel and distinct chemical class of insecticides with
remarkable chemical and biological properties. Similar to nicotines in activity partially
to structure. Imidacloprid and other neonicotinoids interact with acetyl choline binding
site of nicotinic Ach receptor which cause excitation and eventually paralysis leading
to death of insects. These are selective and safe to non target organisms
1) Imidacloprid
Systemic insecticide with translaminar activity and with contact and stomach
action. Used as a seed dressing, soil application and foliar application against
sucking insects including leaf hoppers, plant hoppers, aphids, thrips and whitefly,
also effective against soil insects, termites. It is highly toxic to birds.
Formulations: 17.8 SL ,70 WS
Trade names: Confidor, Gaucho, Admire, Merit, Premier, Stalone. Tatamida,Maratho
Provado LD50 value: 450 mg/kg
2) Acetamiprid
It is a systemic insecticide with contact and stomach action. Used as a soil and foliar
application against homoptera especially aphid and leafhoppers. Thysonaptera and
Lepidoptera.
Formulations: 20 SP
Trade names: Pride, Assail Intruder, Profil, Supreme
LD50 value:>2000 mg/kg
3) Thiomethoxam
Contact and stomach poison with translaminar and systemic movement used
as a seed treatment and foliar application against sucking insects . It has very strong
effect on viral transmitting insects.
Formulations: 25 WG, 70 WS
Trade names: Actara, Cruiser, Crux, Flagship, Meridian, Adage, Rinova
4) Clothianidin: It is systemic and translaminar in action It shows inhibitory action on
oviposition and feeding.
Formulations: 50 WG
Trade names: Dantop, Celeso
LD50 value: >5000 mg/kg
5) Thiacloprid
Used as a foliar spray against sucking pests such as aphids, thrips, whitefly,
beetles and leaf miner. It act as an acute and stomach poison.
Formulations: 36 WG, 70 WG
Trade names: Calypso, Bariard, Alanto
LD50 value: 500mg/kg
Phenyl pyrazoles (Fiproles)
1) Fipronil
GABA receptors is the target site for fipronil. Blockage of GABA gated
chloride channel reduces neuronal inhibition which leads to hyper exitation of the
central nervous system, convulsions and death of an target pest. Broad spectrum
systemic insecticide with contact and stomach poison activity. Used as a foliar
application against stem borer, leaf miner, hoppers, root worm and mites
Formulations: 0.3 G, 5 SC
Trade names: Regent, Front line, Tremidor, Zoom, Icon Tempo, Bilgran
II. Macrocyclic lactones
1. Spinosyns - Spinosad
The extract of the fermentation broth that contains spinosad is produced by
the microorganism, Saccharopolyspora spinosa. The primary components are
spinosyn A and spinosyn D.
Spinosad kills insects by causing rapid excitation by activation of nicotinic
acetylcholine receptors of the insect nervous system, leading to involuntary muscle
contractions, prostration with tremors, and paralysis. It also effects GABA receptor
functioning. Spinosad is a contact and stomach poison with some translaminar
movement in leaf tissue.
Formulations: 45 SC, 2.5 WSC
Trade names: Tracer, Spintor, Precise, Success, Naturalyte, Laser, Credence
Caribstar,
Boomerang, and Conserve

2. Avermectins
Avermectins form a new class of compounds having nematicidal, miticidal and
insecticidal activity. These are produced by the soil microorganism Streptomyces
avermitilis. Avermectins activate the GABA gated chloride channel, causing an
inhibitory effect, which, when excessive, results in the insect‟s death. This channel
normally blocks reactions in some nerves, preventing excess stimulation of CNS.
Emamectin benzoate and abamectin are the two major compounds in this group.
contact and stomach poisons. These are used as bait, foliar application against
Homoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and mites
Emamectin benzoate
It is non systemic insecticide which penetrates by translaminar movement and
effective against Lepidopterous pests It has low toxicity to non target organisms and
environment.
Formulations: EC 5, SG 5
Trade names: Proclaim
LD50 value: 300 mg/kg.
Abamectin
It is a broad spectrum insecticide acting on mites of Tetranychidae,
Eeriophyidae and Tarsonemidae. It is also effective against tobacco hornworm,
diamondback moth, tobacco budworm, serpentine leaf miner and less potent against
certain Homoptera (aphids) and Lepidoptera. It is less toxic to beneficial arthropods
Formulations: EC 1.8
Trade names: Avid, Agrimec, Vertimec, Argi-mek, Affirm and Avert
3. Oxadiazines
Indoxacarb
The active ingredient indoxacarb works by inhibiting sodium ion entry into
nerve cells, resulting in paralysis and death of targeted pests. Indoxacarb is a
stomach poison with slight contact action. Indoxacarb affects insects from direct
exposure and through ingestion of treated foliage/fruit. Once indoxacarb is absorbed
or ingested, feeding cessation occurs almost immediately. It kills by binding to a site
on sodium channels and blocking the flow of sodium ions into nerve cells. The result
is impaired nerve function, feeding cessation, paralysis, and death.
Formulations: SC 14.5, WDG 30
Trade names: Avaunt, Steward.Torando
4. Thio-Urea Derivatives
Diafenthiuron
It is new types of thiourea derivative which acts specially on sucking pests
such as mites, whiteflies and aphids. Diafenthiuron is photochemically converted
within a few hours in sunlight to its carbodimiide derivative which is much more
powerful acaricide/insecticide than diafenthiuron. It is a inhibitor of oxidative
phosphorylation, via distruption of ATP formation (inhibitor of ATP synthase). It acts
as Acaricide cum-insecticide as a foliar sprays against mites, sucking pests,
lepidopteran insect pests
Formulations: 50 WP
Trade names: Polo
LD50 value: 2068 mg/kg.
5. Pyridine Azomethines
Pymetrozine
is a new insecticide highly active and specific against sucking insect pests.
Pymetrozine is the only representative of the pyridine azomethine. It has high degree
of selectivity, low mammalian toxicity and safety to birds, fish and non-target
arthropods. When the insertion of the stylets of sucking insects into the pymetrozine
treated plant tissues, stylets are almost immediately blocked. The sucking insects die
by starvation a few days later (feeding depressant)
Formulations: 50 WDG
Trade names: Full fill, Chess
6. Pyrroles
Pyrroles are oxidative phosphorylation inhibitors. It works by uncoupleing
oxidative phosphorylation from electron transport process in mitochondria.( Oxidative
phosphorylation is the process through which ATP is synthesized in plants and
animals). It interferes with formation of ATP which is essential for muscle contraction.
Chlorfenapyr
It is a miticide and insecticide. Chlorfenapyr has broad spectrum of activity
against many species of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Acarina and Thysanoptera. It is
mainly stomach poison and has contact action also.

Formulations: SC 3
Trade names: Pirate ,Pylon
Formamidines
Formamidines are represented by Chlordimeform and Amitraz with very
unique actions for the control of phytophagous mites, ticks and certain insects
(Lepidoptera and Hemiptera) by acting as agonists of octapamine receptors
octapamine act as neurotransmitter,neuromodulator and is involved in energy
metabolism and stress responses.
1. Chlordimeform
It has marked translaminar and systemic activity. It shows a strong repellent-
antifeedant action on both lepidopterous larvae and mites. It has good ovicidal
activity. Non toxic to non target organisms except predaceous mites.
Formulations: 50 SP, 4 EC
Trade names: Galecron, Fundal, Fundal, Spike
2. Amitraz:
It is a non systemic insecticide and acaricide with contact and respiratory
action It is used to control red spider mites, leaf miners, scale insects, and aphids.
Formulations: 50 SP, 20 EC
Trade names: Acarac, Amitraze,Baam
LD50 value: 523- 800 mg/kg
Ketoenols
Ketoenols act as insecticide and acaricides against against all developmental
stages and is a valuable new tool in the resistance management. They are tetronic
acid insecticides with acaricidal action. Their mode of action is to inhibit lipogenesis
in treated insects, resulting in decreased lipid contents, growth inhibition of younger
insects, and reduced ability of adult insects to reproduce.
1. Spiromesifen
Spiromesifen is effective against whitefly, spider mites and psyllids. It is is
particularly active against juvenile stages. However, it also strongly affects fecundity
of mite (and whitefly adults by transovariole effects.
Formulations: 2 SC, 4 F

Trade names: Oberon, Forbid
2. Spirodiclofen
Spirodiclofen is a selective, non-systemic foliar insecticide and acaricide. It is
effective against mites and sanjose scales.
Formulations: 2 SC,
Trade names: Envidor
3. Spirotetramat
Spirotetramat is effective against aphids, whiteflies, scales, mealybugs, psylla,
phylloxera, thrips, and mites on crops like citrus, vegetables, grapes, potato, other
tuberous crops, livestock commodities, and greenhouses/nurseries.
Formulations: SC 14.5, SC 22.4
Trade names: Movento, Ultor
Diamides
1.Chlorantraniliprole
Chlorantraniliprole is a novel anthranilic diamide insecticide, efficacious for
control of lepidopteran insect pests as well as some species in the orders
Coleoptera, Diptera and Hemiptera. It is active on chewing pest insects primarily by
ingestion and secondarily by contact. It exhibits larvicidal activity as an orally
ingested toxicant by targeting and disrupting the Ca 2 + balance . Chlorantraniliprole
activates ryanodine receptors via stimulation of the release of calcium stores from
the sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells (i.e for chewing insect pests) causing
impaired regulation,paralysis and ultimately death of sensitive species. It has low
mammalian toxicity. Chlorantraniliprole can be used as foliar spray on insect pests of
fruits and vegetable crops@ 10 to 60 g/ha. Trade names: Coragen 200SC and
Altacor 35 WG
2.Cyantraniliprole
Cyantraniliprole is another diamide efficacious against a cross spectrum of
chewing and sucking pests. It works as toxicant in ingestion orally and has systemic
activity. It targets and disrupts Ca 2 + balance in nervous system. It is formulated as

OD (Oil Dispersion) and SC (Suspension Concentrate) and generally applied @ 10-
100 g a.i/ha
Trade name : Cyazypyr
3. Flubendiamide
It is a new lepidoperan insecticide. Acts by ingestion and disrupts Ca2+
balance in the nervous system resulting in rapid cessation of feeding and extended
residual control of important lepidopteran pests.
Formulations: 240 WG, 480 SC
Trade names: Fame, Belt
Mode of action of insecticides
S.No. Group of insecticide Mode of action

Disintegration of epithelial cells of the
01 Arsenic compounds midgut and clumping of the chromatin of the
nuclei
02 Chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT) Na+ gated channel modulators
03 Cyclodienes (Endosulfon) GABA gated Cl- channel blockers
04 Carbamates Reversible Ach Esterage enzyme inhibitors
05 Organophosphates Irreversible Ach Esterage enzyme inhibitors
06 Synthetic pyrethroids Na+ gated channel modulators
Nicotinic Acetyl choline (Ach) Receptors
07 Neonicotinoids
modulators
08 Phenyl pyrozoles GABA gated Cl- channel blockers
09 Spinosyns Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor modulators
10 Avermectins GABA gated Cl- channel agonists
11 Oxadizines Na+ gated channel blockers
Inhibitor of ATP synthase (Inhibition of
12 Thio urea derivatives
Oxidative phosphorylation)
13 Pyridine azomethines Stylet blockers
Inhibitor of ATP synthase (Inhibition of
14 Pyrroles
Oxidative phosphorylation)
================================================================

LECTURE NO: 14
INSECT GROWTH REGULATORS & RECENT METHODS OF PEST CONTROL
================================================================
I. Chitin synthesis inhibitors

Chitin synthesis inhibitors disrupt moulting by blocking the formation of chitin,
the building block of insect exoskeleton. Without the ability to synthesize chitin,
moulting is incomplete, resulting in malformed insects that soon die. It suppresses
egg-laying and causes egg sterility in treated adults through secondary hormonal
activity
Examples
S. Name Mode of action Tradename LD50
No &Formulation
mg/kg
A. Benzoyl Phenyl Ureas group
1 Diflubenzuron Stomach and contact Dimilin 4640
poison that acts by
. inhibiting chitin synthesis 25 WP
so it interferes with
formation of cuticle
2 Flufenoxuron Broad spectrum Insect and Cascade 3000
mite growth
regulator with contact and 10 WDC
stomach action
3 Chlorfluazuron Chlorfluazuron is used in Atabron 8500
subterranean termite
baiting stations 5 SC
4 Triflumuron Broad spectrum Insect Alsystin , >5000

growth regulator Baycidal
Starycide
25 WP
5 Teflubenzuron It is effective against Nomolt,Dart, 2250
Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Nemolt
Diptera, Hymenoptera
Aleyrodidae, and 15 SC
Psyllidae
6 Novaluron It acts mainly by ingestion, Rimon 5000
but has
shown some contact 10 EC
activity. It does not have
ovicidal activity, but a high
percentage of
mortality of first instars
hatching from eggs laid
on sprayed foliage occurs
7 Flufenoxuron Contact and stomach, Cascade ˃3000
inhibits chitin synthesis Casette
in nymphal mites and Tenope
lepidopteran larvae.
Compatible with α- 10%EC, 5%EC
Cypermethrin
B. Thiadizine group
1 Buprofezin Contact and stomach, Applaud 2198
persistent chitin synthesis
inhibitor with miticidal 25 SC, 70 WP
action.
Effective against
specifically on Homopteran
pests
II. Juvenile Hormone (JH) Mimics
The possibility that JH analogs may have potential as insect control was first
recognized by Williams (1965). The compounds showing JH activity, „Juvenoids‟.
Four types of JHs (JH= 0, I, II, and III) are known with their structural variations.JH-0
is known from the eggs of Manduca sexta only.JH-I & JH-II are from all lepidopterans
and are said to be morphogenetic in action i.e to retain the larval characters.JH-III
present in all insect orders and are said to be gonado tropic i.e. for stimulating the
ovaries to mature in the female. The so called ‘Paper factor’ (Karel Slama & C.M.
Williams , 1966) against the bug Pyrrhocoris apterus ( Heteroptera ) was
subsequently traced to be balsam fir trees, Abis balsamea from the wood pulp of
which the paper towels were manufactured and scientifically named „Juvabione‟.
These findings opened up the flood gates for JH research chemists to get busy in
synthesizing JH mimics (Juvenoids).
Mode of Action
 Antimorphic effect: Do not allow Metamorphosis to take palace there by
forcing larva to continue as a larva. There fore if the Juvenoids are
provided exogenously the larvae will undergo an extra larval moult
(change in to super larva) or moult in to defective intermediate forms
which may suffer from a failure to successfully moult, feed or mate.
 Larvicidal effect
 Ovicidal effect.
 Diapause disrupting effect
 Embryogenesis inhibiting effect
Juvenoids acts as ovicides when applied directly on eggs and indirectly on
ovipositing females. They block embryogenic development of blastokinesis stage.
When applied before hatching, they show morphogentic effect at the time of
metamorphosis. They inhibit ecdysone synthesis by effecting prothorasic glands. If
applied to the last instar larvae, they could prevent pupa from entering in to
diapause. They could terminate pupal diapause by activating the inactive PTG of
diapausing pupa
Juvenoids
Juvabione (Fernesol - extracted from excreta of Tenebrio sp)
Methoprene (Altosid )
Hydroprene (Gentrol, Altozar)
Kinoprene (Enstar)
III. Anti JH or JH Agonists or Precocenes
Anti-juvenile hormones found in plants that induce reversible precocious
metamorphosis and sterilization in insects by suppressing the function of the corpora
allata gland Precocenes are the compounds which would antagonize the JH activity
and dearrange the insect development. These compounds induce the precocious
metamorphosis of immature insects. Precocenes affect insect diapause,
reproduction and behaviour. These compounds first extracted from the plant
Ageratum houstonium. It contains two simple chromene compounds precocene –I
and II
 Fenoxycarb (Insegar 50 % WP, Award, Comply Logic, Torus, Pictyl and
Varikill) @ 0.025 %
 Pyriproxyfen (Tiger 10 % EC, Distance, Esteem, Archer Knack, Sumilarv and
Admiral) @ 0.0125 %
IV. Ecdysone or Moulting Hormone (MH) Agonists
MH contains two hormones, α -Ecdysone and β - Ecdysone. The α -
ecdysone is a prohormone produced by PTG which is converted into β - ecdysone in

the peripheral tissues of the gland and is also called 20-Hydroxy Ecdysone, which
actually brings about molting in insects and is the true MH. Synthetic analogues of
ecdysones are called ecdysoids .After absorption into haemolymph it binds the
ecdysone receptor proteins which initiates moulting process.The normal moulting
process is disrupted. Larvae is prevented from shedding of old cuticle and it will die
due to dehydration and starvation.
a) Tebufenozide (Mimic, Confirm and Romdan)
b) Halofenozide (Mach)
c) Methoxyfenozide (Prodigy)
Recent methods of pest control
I. Insect Repellents
Chemicals which cause insects to move away from their source are referred
to as repellents (or) Chemically that prevent insect damage to plants (or) animals by
rendering them unattractive, unpalatable (or) offensive are called repellents.
Desirable traits of a good repellent
a) It should be effective for a long time and on a wide range of insects.
b) Weathering effects on it should be the least.
c) Should not be toxic (or) irritating to man and animals.
d) Should leave an acceptance odour, taste and touch
e) Should be harmless to clothes.
f) Should be cheap
Types of repellents
Repellents are broadly classified as Physical repellents and Chemical repellents
A) Physical repellents
These produce repellence by physical means and are of the following kinds
i) Contact stimuli repellents
These are substances (Such as dusts, granules, water, oils, leaf hairs, spines
and waxes) that influence the surface texture of the plants to produce a disagreeable
effect on the tactile sense of the insects.
ii. Auditory repellents
Theses employ sound to ward off insects. For instance, an amplified sound
has been found effective in repelling mosquitoes, pyralid moths and files.

iii. Visual repellents
White light normally attracts insects but the yellow colour light is the least
attractive and to some extent acts as a visual repellent to insects.
iv. Excitatory repellents
Chemicals such as pyrethrum, DDT, BHC etc., which excite the insect‟s tarsi
by stimulating the sensory nerves and force them to leave the treated surface.
v. Feeding repellents
Substances that inhibit feeding in insects are called feeding repellents (or)
Antifeedent.
B. Chemical repellents
These are chemicals that affect tactile, olfactory (or) gustatory receptors of
insects and could be plant origin (or) synthetic as follows.
i). Repellents of plant origin
The oil of citronella remained a commonly used mosquito repellent and still
continues to be a constituent of a popular brand of commercial mosquito repellent,
Odomos. The oil is extracted from the lemon grass, Cymbopogon nardus and
contains citronellol, geraniol (as the main constituents), boreneol and terpenes (in
small amounts) of which the first two are regarded as the main repellents for
mosquitoes. Pyrethrum is another plant product which not only acts as an insecticide
but in low concentrations, also as a repellent for blood – sucking insects. Clothes
impregnated with some pyrethroids have been found to afford protection against the
attack of many insects vectors of diseases like Aedes aegypi, Anopheles
quardrimaculaius etc.,
ii). Synthetic repellents
Diethyl toluamide, protects the bearer against mosquitoes, ticks, fleas and
biting files. The others Bordeaux mixture, Dimethyl pthalate, and Indalone acts as
repellents for insects.
Uses of repellents
1. They can be used on the body in some formulation to ward off insects.
2. They can be used as fumigants in an enclosed area of insects.
3. They can be used as dusts and sprays on domestic animal to protect them from
noxious biting and blood – sucking insects.

4. They can be used to drive insects from their natural breeding grounds to areas
treated with an insecticide (or) a chemosterilant to kill (or) sterilize them
II. Insect Antifeedants
Antifeedant is a chemical that inhibits feeding but does not kill the insect
directly; the insect often may remain on the treated plant material and possibly may
die of starvation. These are also caused as “Feeding deterrents” There are three
main sites for the sense of taste in insects located in the mouth, on the tarsi and on
the antennae. Insect feeding deterrents may be perceived either by stimulation of
specialized receptors (or) by distortion of the normal function of neurons which
perceive phagostimulating compounds. Since the sugars are very important
components of an insects sustained feeding, the inhibition of its receptors is an
effective antifeedant action
Groups of antifeedants
a) Triazines
Acetanilide.is an odourless and tasteless solid and not phytotoxic and inhibits
feeding of most chewing surface feeders such as caterpillars, beetles and
cockroaches.
b) Organotins
Triphenyl tin acetate (Brestan) was one of the earliest organotins that was
found to have an antifeedant effect on the foliage – feeding insects such as the
cotton leaf worm, colorado potato beetle, larvae of potato tuber moth, Agrotis ipsilon
and grasshoppers.
c) Carbamates
Several thiocarbamates inhibit the feeding of Mexican beetle, Colorado potato
beetle and japanese beetle. The carbamate, arprocarb (Propoxur) is systemic
antifeedant against the boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis.
d) Botanical Extracts
i) Pyrethrum
From the flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium, is not only insecticide
but in small doses also acts as an antifeedant for the biting fly, Glossina.
ii) Margosa (Neem)
First reported by Pradhan et al. in 1962, the extracts of the leaves and fruits of
neem trees (Azadirachta indica, family Meliaceae) act as very effective antifeedants

against a large number of insects, particularly the desert locusts, Schistocerca
gregaria, which is a very destructive polyphagous insect.
iii) Apple Factor

An Apple of the genus, Malus yields phenolic substance, phlorizin which
stimulates probing in the apple feeding aphids (Aphis poni) but acts as a feeding
deterrent for the non- apple feeding aphids (Myzus persicae).
iv) Solanum alkaloids
Alkaloids (tomatine, solanine) extracted from some species of Solanum
reduce feeding and survival of potato leaf hopper, Empoasca devastans. Besides the
above, several other substances like non – essential amino acids,
tannins, lignins etc. act as antifeedants to many insect pests.
Advantages of Antifeedants:
1. Antifeedants affect only the phytophagous insects and so do not harm the
beneficial parasitoids, predators and pollinators.
2. As the pest is not immediately killed by antifeedent, its parasites and predators
continue to feed on it, thrive, and keep it under control.
3. Antifeedants produce no phytotoxicity (or) pollution.
Disadvantages of Antifeedants:
1.Only the chewing type of insects are effected by antifeedants, the sucking pests
remain unaffected.
2. New growths of plant are not protected.
3. As the insects are not immediately killed, they could move to untreated parts (or)
other plants and damage them.
4. Antifeedants are not effective enough to become a sole control measure. They
could only be promising when included in the integrated control schemes
III. Insect Attractants
Chemicals that cause insects to make oriented movements towards their
source are called insect attractants. They influence both gustatory (taste) and
olfactory (smell) receptors (or) sensilla
Types of Attractants
A. Pheromones
B. Natural food lures

C. Oviposition lures
D. Poison baits
A) Pheromones
In 1959, Karlson and Butenandt coined the term pheromone. For a Chemical
that is secreted into the external environment by an animal and that elicits a specific
response in a receiving individual of the same species. It is also referred to as
“ectohormone”. Depending on their mode of action pheromones are divided into two
general classes.
i) One which gives a releaser effect – an immediate and reversible behavioural
change is produced in the receiving animal.
ii) One which gives a primer effect - a chain of physiological changes is triggered off
in the receiving animal. Eg : Gustatory stimulation, controlling caste determination
and reproductive control in social Hymenoptera (Ants, and Bees), Isoptera
(Termites). Behaviour – releasing pheromones are typically odorous and act directly
on the central nervous system of the receiving animal. Eg: Alarm, trail following,
aggregation for mating, feeding (or) oviposition, The pheromones that promote
aggregation are sex pheromones and aggregation pheromones.
i) Sex pheromones
A Sex pheromone released by one sex only triggers off a series of behaviour
patterns in the other sex of the same species and thus facilitates mating. The male
insects respond to the odorous chemical released by the female. In certain species
of insects the males are known to produce the sex pheromone which attracts the
females.
Ex: In the cotton boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis
The sex pheromones are specific in their biological activity, the males
responding only to a specific pheromone of the female of the same species, and
their reactions are directed towards the air currents carrying the odour. The time of
release of the pheromones by the females and response by male to them appears to
be specific for each species. Effective distances for sex pheromones depend on the
threshold concentration for male stimulation and release rate from the female.
The following sex pheromones have been isolated and identified.
Bombycol Silkworm, Bombyx mori
Gyplure Gypsy moth, Perthetria dispar
Gossyplure Pink bollworm, Pectionophora gossypiella
Trimedlure Meditarrnian fruifly, Ceratitis capitapa
Cuelure Melon fly, Bactroceracucurbitae
Litlure Tobacco cutworm, Spodoptera litura
Helilure Red gram pod borer, Helicoverpa. armigera
Amlure Chaffer beetle, Amphimallon sp
Looplure Cabbage looper ,Trichoplusia ni
Ferrolure Coconut Red Palm Weevil , Rhynchophorus ferrugineus
Leucilure Brinjal Shoot and Fruit Borer Leucinodes orbonalis
Sex pheromones in insect pest management
1) Monitoring of insect pests
Traps baited with synthetic sex pheromones is useful in estimating population
and detecting early stages of pests. Four pheromone traps per acre is
recommended.
2) Mass-trapping: (Male annihilation technique)
Large number of pheromones baited traps can be used in the fields to capture
male moths of newly emerged and reduce the number of males for mating.
3) Control of pest by mating disruption
By permeating the atmosphere with higher concentration of the pheromone
the opposite sex is rendered confused and unable to locate their mates.
Merits
1. The pheromones are species specific.
2. They are safe to natural enemies and environment.
3. They require in small doses.
4. They are economical and compatible with other components of IPM.
Demerits
1.Synthetic pheromones are available only for a few pest species.
2.Replacement of pheromone lures at regular interval is required for good catch
of moths.
3.Pheromone traps attracts only target pest even when crop is attracted by
many other pests.
4. Pheromone reception and dispersal are not understood even for most
important pests.
ii) Aggregation pheromones
The pheromone released by one sex only elicits response in both sexes of a
species. In scolytid (or) bark beetles the males secrete the pheromone into the hind
gut which gets incorporated in to the faceal pellets and through them attracts flying
males and females towards the galleries. In Trogoderma granaria mixture of fatty
acid esters and methyl and oleate function as aggregation pheromones.
iii) Trial marking pheromone
At low concentrations mostly used by foraging ants and white ants. In ants
Formica rupa, formic acid while termites, Zootermopsis nevadensis hexanoic acid
functions as the trial marking pheromone.
iv) Alarm pheromones
These substances are elaborated by mandibular glands, sting appartus, anal
glands which typically results in fight or aggression. Dolichoderine ants – release a
fruity odour by the worker that results in a erratic behavour of workers, when this is
discharged into mandibles onto an intruding insects that becomes marked as
agreessor.
B. Natural Food lures
These are Chemicals present in plant and animal hosts that attract (lure) insects
for feeding. They stimulate olfactory receptors and may be
1. A floral scent in case of the nectar feeding insects
2. Essential oils for the phytophagous insects.
3. Decomposing products for the scavenger
4. Carbon dioxide, lactic acid and water for the blood sucking insects.
C. Oviposition Lures
These are chemicals that govern the selection of suitable sites for oviposition
by the adult female for example, P-methyl acetophenone attracts adult female rice
stem borers to oviposit.
D. Poison Baits
Poison baits are a mixture of food lures and insecticides. The effort is made to
make the bait more attractive to insects than their natural food and also a smaller
quantity should be able to attract the largest number of insects. Baits are used when
for some reason spraying (or) dusting of insecticides is not practicable. For instance,
when insects live hidden under the soil, inside the fruits and vegetables (or) for
household insects like ants, cockroaches and houseflies.
Advantages of Attractants
1. Attractants do not kill the insects and, therefore, do not disrupt the ecosystem (or)
food chain.

2. They are specific for some insects and so do not affect the non-targets.
3. They can be used to mass trap the insects to be subsequently killed by
insecticides.
4. Since they are not long lasting, they do not cause environmental pollution.
5. They can be employed to misguide the insects to wrong host plants, wrong mating
partners (or) wrong oviposition sites where by their number will go down by
starvation (or) by producing unfertilized eggs.
Disadvantages of Attractants
1. Insects can always find untreated hosts, so their number may not be affected.
2. The attractants cannot be relied as a sole control measure – can only be used in
integrated control programmes.
IV. Genetic Insect Control
The basic principle in genetic control of insects is to utilize factors which will
lead to reproductive failure. Genetic control of insects is not limited to the use of
insects sterilized by radiation or chemicals but also include cytoplasmic
incompatibility, induced sterility, hybrid sterility etc.
A) Induced Sterility
i) Sterile male release technique
When a sterile male mates with normal female there will be no progeny. If
adequate number of vigorous and competitive sterile males is introduced
systematically into natural population the population will soon cease to exist. This
theory of Male Sterile Technique was conceived by E F Knipling as early as 1937
and was published in 1955. He suggested two procedures,
1) Rearing, Sterilization and Release (@ 9:1 sterile to fertile insects) of sterile insects
to compete with the normal population.
2) Sterilizing a portion of the natural population
Eg: Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) a cattle pest was completely eradicated
from Curacao Islands and south eastrun parts of USA by male sterilization by
irradiation with gamma rays (C060).
Limitation: Applicable only to species, where the female mates only once in its
lifetime.

ii) Aspermia
Inactivation of sperms. In some cases, as in mosquitoes the sperm of their
compatible male is blocked before is could fuse with the nucleus of the egg of native
female. This principle was employed in eradicating Culux pipensquinquifasciatus in
Rangoon. The possibility is, the incompatible strain could be identified, multiplied in
large numbers and released in infested areas for eradicating the pests.
iii) Infecundity: Sterile eggs by dominant lethal mutations
iv) Use of non-mutagenic chemicals: To induce sterility by preventing mating by
developing monogamous females, inhibition of spermato/oogenesis or by sperm
inactivation
B) Cytoplasmic Incompatibility
Sterility is due to a cytoplasmic factor transmitted through the egg, which kills
the sperm of incompatible male after its entry into the egg. Crosses between certain
populations give no off-spring at all, in other cases females of one population may
cross with males of another population and off-spring are produced, but the
reciprocal cross is completely sterile. Recently it has been observed that in the case
of some species of insects, there exist different strains with different genetic set up.
When males of one such strain mate with females of another such strain, the
offspring fails to develop because of incompatibility between the genes of the egg
and the sperm. At an interspecific level the sperm of heterospecific males are often
disadvantaged in competition with those of conspecific males.
C) Hybrid Sterility
In some insect cross-types or races which produce fertile females but sterile
males among progeny. These sterile hybrids are excellent material for use in insect
control. These sterile males are more vigorous and competitive than the sterile
males produced after radiation or chemosterilization.
D) Population Replacement
The ability of disease transmission of vectors ie replacement of specific vector
populations can as well be changed by genetic methods.
E) Auto-Sterilization
Sterilization of native insects in their natural environment by using
chemosterilants along with the species specific attatractants / lures/ bait traps.

Through this both the sexes can be sterilized, and also negate the reproductive
ability of those insects which have escaped the lure/bait treatment.
F) GM Crops: Bt Cotton
Abies balsamea Pyrrhocoris apterus
================================================

LECTURE NO: 15
APPLICATION TECHNIQUES OF SPRAY FLUIDS AND SAFE USE OF
PESTICIDES, POISONING, ANTIDOTES, INSECTICIDE ACT
================================================================
The pesticide application plays important role in pest management. The main
purpose of pesticide application technique is to cover the target species and safety
to the non target organisms and the environment. The complete knowledge of pest is
essential for correct time of application. Most of the pesticides are applied as sprays.
A) Spraying is classified on the basis of the droplet size of the spray as
Spray Type Droplet size
Very Coarse spray > 500 μ
Coarse spray 400 μ – 500 μ
Medium spray 250 μ – 400 μ
Fine spray 100 μ – 250 μ
Mist 50 μ – 100 μ
Fog 5 μ – 50 μ
Aerosol 0.1 μ – 5 μ
B) On the basis of Volume of spray fluid per unit area, Spraying is classified as
i) High volume spraying (HVS) or Full Cover spraying or conventional spraying
Pesticide is diluted with water and droplet size is larger. Spray fluid
requirement is 500 – 1000 lit/ha in case of field crops (1500 – 2000 lit/ha – Orchard
crops).
Advantages
1. Meant for chewing insects.
2. Drift is very less
Disadvantages
1. Less area is covered
2. More water is required
3. More time, labour and cost of application due to labour cost
2. Low volume spray (LVS)
The low volume sprays are 8-25 times more concentrated than high volume
spraying. Spray fluid requirement ranges from 12- 125 lit/ha. The droplet size is 70 –
150 μ.

Advantages
1. Less time and less cost are involved in transport of water and hence the cost of
application is minimized
2. More area is covered (6 – 8 acres in a day)
3. Control of pests is in time
Disadvantages
1. Loss of chemical due to the drift
2. Application of LVS is preferred when wind velocity is less than 8 km/hour.
iii). Ultra low volume spray (ULVS)
ULV sprayer or air craft with special nozzles require 0.5 - 5.6 lit/hac with
droplet size of 20 – 70 μ.
Advantages
1. Very less time is required
2. No water requirement
3. Labour cost is less
4. Larger area covered (8 ha/day).
Disadvantages
1. Drift is more
2. More hazardous
3. Special foundations are needed
4. High cost
iv. Aerial spraying
Aerial Air crafts has been employed for application of agricultural and public
health pesticides. It is used for spraying, dusting and application of baits. However,
Spray formulations are more suitable than dusts because of wind speed should not
be more than > 5 KMPH. It has to be done at low heights and in the early hours of
the days to ensure uniform deposition of dust particles.
Advantages
1. Large area covered
2. Locusts, cut worms, army worms could be checked before much
damage is done.
3. Cost of application is cheap per unit area.
4. Inaccessible areas are also can be protected.

Disadvantages
1. Drift is more
2. Undersurface of leaves is not fully covered
3. Depend on weather conditions
4. Preplanning and collaboration with other agencies is required
5. Pollution is more
Phytotoxicity
The application of pesticides or insecticides on plants is intended to control
the pests without causing adverse or harmful effects to plants. It is common to see
some adverse insecticides in fields which is called phytotoxicity
It is of two kinds
1. Permanent phytotoxicity leading to the death of the effected part or whole plant
2.Temporary phytotoxicity which allows the plant to recover after showing
phytotoxicity
Most insecticides are not phytotoxicity at ordinary/ recommended
concentrations but show temporary / permanent phytotoxicity when applied
indiscriminately at much higher concentrations.
Eg: Now many farmers are applying insecticides formulations as ULV sprays which
are meant for application as higher volume sprays. Some times the solvents/diluents
used may also cause phytotoxicity. However, some plants/crops are highly sensitive
to certain insecticides and show phytotoxicity when applied. So thorough knowledge
of phytotoxicity of chemicals and dosages at which they are to be applied is essential
for plant protection people.
Symptoms of phytotoxicity
 Chlorosis or yellowing of leaves
 Bronzing of leaves
 Necrosis of complete plant or parts of it
 Scorching
 Deformation and curling of leaves
 White spots on leaves
 Burning effects on leaves
 Premature falling of leaves
 Mottled leaves
 Poor germination of seeds
Examples for insecticides causing phytotoxicity
Organo chlorines Cucurbits
Carbaryl Soybean & Red gram
Dimethoate and Malathion Sorghum
Methyl parathion All Cucurbits
Sulphur Cucurbits, Apples and Tea
Advantages of chemical control

1. Chemicals are powerful tools for pest management.
2. Highly effective, rapid curative action and adoptable to most situation.
3. Flexible in changing agronomic and ecological conditions.
4. It is economical.
5. Insecticides are only tools available when pest is crossing threshold levels.
6. For many of pest problems chemical control is the only acceptable solution.
7. They are easy to obtain and apply
Limitations of chemical control
 Harmful to non target organisms.
 Many pesticides bring about the secondary infestation of non target pests and
resurgence of target pests.
 Other beneficial insects like pollinators, honeybees, weed killers may also be
killed.
 There is a risk to man and livestock.
 Some pesticides may cause phytotoxicity.
 Some insecticides leave residues which cause environmental pollution.
 Some insects may develop resistance to insecticides.
 Some insecticides accumulate in body tissue become dangerous even without
any prior indications.
 Some insecticides have a tendency to be passed over from one food source
to another food source
Safe use of Insecticides
1. Mixing and loading operations are the most hazardous because they
generally result in possibilities of exposure i.e. spills
2. Read label carrying out the necessary calculations for the required dilution of
the insecticide
3. Obtain proper equipment, including protective clothing, etc
4. Never work alone while handling highly hazardous insecticides
5. Mix insecticides outside or in a well ventilated area. Never position any part of
the body directly over the seal while opening .Always stand upwind when
mixing or loading the insecticides
6. Clean up spilled insecticide immediately from skin, clothing etc.
7. Persons engaged in handling, mixing or applying insecticides should not
smoke, eat or drink while working.
8. Do not use mouth to siphon an insecticide from the container.
9. Avoid drift.
10. Guard against drift of insecticides on to nearby crops, field, fish pond, stream
or livestock
11. Do not spray when it is windy.
12. Do not spray or dust when it is likely to rain.
13. Do not use poor quality or leaky equipment
14. Take the most needed parts/tools to the field (site of application)
15. Never allow the children to apply insecticides
16. Do not blow out the clogged nozzles with the mouth
17. Cleanliness and maintenance of insecticide application equipments and keep
18. separate sprayers for herbicides
19. Do not eat, drink or smoke during application operation and later do these
only after washing hands and face thoroughly
20. Never leave insecticides and equipments unattended in the field
21. The insecticides should always be stored in their original containers and kept
in a locked cup board where they are out of reach of the children and the
domestic animals
22. These should be kept away from food or feed stuffs and medicines
23. Instructions found on the labels should be carefully read and strictly followed.
24. The empty containers, after the use of the insecticide, should be destroyed
and should not be put into some other use.
25. Persons engaged in handling insecticides should undergo regular medicinal
check-up.
26. In case of any suspected poisoning due to insecticides, the nearest physician

should be called immediately.
Insecticide poisoning and antidotes
Symptoms of mild poisoning
1. Headache
2. A feeling Of Sickness (nausea)
3. Dizziness
4. Fatigue
5. Irritation of the Skin, Eyes, Nose and Throat,
6. Perspiration
7. Loss of Appetite
Symptoms of moderate poisoning
1. Vomiting,
2. Blurred vision,
3. Stomach cramps,
4. Rapid pulse,
5. Difficulty in breathing, constricted pupils of the eyes,
6. Excessive precipitation,
7. Trembling and twitching of muscles, fatigue and nervous distress headache,
Symptoms of severe poisoning
1. Convulsions
2. Respiratory failure
3. Loss of consciousness
4. Loss of pulse
Symptoms due to Chlorinated hydrocarbons poisoning
1. Uneasiness
2. Headache
3. Nausea
4. Vomiting
5. Dizziness and tremors
6. Convulsions
7. Respiratory arrest followed by coma
8. Leucocytosis and rise in blood pressure.

Symptoms due to organophosphate and carbamate insecticides poisoning
1. Headache, giddiness, vertigo, weakness, excessive mucous discharge from
nose and sense of tightness are symptoms of inhaled exposures.
2. Nausea followed by vomiting, abdominal contraction, diarrhea and salivations
are symptoms of ingestion.
3. Loss of muscle coordination, speech defects; twitching of muscles; difficulty in
4. breathing; hypertension; jerky movements; convulsions and coma indicate
seriousness of poisoning.
5. Death may occur due to depressions of respiratory centre
Zinc phosphide
1. Nausea
2. Vomiting
3. Diarrhea
4. Severe abdominal pain followed by symptom free period of eight hours or
longer
Alluminium phosphide
1. Headache
2. Giddiness
3. Nausea
4. Diarrhea and mental confusion
5. If treatment is delayed, coma, loss of reflexes may develop and death may
6. occur from respiratory or circulatory collapse
First Aid Operations
Many accidental pesticide deaths are caused by eating or drinking the
chemical. Some applicators die or are injured when they breathe pesticide vapours
or get pesticides on their skin. Repeated exposure to small amounts of some
pesticides can cause sudden, severe illness. All pesticide handlers should know and
thoroughly understand first aid treatment for pesticide poisoning. Call local
emergency response provider and local emergency medical facility immediately and
1. Remove patient to fresh air
2. Loosen all knots of clothes and change overalls.
3. Flush eyes with copious cold water till irritation subsides
4. Wash the patient thoroughly with plenty of soap and water.

5. Keep the patient calm, comfortable and warm.
6. In case of accidental ingestion ,induce vomiting by administering a glass of
warm water mixed with two spoons of common salt or putting the forefinger at
the base of plate.
7. Show label leaflet of pesticide for identification
8. If breathing is stopped provide artificial breathing.
Swallowed poisoning
1. Remove poison from the patient‟s stomach immediately byinducing vomiting.
2. Give common salt 15 g in a glass of warm water as anemetic and repeat until
vomit fluids is clear.
3. Gently stroking or touching the throat with the finger or the blunt end of a spoon
will aid in inducing vomiting when the stomach is full of fluid.
4. If the patient is already vomiting, do not give emetic butgive large amounts of
warm water and then follow the specific directions suggested
Inhaled poisons
1. Carry the patient to fresh air immediately,
2. Open all doors and windows.
3. Loosen all tight clothing.
4. Apply artificial respiration if breathing has stopped or is irregular and avoid
vigorous application of pressure to the chest.
5. Prevent chilling and wrap the patient in a blanket.
6. Keep the patient as quiet as possible.
7. If the patient is convulsing, keep him in bed in some dark room.
8. Do not give alcohol in any form.
Skin contamination:
1. Drench the skin with water.
2. Apply a stream of water on the skin while removing clothing.
3. Rapid washing is most important for reducing the extent of injury
Eye contamination:
1. Hold eye lids open
2. Wash the eyes gently with a stream of running water immediately
3. Delay of even a few second greatly increase the extent of injury
4. Continue washing until physician reaches

5. Do not use chemicals as they may increase the extent of injury.
Antidotes
General antidotes
1. Remove poison by inducing vomiting
2. Universal Antidote: It is a mixture of 7 g of activated charcoal, 3.5 g of
magnesium oxide and 3.5 g of tannic acid in half a glass of warm water may be
used to absorb or neutralize poisons. Except in cases of poisoning by corrosive
substances, it should be followed by gastric lavage.
3. Removal of stomach contents (Gastric lavage)
4. Demulcents : After removal of stomach contents as completely as possible, give
one of the following:
1. Raw egg white mixed with water
2. Gelatine 9 g to 18 g dissolved in 570 ml of warm water
3. Butter
4. Cream
5. Milk or Mashed potato
Specific antidotes:
1. Atropine is the usual antidote for organophosphate and carbamate
poisoning. It can be given orally and in severe cases, injections are given.
Repeated injections may be required.
2. 2 PAM: It is injected intravenously as an antidote in organophosphate
poisoning. It should not be used in case of carbamate poisoning
3. Calcium gluconate is recommended as an antidote for some organochlorine
insecticides
4. Vitamin K is the preferred antidote for anticoagulant poisoning such as
warfarin.
5. Dimercaprol (BAL) is recommended for arsenic poisoning
6. Diazepam and Phenobarbital for synthetic pyrethroids poisoning
i) INSECT RESISTANCE TO INSECTICIDES
The development of an ability in a strain of insects to tolerate a dose of an

insecticide toxicant, which would prove lethal to majority of individuals in a normal
population of the same species. The Division Entomology, IARI, New Delhi was the

first to report insecticide resistance (IR) in the Singhara beetle, Galerucella
birmanica in India . At present there are many insects have developed resistance to
insecticides.
Resistance is of three types
a. Simple resistance: Where resistance to only one insecticide and not to related
ones
b. Cross resistance: Where an insect resistance to one insecticide and is also
resistance to the related ones
c. Multiple resistance: Resistance to insecticides belong to more than one group of
insecticides
There are three phases in development of resistance:
1. Resistance insects are very low in a population and insecticides gives a
satisfactory control
2. With continuous use of the same insecticide or related ones, frequency of
resistant individuals increases in leading to occasional crop failures.
3. Large increase of resistant individuals in a population and becomes ineffective.
Mechanisms of Resistance:
A. Physiological mechanism
a. Detoxification
Resistance to insecticide is due to the ability of insects to detoxify (degrade)
toxicants by enzymes, mixed function oxidases (MFO). These detoxifying enzymes
are more in resistant strains (R) than in susceptible (S)strains. These non-toxic break
down products can be excreted or stored in the body without any harm to the insects
b. Cuticular penetration
Insecticides penetration through cuticle is slow in „R‟ strains than in „S‟ strains
because of bristles, thick pulvilli etc
c. Increased storage
The ability of storing in the non sensitive tissues like fat body variable in ‟R‟ and „S‟
strains.
d. Increased excretion
„R‟ strains detoxify and excrete insecticides faster than „S‟ strains.

e. Penetration into target organs
A ChE is present only in ganglia, so a toxicant must enter the ganglia to inhibit AChE
slow in „R‟, fast in case of „S‟
B. Behavioural mechanisms
a. Avoidance of treated areas: „R‟ strains do not prefer treated surfaces.
b. Decreased period of contact: „R‟ insects fly away from treated surface so
contact period with treated area is less.
ii) INSECT RESURGENCE
It refers to an abnormal increase in pest population or damage following
insecticide application often for exceeding the EIL‟s. Pest resurgence mostly noticed
in Homoptera, Lepidoptera and phytophagous mites. Resurgence occurs due to
insecticides in two ways
1. They induce resistance in insects so that after an initial decline, they start growing
in numbers again.
2. Insecticides not only kill the pests but also the natural enemies , thus natural
control over the pests is minimized leading to their resurgence A well-known
example in rice cultivation is the resurgence of brown plant hopper (BPH). If no
pesticides are used, BPH is kept under control by its natural enemies (mirid bugs,
ladybird beetles, spiders and various pathogens). Pesticides kill the beneficials and
create a situation where populations of BPH can multiply rapidly and thus become a
man made pest
Insecticide(s) Resurgence of insect species
Quinalphos , phorate , Carbaryl BPH
Deltamethrin, methyl parathion
Monocrotophos
Synthetic pyrethroids Aphids, whiteflies, mite in cotton
Carbaryl Mites on mango and brinjal
iii) INSECTICIDE RESIDUES

The very small quantity of insecticide that can remain in a crop after
harvesting or storage and makes its way into food chain is called insecticide
residues. Some insecticides continue to remain toxic for long periods after
application this period of activity is called persistence or residual action Pyrethrum
and rotenone are less persistent (12 hrs) while Organochlorines are most persistent.

Longer residual toxicity is desirable for pest control , it is not desirable from safety
point of view to man and his animals.
Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) (Residue Tolerance Level)
The amount of the residue of the toxicant that can be permitted to be present
in / on the produce used by man and his animals is called tolerance limits. It is
expressed in ppm. The residues should not exceed than the tolerance limits when
offered for consumption. It is measure of safety against the harmful effects of
pesticide
Endosulfan (banned now) - cabbage, brinjal, tomato 2.00 ppm
Malathion - cabbage, brinjal tomato 8.00 ppm
When pesticide residues persist more than their prescribed MRL , in fruits and
vegetables, washing the contaminated fruits and vegetables could dislodge the
residues to the extent of 20-25 % with water, 20-35 % with dilute solutions of salt,
40-60 % with detergent solutions and 40-100 % by peeling the fruit skin , processing
and cooking.
Waiting period
The waiting period must be observed between the time of pesticide
application and
harvest of produce so that toxicants are metabolized into non toxic level
Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI)
It is the amount of a chemical in food and water that can be ingested on daily
basis over a life time without appreciable risk. It is expressed as mg per kg body
weight per day.
Insecticides Act, 1968
The Government of India passed an Insecticide Act in 1968to regulate the
import, manufacture, sale, transport, distribution and use of insecticides with a view
to prevent risk to human beings or animals. All the provisions of the Insecticides Act
was brought into force with effect from 1st August, 1971. In the Act and the Rules
framed there under, there is compulsory registration of the pesticides at the Central
level and licence for their manufacture, formulation and sale are dealt with at the
State level. With the enforcement of the Insecticides Act in the country pesticides of
very high quality are made available to the farmers and general public for house-hold
use, for protecting the agricultural crops from the ravages of their pests, humans

from diseases and nuisance caused by public health pests and the health hazards
involved in their use have been minimised to a great extent. For the effective
enforcement of the Insecticides Act, the following bodies have been constituted at
the Central level.
Central Insecticide Board
The Government has constituted Central Insecticides Board under the
Chairmanship of Director General of Health Services with 29 members from different
speciality and government organisations.
Functions
1. To advise the Central and state Governments on technical matters on
technical matters arising out of administration
2. To specify the uses of the classification of insecticides on the basis of their
toxicity
3. To advise tolerance limits for insecticides, residues and an establishment of
minimum intervals between the application of insecticides and harvest in
respect of various commodities
4. To specify the shelf-life of insecticides
Registration committee
Registration Committee consisting of a Chairman and other five persons who
shall be members of the Board. The main objective the committee is to register
insecticide after scrutinizing their formulae and verifying claims made by the importer
or the manufacturer, as the case may be, as regards their efficacy and safety to
human being and animals. The function of the registration committee is to specify the
precautions to be taken against poisoning through the use or handling of
insecticides. For import and manufacture of insecticides, registration certificate is
essential and a separate certificate for each insecticide.
Types of registration
A) Provisional registration: Provisional registration for 2 years for data Generation
but not for commercialisation
B) Regular or full registration: is done when committee satisfy on the data
produce.
C) Repeat registration: Registration for already registered product for a subsequent
applicant. Data requirement is less.

Central Insecticide Laboratory
1. To analyze samples of insecticides and submission of certificates of analysis
to the concerned authority;
2. To analyze samples of materials for insecticide residues
3. To carry out such investigations as may be necessary for the purpose of
4. ensuring the conditions of registration of insecticides;
To determine the efficacy and toxicity of insecticides
The present plant protection adviser is Dr.Rajeshmalik
Restricted use of pesticides
01. Total number of pesticides registered 292
02. Pesticides Banned for manufacture, import and use 40
03. Pesticide formulations banned for import, manufacture and 04
use
04. Pesticide / Pesticide formulations banned for use but 02
continued to manufacture for export
05. Pesticides Withdrawn 08
06. Pesticides refused registration 05
07. Pesticides restricted for use in the country 09
================================================================

LECTURE NO: 16
NON INSECT PESTS-RODENTS, MITES, MOLLUSCANS, VERTEBRATE
PESTS
================================================================
Rodents are of two type namely Commensel rodents and Field rodents.
Rodents belong to Family: Muridae; Order: Rodentia; Class : Mammalia
Commensel Rodents
1. House mouse - Mus musculus
2. House rat or black rat – Rattus rattus
3. Common Indian field mouse - Mus musculus booduga
4. Brown rat - Rattus norvegicus
1. House mouse (Mus musculus)
It is quick, tends to nibble and run rather than stay longer at food source. They
can pass through a hole slightly less than 1.25 cm. They live mostly in houses. They
produce 6-10 litter per year with 6-10 young ones per litter. They can climb easily
and also can swim when necessary. They are distributed all over India and are
omnivorous. Total length including tail is 8-22 cm with pointed snout. They are
brownish grey above and whitish to light grey on belly.
2. House rat (Rattus rattus)
Lives in close association with human beings. Excellent climber and good
swimmer. 4-6 litters / year and tail length 31-43 cm with pointed snout. Dark
brownish above (dorsal) and dirty white on belly.
3. Common Indian field mouse (Mus musculus booduga)
The body of Indian field mouse is about 5 to 8 cm long with 5 cm long tail. It is
brown in color with a white belly. It burrows in field bunds causing extensive damage
to bunds and wastage of water. It produces 3 to 9 young ones per litter.
4. Brown rat or Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus)
Closely associated with the activity of man. Good climber and swimmer.
Prefers wet or damp locations. Do not close the burrow openings. Length from nose
to tail 35-41 cm with blunt snout. Brownish above, white on belly.

The above species are known as commensal rodents.
 They contaminate 20 times the material actually they eat.
 A rat winates 15-25 ml/day and 25-150 pellet droppings per day / rat.
 They regularly shed hairs @ 100-200 hair fragments per day/rat.
 They bite some times human beings. They spread disease.
 They are social animal.
 They share same food source and common run way.
 They live closely to one another.
 They are most active at dusk and during calm period. Rats become
conditioned to eating a particular food and are suspicious in nature.
 Taste the food cautiously and develop bait shyness. House mouse is not
suspicious of new food. Eagerly tastes all. In single night mice tastes and feed
on many different foods, hence difficult to get them to take a lethal dose of
poisoned bait. Mice readily accept water baits.
Management of commensal rodents
1. Killing rats by sticks
2. Trapping the rats using traps.
3. Snap neck trap kills the rat instantly.
Live catch traps trap the rats alive Eg. Single rat trap, wonder trap
Rodenticides
Compounds, which kill the rodents by their chemical action, are known as
rodenticides. Rodents belong to order Rodentia, class Mammalia and phylum
Vertebrata. Rodents such as rats, mice, gophers and ground squirrels spread
diseases like plague, rat bite fever and leptospiral jaundice in human beings. They
damage the standing crops and cause substantial loss during storage of the
produce.
Characteristics of ideal rodenticide:
1. Toxic action should be slow so as to allow the animal to consume a lethal
dose.
2. Palatable and odourless.
3. Bait shyness must be avoided.
4. Poison is specific to species to be controlled.
5. Manner of death not be cruel and make surviving population suspicious.

6. Susceptibility should be age, sex or strain dependent.
7. No danger of secondary poisoning through animals eating poisoned rodents.
8. Consumption of chemical should not lead to development of resistance.
9. Chemical mixed with bait be stable under various environmental conditions.
10. For easy removal of corpses, animal should preferably die in the open space.
Zinc phosphide
A grayish black powder with strongly disagreeable odour When zinc
phosphide is ingested, it reacts with stomach acids and causes poisonous phosphine
gas to be released. This leads to nausea, vomiting, pulmonary edema, and eventual
death. Zinc phosphide, acute stomach poison is used as a bait at 2% strength, mixed
with popcorn, rice, dry fish, onions etc., Pre baiting is essential as rats exhibit bait
shyness to this. In paddy fields, two rounds of baiting before and after sowing
nursery
and another two rounds in planted crop are required. About 500 g of poison is
needed per hectare.
Formulation: 80% powder
Trade name: Zintox
LD50: 46 mg/kg
Aluminium phosphide:
Aluminum phosphide is an inorganic phosphide used to control insects and
rodents in a variety of settings. It is mainly used as an indoor fumigant at crop
transport, storage or processing facilities for both food and non-food crops It may
also be used as an outdoor fumigant for burrowing rodent control, or in baits for
rodent control in crops. Aluminum Phosphide is available in pellet and tablet form.
Under optimum moisture conditions, it liberates „Phosphine‟ gas, which is highly
toxic. ¼ to ½ of a 3 g tablet is put in a liveburrow; a little water is added if necessary
and the burrow closed with mud. Repeat the operation if the burrow remains closed.
Also used to fumigate the godowns @ 1tab/ ton / 5 days and also@ 1 or ½ tab/tree
against red palm weevil.
Formulation: Tablets ( 3g)
Trade name: Celphos, Fumitoxin, Phostoxin, and Quickphos.----LD50: 11.5 mg/kg

Anti-Coagulant Rodenticides
Anticoagulants are defined as chronic single-dose or multiple-dose
rodenticides, acting by effectively blocking of the vitamin K cycle, resulting in inability
to produce essential blood-clotting factors
Bromodiolone
It act by depressing the hepatic vitamin K dependent synthesis of substances
essential to blood clotting.A single dose anticoagulant rodenticide from Coumarin
group The technical material (97% pure) is an odourless, yellow-white powder.
Bromadiolone is vitamin K antagonist. The main site of its action is the liver, where
several of the blood coagulation precursors under vitamin K dependent post
translation processing take place before they are converted into the respective
procoagulant zymogens. The point of action appears to be the inhibition of K 1
epoxide reductase.
Formulation: Solids
Trade names: Roban, Moosh moosh, Bromard; Bromatrol; BromoneR; Bromorat
Deadline; Hurex
LD50: 1-3 mg/kg
These rodenticides can be classified as

1. Acute poison: That are used in single dose
2. Anticoagulants : That are used in multiple doses
3. Fumigants: Aluminium phosphide and cyno gas
1. Acute poison
Zinc phosphide
 To be used only in fields not in houses
 Commonly used acute rodenticide in India
 Recommended at 2.5% technical grade in bait material
 Broken cereal could be used as bait material with vegetable oil as binding
medium
 Pre-baiting is compulsory for effective results
 95% flour + 1 to 2% Zinc phosphide + 2% groundnut oil + 1% sugar
 Prebaiting 2-3 days without Zinc phosphide and then bait is mixed with zinc
Phosphide

2. Anticoagulants
1st generation anticoagulants
Warfarin, Fumarin, Toumarin, Recumin
These poisons are lethal when consumed for several days. They prevent
blood clotting and break cell wall of blood capillaries leading to haemorrhage. Rats
normally die in aerated areas. House rat and house mouse die after 2-5 days of
continuous feeding.
Solid base – Rodafarin C
1 part of Rodafarin C + 1 part of granulated sugar + 1 part of vegetable oil + 17 parts
of crushed grian or corn meal
Liquid base – Rodafarin C
Antidote- Vitamin k-1
2nd generation anticoagulants
Bromadiolone
It is only registered Recommended @ 0.005% ai in cereal baits to be used in
pulsed baiting technique (Exposing the bait at weekly interval)
3. Fumigants
 Aluminium phosphide (CP) solid.
 Ethelen dibromide (EDB)
 Ethelene dichloride carbontetrachloride (EDCT)
Natural enemies
Cats, dogs, owl, hawks and snakes
Field rodents
1. Soft furred field rat or grass rat (Millardia meltada)
It occurs in irrigated fields but observed in pastures also. It is nocturnal and
lives in simple burrows. It breeds through out the year with litter size of 2-10 young
ones. It is small and slender. Adult weight is 100 gm. Total length including tail is 19-
29 cm, tail length is 9-14 cm either equal or little shorter than head and body,
moderately to poorly haired. The tail is dark above and pale below.
2. Indian Mole Rat or Lesser Bandicoot Rat (Bandicota bengalensis)
It is an excellent swimmer, often living in flooded rice fields and bunds. Also
occurs in the wheat crop fields and godowns. It is nocturnal and fossorial. They
hoard large amounts of food in its burrows. Breeds commonly twice a year with 8-10

young ones in each litter. Adult weight is 325 gm. Length from nose to tip of tail is
36-48 cm. Tail is18-20 cm; less than or some times equal to length of head and body
together, 160-170 rings clearly seen on scaly tail. Ear 2.5 to 2.6 cm in length, thick
and opaque. Snout – short, stumpy, pig like. Fur and colour – thick, short and harsh,
spines present, dark brown, pale brown or reddish above.
Nature and Symptoms of field rodents damage
Rodents attack rice at all stages of growth from planting to harvest and if there
isopportunity, even they will continue to attack the grain in store. Freshly sown seed
may be dug up and the seed eaten. On young rice plants, rodents attack the heart of
the stem discarding the leaves. The rodents make the rice stems fall by gnawing 5-
15 cm above ground level. Some rodent species may store grain in their burrows.
Large rodents, besides feeding on the crop may cause serious damage to the bunds.
Management of Rodents
Rodent management should be taken up on community basis well before
sowing of the crop. The rodent burrows should be marked and the burrow opening is
closed with moist soil. The burrows opened out on the next day are active burrows.
Then pre baiting has to be done on the 1 st and 3rd day. On 5th day 2% zinc phosphide
is added and baits distributed in the field. 70-80% kill of rodent population can be
secured by the operation. The remaining population can be controlled by fumigating
the burrows. On 6th day in those reopened burrows, aluminium phosphide @ 1.5 gm/
should be placed in the active burrow and this will take care of residue rodent
population.
Mites
Importance of Mites
1. Mites are very tiny creatures capable of infesting and causing severe loss to a
variety of agricultural and horticultural crops particularly under dry
situations.
Examples:
The mites that feed on plants are called phytophagous mites which mainly
belong to families namely
 Eriophyidae (Erenium or gall or itch or rust mites)
 Tetranychidae (spider mites)
 Tenuipalpidae (Broad mites)

 Tarsonemidae (False spider mites)
2. In addition to direct damage to crops they also cause in direct damage by
acting as vectors of important viral diseases.
Eg: Aceria cajani transmit red gram sterility mosaic disease
Aceria tulipae transmit wheat streak mosaic disease
3. Some of the mites harbour in carpets, sofa etc furniture in the houses and
cause serious allergies in human beings.
Eg: House Dust Mite: Dermatophagoides farina
4. Some of the mites even cause loss to the stored produce
Eg: Stored grain mite: Acarus siro
5. Not only they cause damage to crops they are also harmful to productive
insects like honeybees acting as parasites.
Examples
o Ecto Parasite on honey bee :Tropilaelaps clariae and Varroa jacobsoni
o Endo Parasite:Acarapis woodi (Tarsonemidae) (Tracheal mite on
honey bee)
o Locustacarus buchneri ( Poapolidae) on bumble bees
6. On the other side, some of the mites (predatory mites) are very useful in
biological control of some insect pests and mites.
Examples:
Phytoseilus persimilis and Amblyseius fallacies belong to the family
phytoseiidae
Morphology and biology of phytophagous mites
 Mites belong to the class, Arachnida and Order Acarina.
 They are found in a variety of habitats ie., aquatic (lakes or ponds) or
terrestrial (plants, mammals, on birds and insects).
 Mites can be distinguished from their insect relatives by the presence of two
body regions (cephalothorax and abdomen, in some these two are fused),
four pairs of legs(only two pairs in Eriophyidae) , sucking mouth parts and lack
of antennae and wings
 Mites possess chelicerae as mouth parts which are needle like useful for
sucking sap from plants.
 Adults vary in body shape and possess 2 or 4 pairs of legs.

 The life cycle consists of an egg, larva , proto nymph, deuto nymph, trito
nymph and adult stages. Oval shaped eggs are laid on leaves. Incubation
Period is 6-13 days. The no.of nymphal instars vary among the families.
Example: Eriophyid mite has only 2 nymphal instars and Tetranychid mite has
3 nymphal instars. The nymphs are active and nymphal period vary from 1-3
weeks. The total life cycle in summer extend from 3-6 weeks .
 Body is vermiform, divided into cephalothorax and abdomen in family
Eriophyidae. It contains 2 pairs of legs.
 In Tetranychidae, body is divided into Gnathosoma and Idiosoma.
Gnathosoma contains mouth parts like Chelicerae and Pedipalpi that cover
the mouth cavity. Above the mouth cavity there is a capitulum or tectum
dorsally.
 Gnathosoma consists of 3 segments where the second segment has
chelicerae and 3rd segment has pedipalpi.
 The Idiosoma is further divided into Podosoma and Opisthosoma.
Podosoma has legs that is further divided into Propodosoma and
Metapodosoma.
 Propodosoma has 2pairs of legs and Metapodosoma has 2 pairs of legs.
Opisthosoma is the posterior part of the body having anal opening.
 Eyes may be present or absent. In some mites if eyes are absent body
surface act as photo sensitive organ.
 Mouthparts are Chelicerae , 3 segmented, modified into stylet like piercing
organs. Pedipalpi are present on dorso-ventral surface of Gnathosoma
resembling the legs. These are modified as piercing or grasping organs. Legs
may be 2 or 4 pairs. Each leg consists of coxa, trochanter, femur, Genu, tibia
and tarsus

PHYTOPHAGOUS MITES CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS
1. Family: Tetranychidae( spider mites)
Characters:
1. Body colour is red, green, yellow, brown etc.
2. Body is 0.2-0.8 mm long
3. Body is flat, oval.
4. Body is not divided into divisions
5. Not segmented.
6. Body of male tapers posteriorly
7. Chelicerae are fused to form a stylopore and the movable segment of chelicerae
forms a flagellate stylet.
8. Threre is no mitotic division in larval stage.
9. Most of the species are having narrow host range
10. Palpal thumb claws are present.
Life cycle includes
Egg,
Larva (3 pairs of legs),
Protonymph (4 pairs of legs),
Deutonymph( 4 pairs of legs),
Tritonymph( 4 pairs of legs) and
Adults ( 4 pairs of legs)
Examples:
1. Red spider mite on okra, cotton, citrus, tomato, grape, papaya, jasmine,
pumpkin. Tetranychus macfarlani( telarius) results in Browning of leaves, fruits
and hairy out growth on both.
2. Jowar mite ( greyish green colour): Oligonychus indicus, lower side of leaf
becomes wet, red spots appear in patches on leaf.
3. Vegetable mite, Tetranychus cucurbitae
2. Family: Tenuipalpidae (false spider mites)
Characters:
1. Same as Tetranychidae, but without thumb claws.
2. Three types of setae namely hysterosomal, dorsocentral and mediolateral are
present.
3. The true tarsal claw is hooked or pad like and with tenent hairs.
Examples:
Citrus flat mite Brevipalpus lewisi
Brevipalpus californicus- It causes serious injury to a wide variety of ornamental and
agricultural crops
3. Family: Tarsonemidae (Broad mites)
Characters:
1. Body is elliptical ( ovoid)
2. Body measures 0.1-0.3 mm long
3. Body is divided in to three parts Capitulum, Propodosoma and Prohysterosoma
(the later two parts together known as Idiosoma)
4. Mouth parts are contained in a distinct capsular head known as Capitulum
5. Females are bigger than males.
6. Body colour is opaque white, light green, pinkish
7. Adult integument is hard and shiny.
8. Few hairs, spines are present on body.
9. Chelicerae are needle like
10. Egg – larvae – adult
Examples:
Yellow mite on chilli- Palyphagotarsonymus latus
Paddy panicle mite - Stenotarsonemus spinki

4. Family: Eriophyidae (Blister, rust, gall mites)
Characters:
1. Body is minute measuring 0.08 – 0.2 mm long.
2. Body is 2 types:
a) Elongate ( vermiform), worm like, soft body
b) Wedge shaped, hard body
3. Body is segmented
4. Body is divided into cephalothorax and tapering abdomen.
5. Abdomen is finely striated with long setae.
6. Two pairs of legs on anterior end of body ( in all the life stages)
7. Pedipalpi or chelicerae are capable of making some independent movements
and form a telescope or fold base. No thrusting stylopore.
8. Egg, Protonymph (2 pairs of legs),Deuteronymph (2 pairs of legs) Adult (2 pairs of
legs)
Examples:
1. Citrus rust mite- Phyllocoptruta oleivora (Pinkish brown blotches on fruits ).
2. Jasmine mite- Aceria jasmini
3. Mango gall mite- Aceria mangiferae
4. Coconut mite- Eriophyes guerreronis
Nature and symptoms of Mite damage

Both nymphs and adults suck sap from plant parts like leaves, terminal or axillary
shoots, fruits etc with their needle like chelicerae .
They cause symptoms like
1. Formation of white blotches on leaves in vegetables
2. Characteristic red spots that enlarge and coalese making whole leaf reddish
3. Drying of leaves and stems in sugarcane
4. Formation of galls on leaves in pongamia
5. Production of felt like growth on leaves in jasmine
6. Formation of crowded buds ,crumpled shoots in mango
7. Formation of pinkish blotches on fruits of citrus
8. Curling of leaves upwards in chillies
9. Formation of warts and longitudinal tissues on nuts of coconut

10. Act as vectors by transmitting viral diseases
11. Spin delicate webs on the lower surface of the leaf and live inside the web
and suck
Mites of agricultural importance
S.No. Common name Scientific name Family

1 Jowar mite Oligonychus indicus
Tetranychus neocaledonicus,
2 Red spider mite
T. telarius
Tetranychidae
3 Coffee mites Oligonychus coffeae
4 Citrus leaf mite Eutetranychus banski
5 Sugarcane mite Schizotetranychus andropogonii
6 Citrus rust mite Phyllocoptruta oleivora
7 Coconut eriophyid mite Aceria guerreronis
Eriophyidae
8 Jasmine mite (felt mite) Aceria jasmini
9 Sweet potato rust mite Oxpleurites convolvuli
Tarsonemus transluscens
10 Chilli mite Tarsonemidae
Polyphagotarsonemus latus
11 Sugarcane mite Tarsonemus spinipes
12 scarlet mite of tea Brevipalpus anstralis Tenuipalpidae
Management of mites
1. Removal of alternate hosts in the field .
2. Spraying of sulphur @ 3 gm/ Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/lt/ Methyldemeton 25
EC @ 2 ml /lt/kelthane (Dicofol) 5 ml /lt / Ethion @ 1 ml/lt
3. Fungal pathogen, Hirsutella thompsoni reported to be effective against
coconut eriophid mite
4. Predaceous insects on mites Ex. Scolothrips indicus, Scymnus gracilis
I. BIRDS
Important birds causing damage to agricultural crops
A number of birds feed upon grains from ear heads of field crops; fruits and
vegetables. They actually consume very little quantity but often cause more damage
than what they actually eat.
Major bird species
1. Crow Corvus spp.: Damage wheat, cobs of maize, ripe fruits of fig, mulberry
2. The parrot Psittacula cyanocephalus: cuts and feeds on maize, jowar,
bajra, wheat, barley grains and fruits such as guava, fig, mango, pomegranate
etc., (both semi ripened and ripened fruits are cut and eat leading to fruit drop)

3. The house sparrow, Passer domesticus: It damages the earheads of jowar,
maize,bajra and soft and fleshy fruits such as mulberry and fig
4. The blue rock pigeon Columba livia eats maize, pulses and groundnut
5. The yellow throated sparrow causes havey damage to wheat and barley
Many species of birds are found throughout India, out of which some birds are
considered harmful to agricultural crops. Some of them are as following:
(i) Crow: (Corvus Splendens Vieillot): Crows cause considerable damage to ripe
fruits in orchards and also ripening grains of maize and fruits. The crows are
particularly attracted to the grains when they are exposed on a cob. They may prove
a menace to the successful growth of field crops as well as harvest of fruits. They
are often seen in flocks in maize and other fields.
(ii) Sparrow : (Passer domesticus): The flocks of sparrows is a great menace to
various field crops like Jowar, bajra, wheat, maize, etc. mainly in the seed setting
stage. They also threaten mulberry and many other small sized juicy fruits and fruit
buds.They visit the ripening fruit fields, particularly those of wheat in the spring
season, and cause much damage both by feeding and causing the grains to shed.
House sparrows consume grains in fields and in storage. They do not move long
distances into grain fields, preferring to stay close to the shelter of hedge rows.
Localized damage can be considerable since sparrows often feed in large numbers
over a small area. Sparrows damage crops by pecking seeds, seedlings, buds,
flowers, vegetables, and maturing fruits. They interfere with the production of
livestock, particularly poultry by consuming and contaminating feed. In grain storage
facilities, fecal contamination probably results in as much monetary loss as does the
actual consumption of grain.
(iii) Parrot: (Psittacula spp.)
About eight species of parrots have been recorded in India. Out of these
species, Large Indian parakeet (P. eupatria) is very common in Maharashtra. This
species causes heavy damage to orchards by eating fruits and also spoiling the fruits
by cutting it with beak. The parakeets are among the most wasteful a destructive
birds. They gnaw at and cut into bits all sorts of near-ripe fruits such as guava, ber,
mango, plums, peaches, etc. In sunflower when the seeds are soft the parrots cause
extensive damage by feeding on the seed thus reducing the yield

Management of Birds
Various methods are employed which include covering by nets, using scaring
devices, reducing their population by shooting, trapping and use of chemicals.
1. Trapping the birds in nets or catching them with the help of sticky
2. substance „Lassa‟.
3. A piece of Chapatti dipped in 0.04% parathion and placed on the top of roof is
a good bait for crows.
4. Parrots and sparrows are repelled by spraying 0.6% thiurun‟ on wheat crops
at milk stage.
5. Scaring devices using mechanical, acoustic and visual means are normally
employed, i.e. Beating of drums to produce sounds is still in vogue in many
parts of the country particularly during harvesting.
6. Fire crackers placed at regular intervals along a cotton rope. The rope burns
from one end and ignites the crackers at regular interval which produce
sounds and scare away the birds.
7. Loud sounds due to the burning of acetylene gas produced at intervals are
utilized to scare away birds and small animals.
8. Birds may be scared by display of scare crows, dead birds and visually
attractive flags etc.
II. CRAB
The rice field crab Paratelphusa hydrodromus (Decapoda; Crustacea). The
crab has an oval body with an abdomen tucked beneath the thoracic region. Crabs
live in holes made in the sides of field bunds, irrigation channels and field corners,
where water does not stand. The holes are protected by heaping soil around their
openings. Crabs multiply mainly during dry period, April to June. A single female lays
about 200 eggs which are carried by the mother in a pouch like abdominal flap on
her ventral side.
Crab Damage
Young seedlings in nurseries and newly transplanted fields are damaged. The
seedlings are cut at ground level in to small bits which are carried to the holes for
feeding. In older plants, outer sheaths are cut open and the tender inner portions are
consumed. In an attacked field, bits of leaves and stems can be seen floating in
water. In severely affected fields patches of damage can be seen. Crabs are active

mostly after dusk and at nights. In addition to damage to plants, the carb holes made
in bunds lead to braches and water losses.
Management
1. They are naturally controlled by rats and pond heron Ardeloa grayi.
2. They can be trapped in wide-mouthed pots buried with their rim at about the
water
3. level; inside the pots, moistened rice bran in lumps are kept as bait.
4. Poison baiting with warfarin 0.0025 per cent in popped rice mixed with fried
onions
5. and fish can be used
6. Fumigation with cyno gas though effective is costly
III. SNAIL
The giant African snail, Achatina fulica, which is a foreign pest got introduced
in India and is now wide spread. Slugs and snails are legless creatures that glide
along on a path of mucus. This mucus dries out and can be seen in the daytime as a
shiny trail over leaves, fruit and soil. The detection of these "slime trails" may be the
only way of determining their presence, as slugs and snails generally feed at night.
When trails and damage are observed, the slugs and snails can often be found on
the ground near the injured plants, hiding under decaying plant debris, stones, clods
of soil, or logs. They feed on the lower leaves of many plants especially in the areas
between the veins. Immature slugs and snails damage plants by rasping away the
surface tissue, while adults eat holes through the leaves, nip off tender shoots or
cause complete destruction of seedlings. Damaged leaves break, due to wind and
shed or in the case of grass and corn, split lengthwise. Litter heaps, compost piles,
drain pipes, greenhouses, well walls and uncultivated areas with dense plant growth,
provide ideal sites in which the gray garden slug, gray field slug and snails are
capable of overwintering in all developmental stages.
Management:
1. During rainy season, moist gunny sacks or leaves can be heaped near the
cropped area and the snails collected near them can be killed on following
day.
2. Among chemicals, metaldehyde is the most effective molluscicide which are
available as 5 % pellets.

IMPORTANT MITES, RODENTS, BIRDS AND MOLLUSCAN PESTS
1.Family: Tetranychidae
Tetranychus urticae Symptoms of Tetranychid mite
2. Family: Eriophyidae
Aceria spp. Symptoms of eriophid mite

3.Family: Tarsonemidae
Tarsonemus spp. Symptoms of Tarsonemid mite
4. Family: Tenuipalpidae
Brevipalps spp. Brevipalps spp.

Crow, Corvus spp Psittacula cyanocephalus
House mouse (Mus musculus) House rat (Rattus rattus)

Slugs Damage Snails Damage
Slime trails on soils Slime trails on leaf
================================================================

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STUDY MATERIAL

ENTO 231 (1+1) – FUNDAMENTALS OF ENTOMOLOGY-II & IPM

WRITTEN & COMPILED BY

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

 Can contain 100‟s to 1000‟s of interacting species.\\

Niche An organism‟s habitat + role + tolerance limits to all limiting factors

Its role in the ecosystem (herbivore, carnivore, producer etc)

 Its tolerance limits (e.g. soil pH, humidity)

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

i) Zone of effective temperature (10 to 35°C) in which some development takes

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

The population of an insect or any animal may be defined as the number of

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

Pest surveillance is the systematic monitoring of biotic and abiotic factors of

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

Modern concept of pest management is based on ecological principles and

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

7. Public understanding and acceptance

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

Relative amount of heritable qualities possessed by the plant which influence

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

CULTURAL METHODS OF PEST CONTROL

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

PHYSICAL METHODS OF PEST CONTROL

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU

SSNAIK, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, AGC, JGL, PJTSAU