Cross-Cultural Management Journal

Volume XVII, Issue 1 / 2015

Angelica-Nicoleta NECULĂESEI (ONEA)

Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iaşi

CULTURE AND GENDER Theoretical

article
ROLE DIFFERENCES

Keywords
Gender Role,
Culture,
Geert Hofstede,
Masculinity-Femininity,
Gender stereotypes,
Feminism.

JELL Classification
M14; Z10

Abstract

Culture influences thinking, language and human behaviour. The social environment, in which
individuals are born and live, shapes their attitudinal, emotional and behavioural reactions and the
perceptions about what is happening around. The same applies in the case of assigned/assumed roles in
society based on gender. Cultural dimensions that reflect differences in gender roles, but also elements
related to the ethics of sexual difference were highlighted by many researchers. The presentation of these
issues from the interdisciplinary perspective is the subject of this article. Briefly, the article refers to:
importance of communication in transmission of roles of those two sexes, cultural dimensions that reflect
role differences invarious cultures, discrimination issues and ethics of sexual difference.

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Volume XVII, Issue 1 / 2015

Argument Communication of role differences

Cultural determinism is a reality Firstly, we draw attention to the
developed by many theories explaining default importance of communication in the transmission
assimilation of socio-cultural values of individuals of gender role, starting right from the meaning
and their influence on attitudes, mentalities, given to culture by the anthropologist Hall (1984),
perceptions and their behaviours. Obviously, the the father of intercultural communication: "Culture
levels of culture are multiple, and each level has is communication and communication is culture".
influence to some extent. In general, what comes Role differences between sexes (culturally
from the national culture is considered to have the determined) are a product of communication, but at
strongest influence, but there are cultural the same time, they influence communication (we
dominants with origin in ethnicity, religion, social may speak about a circular causality).
class, age, gender, education - training, etc. We say Communication shapes the lives of individuals.
"in general" because quite a few phenomena occur Attitudes, mentalities, positions towards action and
currently, that cannot be associated or cannot generated solutions are transmitted by
necessarily be associated with the national culture, communication. All these influence human
even if they indicate the importance of a common behaviours and behaviours that have moral
cultural background for the members of a group consequences. Therefore, communication involves
that make up a community (including a virtual moral responsibility (Mulvaney, 1994). In fact,
one). Other levels of culture or combinations of communication (verbal, nonverbal, implicit,
values set their fundament and jointly activities, explicit) is the process that teaches us to be male or
one of them being determined by the belonging to a female, that means to behave accordingly to the
particular gender. gender. From childhood we have learnt different
Issues underlying political decisions, linguistic practices, culturally associated with
including those relating to discrimination on gender behaviours. “One is not born, but rather
various criteria become of interest in the context of becomes, a woman” said Simone de Beauvoir
economic and socio-cultural changes (based largely (2006/1949), appreciating the role of culture and
on an unprecedented evolution of IT). In the same thereby of communication in shaping the role of
context there are discussions about gender women in society, and the ensuing consequences.
discrimination and the role of women in society. Religious, mythical, philosophical and political
Numerous projects, programs, directives, discourses transmit us values and norms about our
international, European and national regulations, roles based on gender: permissions - what do (can
and also militant groups draw attention to these do) a man / woman, prohibitions – what cannot or
phenomena, many of them having their origin in should not be done by a man / woman, how it
the literature that has treated the role of sexual should be done etc. Some communication
difference over the years and addressed issues behaviours acceptable for boys / men are
relating to ethics differences. This is the reason considered completely inappropriate for girls /
why we decided to approach such an issue, women. In this way, differences in the manner of
somehow brought into attention by the political learning the language use and actual use occur.
interest. Therefore, the language itself reflects the social
role: for women, communication is the essence of a
Culture and role differences between sexes relationship through the transfer of emotions and
Western studies distinguish between feelings, firstly; for men, communication is a form
gender and sex. These terms are not synonymous; in which they exercise control, keep or demonstrate
they serve to delineate anatomical and cultural independence, improve their status, generally by
differences between men and women. Significant transmission of information (data and facts
differences are highlighted below: sex is a presented in an analytical manner). Consequently,
biological concept, gender is a social construct; communication models (conversational style,
gender is determined by genetics and biology, linguistic strategies, conversational ritual,
gender is produced / reproduced by society; sex is nonverbal behaviour, manner of use of space and
permanent, gender varies over time and across time) differ between sexes (Mulvaney, 1994,
cultures; sex is an individual ownership, gender is a Hofstede et al., 2012).
social and relational quality. Companies create
gender meanings communicated through structures Role differences and discrimination
and cultural practices. Social prescriptions In the following lines, we intent to
embedded in personal identity, make individuals highlight that role differences should not be
become of a certain type (Anghel, 2010, apud associated with discrimination. As there is a
Onea, 2014). natural normality that makes differences at
biological level, there is also a cultural normality,
which is linked by what is naturally in a certain

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Volume XVII, Issue 1 / 2015

culture. That leads to differences in the assumption gender roles do not automatically reflect
and assignment of gender roles. Basically, gender "inequality" or "discrimination". The latter one
discrimination reflects "any distinction, exclusion, involves the violation of human rights, and of free
restriction or preference based on gender [...] will. Cultural assumption of a gender emotional
which has as purpose or effect the restriction and role and its manifestation without the feeling of
exclusion of recognition, usage or exercise of constraint or limitation (raising children especially
human rights and fundamental freedoms or rights by mothers, for example, in some masculinity
recognized by law, in equality conditions, in the societies where fathers are more concerned with the
political, economic, social, cultural or any other procurement of necessary resources) are aspects
field of public life" (Law no. 324/2006). Role that can be placed in the category of discrimination
differences between sexes can be seen as (this social contract should not be considered a
manifestations of values and norms of a social "natural" one. Only this perspective can become
contract. In fact, researchers have revealed dangerous because it involves stability and rigidity
dimensions of cultural specificity that reflects these of gender roles, regardless of the will of the
gender differences stated by culture. For example, individual and the situation). Moreover, the same
masculinity-femininity dimension reflects the situation can be viewed differently by people of
degree of interchange ability of gender roles in different cultures. For example, some westerners
society (this dimension, linked to differences in classify as discriminatory the Oriental practices
socialization of children in relation to aggression - relating to behaviour and traditional clothing of
children learn to avoid aggression in feminine women. It often turns out that these women care
countries, while they learn how to defend about preserving their customs and traditions in a
themselves in masculine countries, is also much greater extent than we think and that they
linguistically manifested. Thus, "a society is actually require / impose themselves these
considered a masculine one if the gender emotional "restrictions" (limitations for outsiders, normality
roles differ clearly: men should be authoritarian, for insiders). It should be taken into consideration
harsh and focused on material success, while the changes that occur (technological, cultural,
women should be modest, gentle and concerned economic, demographic, political ones, etc.), with
with quality of life. A society is considered a direct influence on the content of gender roles and
feminine one if the gender emotional roles overlap: its dynamics. It should not be considered that these
both men and women must prove modesty, changes imply inadaptability because of the
gentleness and concern for quality of life" traditional roles, but also discrimination, if this
(Hofstede et al., 2012, p. 141). situation occurs on the framework of imposing
Assignment of social roles based on what is "established for centuries".
gender is a consequence of cultural-religious Obviously, we cannot deny the relationship
interpretations and historical and environmental between culture and discrimination, as we cannot
factors (Hofstede et al., 2012). diminish the importance of the phenomenon itself.
Issues of ethics of sexual difference were closely
Ethics of sexual difference related to religion and they were subject of
We ask ourselves, as a natural interrogations of philosophers from antiquity to
consequence of the above ideas, if there are cultural present. Feminism, as a doctrine that aims women's
premises of discrimination and if masculinity- empowerment, freedom from any subordination or
femininity dimension can provide guidance on this dominant masculine models, enhancement of
topic. We understand from the definition of this female identity, of her genuine core, revealed
dimension that we find larger differences between numerous problems, including inequality of power
the roles of the two sexes in countries characterized between sexes, the subordinate position of women
by masculinity, leading to the stronger perception in family and society, undervaluation of its role in
of gender discrimination in countries characterized social stratification and employment (Melchiorre et
by femininity, in which blurred differences lead to al., 2004). Turning to religion, we must recognize
a poor perception of gender inequality (this its role in emphasizing gender inequalities (for
dimension is presented as an example, particularly example, in most Christian religions divinity takes
to highlight the differences between femininity and the image of a man, women generally cannot serve
feminism; cultural premises of discrimination are as a priest; in the Christian Bible written by men,
related to the whole context reflected by socio- women use only 1.1% of the total number of words
cultural mentalities as well as economic and (http://afirmativ.com/2015/02/12/studiu-inedit-
political ideologies). It would be risky to consider cate-cuvinte-au-rostit-femeile-din-biblie-si-ce-
the values involved by this cultural dimension as importanta-au-avut/), which reflects the low
defining and determining the discrimination. The representation of women's contributions; in the
issues involved by the ethics of sexual difference same context women should obey to men and be
must be considered in a particular context. quiet in church etc.). We must also recognize the
Differences in cultural allocation / assumption of privileges met by women at certain times, but at the

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Volume XVII, Issue 1 / 2015

same time we must balance the phenomena man; in this case we may talk about a "morality of
breadth. For example, the Vestals in ancient Rome justice". Women value more the protection from
were honoured and involved in affairs of state (it is pain, which rather characterizes a "moral
true that happened only after extremely tough responsibility" (Gilligan, apud Melchiore et al.,
compliance requirements, whose breach was 2004). The notice is valid for the observed cultures;
death). we cannot generalize because there are differences
Feminism, in its positive form (we must between cultures as masculinity-femininity
admit there are exaggerations, too) seeks equality dimension reveals.
and draws attention to socio-cultural perception Issues of ethics of sexual difference could
that women are wrongly included in the category of be solved by guaranteeing the identity of people in
"the Other One", "the Object" and characterized in their singularity, through legislative measures that
relation to the man, who is "the Subject," "the provide equivalent rights for both genders, based
Absolute". Although most primitive societies on respect for their differences (Irigaray, 2010).
founds duality of "the Same One" and "the Other Another aspect of the presented subject
One" (day-night, sun-moon, good-evil, yin-yang refers to the feminine approach in the context of
etc.), there is no connection regarding the origin feminist ideology. Equality does not mean
and the gender division (Melchiorre et al., 2004 assigning masculine features to woman, but
Beauvoir, 1949/2006). In fact, it should be seen as recognition of specific features, feminine ones, as
a complementarity, and this is also emphasized by attributes considered as they are, without under-
Irigaray (2010) in a deconstructivist discourse, who valuing comparisons. Feminism is not inconsistent
drew attention to the need of re-settle the culture by with femininity, but this highlights it, valorises it
closing “the Other One” to “the Other One”, and explains its profound significance, stressing the
"without ever reduce one to the other one". need of its development in a framework that does
Basically, specific characteristics should be not limit women’s freedoms and rights.
considered, such as: the ability to give birth, the
relationship with the nature, diffuse sexuality and Gender stereotypes
pacifism (Melchiorre et al., 2004). Differentiation leads also to inequality by
Studies point out that there is a provided stereotypes. In general, gender
contradiction and a violation of what is stereotypes (provided mostly by the representatives
acknowledged as common sense, in the context of of the opposite sex) devalue woman, who is
otherness, based on gender difference criterion: regarded as being inferior to man, without capacity
"woman is the Other in the core of a totality, whose to reason, as it appears in Aristotle or Jacque
two terms are needed one to the other one" Rousseau works. They associate her with passivity,
(Beauvoir, 1949/2006). Complementarity is renunciation, structural weakness / fragility or lack
mutilated by a binary logic thinking that held the of virtues, as opposed to masculine traits seen as
place of the dialectical manner. "One" (considered positive ones (apud Melchiorre et al., 2004). While
as an aiming point, a reference) is more important man says and does "meaningful" things, woman is
than "the Other". The mentality is perpetuated by "fluid, ambiguous and open" (Pârvu, 2005). Both
studies and masculine ideologies. Therefore, the religious sources and ancient philosophy, and
field of feminist studies (women's studies) has especially the mentality of the Middle Ages
developed. They aim to answer to the mechanisms (mirrored in many papers), were the basis for
of women’s minimization, perceived in the creating social representations and gender
androcentric scientific studies (Mathieu, in Bonte, stereotypes. What it’s interesting, these aspects
Izard, 2007). were even internalized by the fair sex, as Bordieu
Differences between men and women at noted: man / woman distinction is not so much a
genetic or cultural level highlight natural specific biological fact, as a social construct, women
aspects (men are competitive, assertive, daring, themselves helping unconsciously-bodily-postural
make visual and auditory associations, while to the dominance of men. Women internalized it no
women have superior emotional intelligence, more, no less than adopting even the thinking
networking capacity and abstract thinking) or categories of those who dominate them (Ghiu, in
cultural specific aspects (for women it’s more Bordieu, 2003). Basically, woman appears as a
important what they are, while for men it's more reflection of the man, being unable to decide her
important what they do) which do not justify at all own destiny (Lung, 2007). Old mentalities, we may
the value differences (Stănculescu, 2009, Hofstede say, but with reverberations in present. In order to
et al., 2012). Being physically or mentality overcome them, an "alive and detached thinking, a
different does not mean to be superior or inferior; quitting, a non-ecologic, nor a possessive one" is
that’s exactly what feminism is trying to explain. needed. (Irigaray, 2010).
We may notice a difference in the moral
development of women and men, in the sense that
values as fairness and equality matter more for

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[9] Lung, E. (2007). Mentalităţi şi cultură în Evul

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