446 CHAPTER 6 Applications of Integration

1. (a) Show that the Gini index G is twice the area between the Lorenz curve and the line
y − x, that is,

G − 2 y fx 2 Lsxdg dx
1

(b) What is the value of G for a perfectly egalitarian society (everybody has the same
income)? What is the value of G for a perfectly totalitarian society (a single person
receives all the income)?
2. The following table (derived from data supplied by the US Census Bureau) shows values of
the Lorenz function for income distribution in the United States for the year 2016.

x 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Lsxd 0.000 0.031 0.114 0.256 0.485 1.000

(a) What percentage of the total US income was received by the richest 20% of the
population in 2016?
(b) Use a calculator or computer to fit a quadratic function to the data in the table. Graph
the data points and the quadratic function. Is the quadratic model a reasonable fit?
(c) Use the quadratic model for the Lorenz function to estimate the Gini index for the
United States in 2016.
3. The following table gives values for the Lorenz function in the years 1980, 1990, 2000,
and 2010. Use the method of Problem 2 to estimate the Gini index for the United States
for those years and compare with your answer to Problem 2(c). Do you notice a trend?

x 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

1980 0.000 0.042 0.144 0.312 0.559 1.000

1990 0.000 0.038 0.134 0.293 0.533 1.000

2000 0.000 0.036 0.125 0.273 0.503 1.000

2010 0.000 0.033 0.118 0.264 0.498 1.000

4. A power model often provides a more accurate fit than a quadratic model for a Lorenz
function. Use a calculator or computer to fit a power function s y − ax k d to the data in
Problem 2 and use it to estimate the Gini index for the United States in 2016. Compare
with your answer to parts (b) and (c) of Problem 2.

6.2 Volumes
In trying to find the volume of a solid we face the same type of problem as in finding
areas. We have an intuitive idea of what volume means, but we must make this idea pre-
cise by using calculus to give an exact definition of volume.
■ Definition of Volume
We start with a simple type of solid called a cylinder (or, more precisely, a right cylin-
der). As illustrated in Figure 1(a), a cylinder is bounded by a plane region B1, called the

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 SECTION 6.2 Volumes 447

base, and a congruent region B2 in a parallel plane. The cylinder consists of all points on
line segments that are perpendicular to the base and join B1 to B2. If the area of the base
is A and the height of the cylinder (the distance from B1 to B2) is h, then the volume V of
the cylinder is defined as
V − Ah
In particular, if the base is a circle with radius r, then the cylinder is a circular cylinder
with volume V − !r 2h [see Figure 1(b)], and if the base is a rectangle with length l and
width w, then the cylinder is a rectangular box (also called a rectangular parallelepiped )
with volume V − lwh [see Figure 1(c)].

B™
h
h h
r w
B¡
l
FIGURE 1 (a) Cylinder V=Ah (b) Circular cylinder V=πr@h (c) Rectangular box V=lwh

For a solid S that isn’t a cylinder we first “cut” S into pieces and approximate each
piece by a cylinder. We estimate the volume of S by adding the volumes of the cylinders.
We arrive at the exact volume of S through a limiting process in which the number of
pieces becomes large.
We start by intersecting S with a plane and obtaining a plane region that is called a
cross-section of S. Let Asxd be the area of the cross-section of S in a plane Px perpendic-
ular to the x-axis and passing through the point x, where a < x < b. (See Figure 2. Think
of slicing S with a knife through x and computing the area of this slice.) The cross-
sectional area Asxd will vary as x increases from a to b.

Px

A(a) A(x)
A(b)

0 a x b x
FIGURE 2

Let’s divide S into n “slabs” of equal width Dx by using the planes Px1 , Px , . . . to slice 2

the solid. (Think of slicing a loaf of bread.) If we choose sample points x*i in fx i21, x i g,

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448 CHAPTER 6 Applications of Integration

we can approximate the ith slab Si (the part of S that lies between the planes Px i21 and Px i )
by a cylinder with base area Asx*i d and “height” Dx. (See Figure 3.)

y y
Îx

0 a b x 0 a=x¸ ⁄ x™ ‹ x¢ x∞ xß x¶=b x
xi-1 x*i xi
FIGURE 3
The volume of this cylinder is Asx*i d Dx, so an approximation to our intuitive concep-
tion of the volume of the ith slab Si is

VsSi d < Asx*i d Dx

Adding the volumes of these slabs, we get an approximation to the total volume (that is,
what we think of intuitively as the volume):
n
V< o Asx*i d Dx
i−1

This approximation appears to become better and better as n l `. (Think of the slices
as becoming thinner and thinner.) Therefore we define the volume as the limit of these
sums as n l `. But we recognize the limit of Riemann sums as a definite integral and so
we have the following definition.

It can be proved that this definition is Definition of Volume Let S be a solid that lies between x − a and x − b. If the
independent of how S is situated with cross-sectional area of S in the plane Px , through x and perpendicular to the x-axis,
respect to the x-axis. In other words, is Asxd, where A is a continuous function, then the volume of S is
no matter how we slice S with parallel
n
planes, we always get the same
o Asx*i d Dx − ya Asxd dx
b
V − lim
answer for V. n l ` i−1

When we use the volume formula V − yab Asxd dx , it is important to remember that
Asxd is the area of a moving cross-section obtained by slicing through x perpendicular to
the x-axis.
Notice that, for a cylinder, the cross-sectional area is constant: Asxd − A for all x.
So our definition of volume gives V − yab A dx − Asb 2 ad; this agrees with the formula
V − Ah.

EXAMPLE 1 Show that the volume of a sphere of radius r is V − 43 !r 3.

SOLUTION If we place the sphere so that its center is at the origin, then the plane Px
intersects the sphere in a circle whose radius (from the Pythagorean Theorem) is

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 SECTION 6.2 Volumes 449

y − sr 2 2 x 2 . (See Figure 4.) So the cross-sectional area is

Asxd − !y 2 − !sr 2 2 x 2 d
y Using the definition of volume with a − 2r and b − r, we have
r
V − y Asxd dx − y !sr 2 2 x 2 d dx
r r

2r 2r
_r 0 r
− 2! y sr 2 2 x 2 d dx
r
x (The integrand is even.)
0

F G S D
r
x3 r3
− 2! r x 2 2
− 2! r 3 2 − 43 !r 3 n
3 0
3

FIGURE 4 Figure 5 illustrates the definition of volume when the solid is a sphere with radius
r − 1. From the result of Example 1, we know that the volume of the sphere is 43!,
which is approximately 4.18879. Here the slabs are circular cylinders, or disks, and the
three parts of Figure 5 show the geometric interpretations of the Riemann sums
n n

o Asxi d Dx − i−1
i−1
o !s12 2 x i2 d Dx
when n − 5, 10, and 20 if we choose the sample points x *i to be the midpoints xi. Notice
that as we increase the number of approximating cylinders, the corresponding Riemann
sums become closer to the true volume.

VÅ4.2726 VÅ4.2097 VÅ4.1940

FIGURE 5 Approximating the volume of a sphere with radius 1

■ Volumes of Solids of Revolution

If we revolve a region about a line, we obtain a solid of revolution. In the following
examples we see that for such a solid, cross-sections perpendicular to the axis of rotation
are circular.

EXAMPLE 2 Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the x-axis the
region under the curve y − sx from 0 to 1. Illustrate the definition of volume by
sketching a typical approximating cylinder.
SOLUTION The region is shown in Figure 6(a) on the following page. If we rotate
about the x-axis, we get the solid shown in Figure 6(b). When we slice through the
point x, we get a disk with radius sx . The area of this cross-section is
Asxd − ! (sx ) 2 − !x
j

radius

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450 CHAPTER 6 Applications of Integration

and the volume of the approximating cylinder (a disk with thickness Dx) is
Asxd Dx − !x Dx
The solid lies between x − 0 and x − 1, so its volume is

G
1
x2 !
V − y Asxd dx − y !x dx − !
1 1
−
0 0 2 0
2

y y
y=œ„x

Did we get a reasonable answer in

Example 2? As a check on our work,
let’s replace the given region by a œ„x
square with base f0, 1g and height 1.
If we rotate this square, we get a
cylinder with radius 1, height 1, 0 x 1 x 0 1 x
and volume ! ! 12 ! 1 − !. We com-
puted that the given solid has half
this volume. That seems about
right.
Îx

FIGURE 6 (a) (b) n

EXAMPLE 3 Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by
y − x 3, y − 8, and x − 0 about the y-axis.
SOLUTION The region is shown in Figure 7(a) and the resulting solid is shown in
Figure 7(b). Because the region is rotated about the y-axis, it makes sense to slice the
solid perpendicular to the y-axis (obtaining circular cross-sections) and therefore to
integrate with respect to y. If we slice at height y, we get a circular disk with radius x,
where x − s 3
y . So the area of a cross-section through y is
Asyd − !s xd 2 − ! (s
3
y ) 2 − !y 2y3
j

radius radius

y y

y=8
8
x
x=œ„
3
y
Îy y (x, y)
x=0
y=˛
or
x=œ„3
y

0 x 0 x

FIGURE 7 (a) (b)

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 SECTION 6.2 Volumes 451

and the volume of the approximating cylinder pictured in Figure 7(b) is

As yd Dy − !y 2y3 Dy

Since the solid lies between y − 0 and y − 8, its volume is

96!
V − y Asyd dy − y !y 2y3 dy − ! f 53 y g
8 8 8
5y3
− n
0 0 0
5

In the following examples we see that some solids of revolution have a hollow core
surrounding the axis of revolution.

EXAMPLE 4 The region 5 enclosed by the curves y − x and y − x 2 is rotated about

the x-axis. Find the volume of the resulting solid.
SOLUTION The curves y − x and y − x 2 intersect at the points s0, 0d and s1, 1d.
The region between them, the solid of rotation, and a cross-section perpendicular
to the x-axis are shown in Figure 8. A cross-section in the plane Px has the shape of
a washer (an annular ring) with inner radius x 2 and outer radius x [see Figure 8(c)], so
we find the cross-sectional area by subtracting the area of the inner circle from the area
of the outer circle:

Asxd − !sxd2 2 !sx 2 d2 − !sx 2 2 x 4 d

j
outer inner
radius radius

Therefore we have

V − y Asxd dx − y !sx 2 2 x 4 d dx
1 1

0 0

−!
x3
3
2 F
x5
5
G 1

0
−
2!
15

y y

(1, 1)
y=x A(x)
y=≈
≈

(0, 0) x 0 x x

FIGURE 8 (a) ( b) (c) n

The next example shows that when a solid of revolution is created by rotating about
an axis other than a coordinate axis, we must determine the radii of cross-sections
carefully.

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452 CHAPTER 6 Applications of Integration

EXAMPLE 5 Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region in Example 4
about the line y − 2.
SOLUTION The solid and a cross-section are shown in Figure 9. Again the cross-
section is a washer, but this time the inner radius is 2 2 x and the outer radius
is 2 2 x 2.
y

y=2 y=2
2

2-x
2-≈

y=x y=≈ x
≈
0 x 1 x x x

FIGURE 9

The cross-sectional area is

Asxd − !s2 2 x 2 d2 2 !s2 2 xd2

J
J
outer inner
radius radius

and so the volume of S is

V − y Asxd dx
1

− ! y fs2 2 x 2 d2 2 s2 2 xd2 g dx
1

− ! y sx 4 2 5x 2 1 4xd dx
1

−!
x5
5
25 F
x3
3
14
x2
2
G 1

0
−
8!
15
n

NOTE In general, we calculate the volume of a solid of revolution by using the basic
defining formula

V − y Asxd dx V − y Asyd dy
b d
or
a c

and we find the cross-sectional area Asxd or Asyd in one of the following ways:
● If the cross-section is a disk (as in Examples 1–3), we find the radius of the disk (in
terms of x or y) and use
A − !sradiusd2

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 SECTION 6.2 Volumes 453

● If the cross-section is a washer (as in Examples 4 and 5), we find the inner radius r in
and outer radius rout from a sketch (as in Figures 8, 9, and 10) and compute the area
of the washer by subtracting the area of the inner disk from the area of the outer
disk:
A − ! souter radiusd2 2 ! sinner radiusd2

rin
rout

FIGURE 10

The next example gives a further illustration of the procedure.

EXAMPLE 6 Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region in
Example 4 about the line x − 21.
SOLUTION Figure 11 shows a horizontal cross-section. It is a washer with inner radius
1 1 y and outer radius 1 1 sy , so the cross-sectional area is

As yd − !souter radiusd2 2 !sinner radiusd2

− ! (1 1 sy ) 2 2 !s1 1 yd2

The volume is

V − y Asyd dy − ! y
0
1

0
1
f(1 1 sy ) 2
2 s1 1 yd2 dy g

F G
1
4y 3y2 y2 y3 !
−!y (2sy 2 y 2 y 2 ) dy − !
1
2 2 −
0 3 2 3 0
2

y
1+œ„
y
1+y
1 y

x=œ„y
y
x=y

0 x
x=_1
FIGURE 11 n

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454 CHAPTER 6 Applications of Integration

■ Finding Volume Using Cross-Sectional Area

We now find the volumes of solids that are not solids of revolution but whose cross-
sections have areas that are readily computable.

EXAMPLE 7 Figure 12 shows a solid with a circular base of radius 1. Parallel cross-
sections perpendicular to the base are equilateral triangles. Find the volume of the solid.
SOLUTION Let’s take the circle to be x 2 1 y 2 − 1. The solid, its base, and a typical
cross-section at a distance x from the origin are shown in Figure 13.

y y
y B(x, y)
1-≈
y=œ„„„„„„ C
C
y
x B
0 x x
FIGURE 12 œ„3y
_1 0 x x
Computer-generated picture 1
of the solid in Example 7 60° 60°
A A A B
y y
FIGURE 13 (a) The solid (b) Its base (c) A cross-section

Since B lies on the circle, we have y − s1 2 x 2 and so the base of the triangle ABC
| |
is AB − 2y − 2s1 2 x 2 . Since the triangle is equilateral, we see from Figure 13(c)
that its height is s3 y − s3s1 2 x 2 . The cross-sectional area is therefore

Asxd − 12 ! 2s1 2 x 2 ! s3s1 2 x 2 − s3 s1 2 x 2 d

and the volume of the solid is

V − y Asxd dx − y s3 s1 2 x 2 d dx
1 1

21 21

F G
1
x3 4s3
−2y
1
s3 s1 2 x d dx − 2s3 x 2
2 − n
0 3 0
3

EXAMPLE 8 Find the volume of a pyramid whose base is a square with side L and
whose height is h.
SOLUTION We place the origin O at the vertex of the pyramid and the x-axis along its
central axis as in Figure 14. Any plane Px that passes through x and is perpendicular to

y y
P

x h s L
O x O x x

FIGURE 14 FIGURE 15

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 SECTION 6.2 Volumes 455

the x-axis intersects the pyramid in a square with side of length s, say. We can express s
in terms of x by observing from the similar triangles in Figure 15 that
x sy2 s
− −
h Ly2 L
and so s − L xyh. [Another method is to observe that the line OP has slope Lys2hd and
so its equation is y − Lxys2hd.] Therefore the cross-sectional area is
L2 2
Asxd − s 2 − x
h2
The pyramid lies between x − 0 and x − h, so its volume is

L2 2
V − y Asxd dx − y
h h
x dx
0 0 h2

h
y
−
L2 x 3
h2 3
G h

0
−
L2 h
3
n

NOTE We didn’t need to place the vertex of the pyramid at the origin in Example 8; we
did so merely to make the equations simple. If, instead, we had placed the center of the
y
base at the origin and the vertex on the positive y-axis, as in Figure 16, you can verify
that we would have obtained the integral

L2 L2h
V−y
h
0 x sh 2 yd2
dy −
0 h2 3
FIGURE 16
EXAMPLE 9 A wedge is cut out of a circular cylinder of radius 4 by two planes.
One plane is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The other intersects the first
at an angle of 30° along a diameter of the cylinder. Find the volume of the wedge.
SOLUTION If we place the x-axis along the diameter where the planes meet, then
the base of the solid is a semicircle with equation y − s16 2 x 2 , 24 < x < 4.
A cross-section perpendicular to the x-axis at a distance x from the origin is a
triangle ABC, as shown in Figure 17, whose base is y − s16 2 x 2 and whose
| |
height is BC − y tan 308 − s16 2 x 2 ys3. So the cross-sectional area is

1
Asxd − 12 s16 2 x 2 ! s16 2 x 2
s3
C
0 y 16 2 x 2
−
A y=œ„„„„„„
16-≈ 2s3
B
4
and the volume is
x
C 16 2 x 2
V − y Asxd dx − y
4 4
dx
24 24 2s3

A
30°
y B
−
s3
1
y 0
4
s16 2 x d dx −
s3
2
16x 2
x3
3
1
F G 4

0
−
128
3s3

FIGURE 17 For another method see Exercise 77. n

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